"The woman is created for a man, not a man for a woman" - such a postulate ...
(USA)
Yang Van Stenbergen, Igor Polekov
G. I. Muravkin (Berlin)
Write a review about the article "List of artificial languages"
Notes
Literature
- Histoire de la Langue Universelle. - Paris: Librairie Hachette et C IE, 1903. - 571 p.
- DRESEN E. K. For general language. Three centuries of quest. - M.-L.: Gosizdat, 1928. - 271 p.
- Saddost-Istomin Ermar Pavlovich. How everyone will arise mutual language. - m.: Science, 1968. - 288 p.
- Dulichenko A. D. Projects of universal and international languages \u200b\u200b(chronological index from II to XX centuries) // Scientific notes of the Tartu State. un-ta. Vol. 791. - 1988. - P. 126-162.
Links
| ||||||||||||||||||||
Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below
Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.
Posted by http://www.allbest.ru/
Ministry of Education of the Moscow Region
State educational institution Higher professional education
Moscow State Regional University
Institute of Linguistics and Intercultural Communication
Linguistic faculty
Coemwork
bydiscipline " Linguisticsandliterary criticism"
on thetheme: " The reasonscreateartificiallanguages. Historycreateandfunctioningvolapauk"
Work completed
student Zhigunov Elena Dmitrievna
Scientific Director: Art. prep. Fedosova A.K.
Content
- Introduction
- 1.3 Examples of artificial languages \u200b\u200bin literature and kinematorgafa
- Chapter 2. Volapauk
- 2.1 History of creation
- Conclusion
- Bibliography
Introduction
This course of the course work is quite relevant at the moment, since in our time the creation of artificial languages \u200b\u200bis quite common. After all, in the main base for artificial languages, languages \u200b\u200bare natural, although there are cases when new languages \u200b\u200bare not completely similar to any of the existing languages.
The problem of creating artificial languages \u200b\u200bwears both positive and negative characterThat is why I would like to consider this problem on both sides to find out why artificial languages \u200b\u200bare created in the presence of thousands of natural.
After all, at the moment, not every natural language has written, there are quite a lot dead languageson which no one speaks, there are extinct languages \u200b\u200bon which only a few people speak around the world, and it is impossible not to wonder why artificial languages \u200b\u200bare attracted why in some artificial languages \u200b\u200bspeaks more peoplethan on some, which are considered extinct.
The main method of research in this paper was the study of material on various artificial languages, conducting surveys about what artificial languages \u200b\u200bpeople know, and how they learned about them, writing short reviews About different languages \u200b\u200bafter a survey, the study of material on the natural languages \u200b\u200band the problems of the "language barrier" in the modern world, as well as the negative consequences of creating artificial languages.
Chapter 1. Causes of creating artificial languages
Since ancient times, people experienced some difficulties due to the fact that different nations speak different languages \u200b\u200band dialects, respectively, such a concept appeared as " the language barrier".
Since then, people have become wondering how to overcome this "barrier", because people needed to contact each other since the state appeared, and there was a need for trade, establish friendly relations between states and contracts.
A vivid example serves the ancient Russian state and Byzantium. In 907 and 911, the first agreements between the Old Russian State and Byzantium were concluded. The first agreement of 907 was dubious and was rather prepared for the agreement of 911. And the contract of 911 determined the procedure for the repurchase of the prisoners, restored the friendly relations of states, determined the penalties for criminal offenses committed by Greek and Russian merchants in Byzantium, the rules for the conduct of the trial and inheritance, created favorable trade conditions for Russian and Greeks, changed the coastal law (coast owners We had to assist in saving the ship thrown ashore and his property instead of capturing).
The problem of the "linguistic barrier" people began to solve in different ways. Someone began to study other languages \u200b\u200bin order to be able to talk to them and understand others, others chose any one language for international communication, for example, in antiquity it was Latin, and now in most countries people understand English and speak it .
Also, the pijins began to emerge - peculiar "hybrids" of two of any languages. As an example, such a "hybrid" can be given a mixture of Ukrainian and Russian languages \u200b\u200b- it seems like a person speaks Russian, but uses in his vocabulary and Ukrainian words, and it turns out that he is understood by Russian and Ukrainians. Although Russian and Ukrainian are very similar, such a "hybrid" is still useful for communication.
Starting from the seventeenth century, scientists think about creating a new, special language, which would be quite simple for understanding and studying, and which would be the language of international communication. After all, in the natural languages, the languages \u200b\u200bon which we are talking from birth, quite a few exceptions and borrowed words, complex rules, and their structure depends on historical development, in which it is very difficult to understand the logic, for example, the formation of some grammatical forms and spelling. Artificially created languages \u200b\u200bare usually called the planned, since the word "artificial" can cause negative associations translated into some languages.
The most famous and common from artificial languages \u200b\u200b- Esperanto, which in 1887 created Ludwig replacement. "Esperanto", which means "hoping" is a pseudonym of replacing, and subsequently, the language created by them was called this name.
Rechaof was born in Bialystok, in the Russian Empire. Jews, Poles, Germans and Belarusians lived in the city - in a word, people are completely different nationalities, and the relationship between people of these nations was quite tense. Ludwick replacing the reasons for this hostility between ethnic groups lies in misunderstanding, and when he studied in the gymnasium attempted to develop a "general" language based on those european languageswhich he studied. He needed to create a language that would be neutral. The Esperanto structure was created fairly simple for the convenience of learning and memorizing the language. The roots of words were borrowed from European and Slavic languages, as well as from Latin and ancient Greek.
There are many organizations that devote their activities to spread Esperanto, books and magazines are printed in this language, broadcasting channels are created on the Internet, songs are written. There are also versions of many popular programs in the language, such as office applications OpenOffice.org, Mozilla Firefox browser, and Esperanto version is in search engine Google. Language also enjoys UNESCO support.
In addition to Esperanto, there are quite a few other artificially created languages, both widely known to almost all of the world and unprosted. Many of them were created with the same purpose - to develop the most convenient tool for international communication: Languages \u200b\u200bof IDO, INTERNINGWA, VABYUK and others.
Some other artificial languages, for example, loving were created with a research goal, linguists were specifically developed new artificial languages \u200b\u200bto conduct experiments, experiments, identify patterns, etc. And such languages \u200b\u200bas on "Vi, Klingon and Sindarin were developed in order for the characters of books and films on them.
All of us the famous trilogy "The Lord of the Rings", in which the elves, and the gnomes, and the goblins, and the orcs talked on completely different and sounds, and on writing languages, and each of the languages \u200b\u200bhad their own history, like peoples speaking them . Also, the language of the film on the film "Avatar" was specifically designed specifically developed, the director of the film James Cameron specifically asked Linguist to develop and create an artificial language for a fictional world. After the release of the film there was a lot of wishing to learn the fictional language, which became one of the means of communication between the film fans and books.
Unlike natural languageswho developed throughout the history of mankind, with the time of those who separated from any defense and oath, artificial languages \u200b\u200bare created by people specifically for relatively a short time. They can be created on the basis of elements and the structure of existing natural languages \u200b\u200bor "constructed" completely.
The authors of artificial languages \u200b\u200bdiffer in the opinion, which of the strategies better meets the goals set - neutrality, ease of study, convenience in use. After all, it is impossible to guess which of these parameters will make the language most popular and will spread so much to become universal. And therefore, many believe that the creation of artificial languages \u200b\u200bdoes not make sense, because they will never spread so much to perform the function of a universal interethnic language. Even such a language as Esperanto is now known to be a little, and for international negotiations most often enjoyed English.
The study of artificial languages \u200b\u200bis hampered by many factors. First, there are no native speakers, since these are completely fictional languages \u200b\u200bon which no one ever has ever been talking. The structure can change periodically, as scientists often argue about how to make a language better, what rules to leave, and which should be replaced. And, as a result of disagreements between theorists, an artificial language can be divided into two options, because some decide that one option is acceptable, and others - what should be done differently - for example, Snagan was highlighted from the Logan language, from Esperanto - Ido .
Nevertheless, supporters of artificial languages \u200b\u200bstill believe that under modern globalization, a language is needed that could be used by all, but at the same time not associated with some particular country or culture, and continue linguistic research and experiments.
1.1 Negative aspects of creating artificial languages
As it turned out, artificial languages \u200b\u200bbegan to be created in the XVII century in order to overcome the "language barrier". But is it right, to create a language on which all people will be able to communicate? Of course it is good if people without any problems can communicate with each other and do not experience any difficulties in traveling to other countries.
After all, if there is one universal language of interethnic communication, it will not be necessary to learn other languages \u200b\u200balmost from infancy, there will be no difficulty with the wrong pronunciation of words in another language, you will not need to buy dictionaries to just go with your family to relax to another country. Ignorance of another language and another country will cease to be a problem for holidaymakers, travelers and tourists.
If you look from this point of view, if ever the universal language of interethnic communication ever will be created, then with time, after centuries, people will simply cease to be needed to be needed. And why, if there is one who know and understand everything? Now there is no "language barrier", there are no translation difficulties, you can communicate freely with any person anywhere in the planet!
People of different nationalities will speak at neutral, simple, fictional language that not it has stories. But each of the languages, natural languages \u200b\u200bis unique. It carries a whole historical era, the spirit of the people, because he is part of the ethnos. And it will just forget it? Because people simply do not want to learn other languages \u200b\u200bto contact others, the same unique ethnic groups with their history.
Possible creation of an artificial universal language in order to people of different nations Could communicate - just the act of laziness? Many people, if possible, go abroad and receive higher education there, the possibility of communication with the people of another country, learning the language refuses, and just because they simply do not want to study another language seems to me wildness.
In addition, if only one language, a century, maybe even the Millennium, people will simply forget their native languages, they will become for them, as for us now Latin is a dead language that exists now only as the echoes of the Great Language, What existed before.
And what will remain linguists? Now there are thousands of languages \u200b\u200bon which they say, they write, and they can all be subject to study, many dialects, neologisms, incomprehensible exceptions in the rules of languages \u200b\u200b- all this gives linguists work, knowledge, scientific discoveries, the creation of new dictionaries and the like.
But if not all this, if there is only one language, the linguists will not remain anything in addition to delving into history and study dead languages \u200b\u200bthat were once great, or create new ones for their research purposes.
1.2 Positive aspects of creating artificial languages
Creating artificial languages \u200b\u200bbrings and benefits. Undoubtedly, create a universal language for communication is an excellent idea for overcoming the language barrier, because if it is possible to create such, then most likely there will be no stripping between people due to misunderstanding. In some cases, artificial language, as a means of interethnic communication, is sharply necessary.
For example, in Papua New Guinea, there is a huge number of languages \u200b\u200bon which they say, and there the authorities literally "hang" because even neighboring villages are very difficult to communicate with each other due to the large difference in dialects or language in principle. Also there are problems with the media, because if there is no national language in the country, it becomes unclear how to file information to people in which language should be distributed on radio, television, newspapers and magazines to reach all residents.
Also, there are about 17 national languages \u200b\u200bin India, and it is very difficult to communicate with such a number of differences in words. In China, people also experience difficulties, as Chinese has a lot of different characters and from this in Chinese, quite a few dialect branches that are clear only to those people who use them.
It is for such cases that the creation of a single language so that people can communicate at least inside their country are very important, because because of this, the distinctions may arise, difficulties in the interaction of people with each other and life in principle.
Also, artificial languages \u200b\u200bare a very interesting factor for fantasy fans, books and films in general, as many writers create their own world in which they create their own language. These languages \u200b\u200bas if relatives for characters books or films, since the authors create not only the language itself, but they think about his story, not the history of creation, or the idea that came to mind to the author, and he decided to create a language, and that story that It goes deep into that fictional world that the author writes about.
1.3 Examples of artificial languages \u200b\u200bin literature and cinema
The Klingon language, which communicates humanoid warriors from the planet Khonosh fictional Universe "Star Way", was invented by Linguist Mark Okrand on the order of Paramount Studios. Language has a detailed grammar, syntax, dictionary and even regulatory organization - Institute of the Klingon language, which is engaged in promoting Klingon culture and translations classical literature, including the Bible and Shakespeare on Klingon.
In addition to Klingon, there are about 10 languages \u200b\u200bof various degrees of workout, including Vulcan, Borg, Rihanns, Andoria, Orion, Tamarian, Ferengi, Bayran, and others.
By J.R. R. Tolkien is known not only as a writer and the author of the Hobbit and the Lord of the Rings, but also as a linguist and the inventor of many artificial languages.
As a child, Tolkien and his comrades came up with secret languages \u200b\u200bto communicate with each other. This passion remained with him for life. He developed grammar and vocabulary for a whole family of 15 elven languages \u200b\u200bover which he continued to work since the 1910th until the death of death in 1973. This group includes protoelphic, common eldarine, quencing, Goldogrin, Torlerin, Sindarin, Ilkorin, Nandorin, Avarine.
In the film "Fifth Element" The main heroine Lila speaks on the so-called ancient Divine language (Their Divine. Language.), On which, according to the background, the entire Universe was talked before the beginning of time.
Developed by Lyuko Besson and Mila Yovovich language has only just over 400 words. According to the actress, they even wrote to each other letters on him with a director's practice. After a time after the release of the film, inspired fans of misconia gathered all phrases from the film and amounted to the dictionary.
In the world of "Songs of Ice and Flame" created by George Martin, there are many different languages. In Westerosa, the so-called common language is adopted, the languages \u200b\u200bof Valira, Dotrachetsev and others are also known. (dialects Free Cities, language Quart, giscarsky language lhasaryan assey, trade language, language Summer Islands and etc.)Most of these languages \u200b\u200bare transferred to English Saga books.
Let us dwell on the Dotrakysky, who had to learn Deeneser Targaryen. Especially for the series "The Game of Thrones", this language was worked in more detail, and David J. Pieterson came up with his creator from Language Creation Society. There were not many landmarks in the books to develop a language, just a few nouns and dozens of names. They asked the vector in its development.
The new language received grammatical and phonetic borrowings from Russian, Turkish, Estonian, Incissitu (language residents extreme north Canada) and Swahili.
In the world of Harry Potter, several fictional languages \u200b\u200bare mentioned, including the gobbed, Runic, the language of the water people, as well as Parselding or Snake Language. This magical language, according to the story of Joan Rowling, own Magi-serpentes speaking snakes. The surrounding cannot understand the conversation of the serpent with the snakes, since they are heard only hissing. This innocent and extremely rare gift is inherited or together with magical power. As a rule, the language is associated with dark arts, but some kind wizards also possessed this gift.
The most famous snakest was Salazar Slytherin - one of the four founders of the School of Charity and Magic "Hogwarts". That is why the symbol of the Faculty of Slytherin is a snake.
The language consists of various hissing sounds and coarse letters, and words are pronounced on exhale with hissing and imitating snake sounds. Most sentences are very short and consist only of subject, object and verb. The rest of the meaning should be thought of a listener based on his knowledge and context. In addition, the language has no written form, and the Latin is very difficult to pass his sound. The version of Parseltang, which is used in films, was developed by Francis Nolan, Professor of Fonetics, a specialist in Finnish and Estonian languages \u200b\u200bat the University of Cambridge.
The universe of "Star Wars" is also filled with a kind different languages, Of which the highest galactic, binary language of droids, Lubosky, Khattsky, Yuuzhan-Wongsky and many others are mentioned in the saga. Fictional languages Star Wars.Unlike Klingon or Syndarin, do not have a real grammatical system. For example, knobes or droid signals mainly only transmit intonation and emotions. The language that is most often used in films is the main galactic - identical to modern English and only a little complemented by fictional idioms and individual words. Other languages \u200b\u200bare also similar to existing human, although unfamiliar to most viewers.
One of the originally accessed languages \u200b\u200bof Kinoaga is a loaf , artificial language used by space travelers, which consists of several races.
According to the narrative, the tongue appeared in the Baobab's trading fetol as a means of communication of pilots, teams and support staff who belonged to the most different races. Although the language is not used everywhere, any experienced pilot and space traveler He knows several phrases on the bed to contact with other pilots.
Chapter 2. Volapauk
2.1 History of creation
Volapak: Vol - "World" + PK - language) is the first in history by the international language of artificial origin. He was created by the German priest Johann Shleyer back in 1879. According to the author himself, the Lord appeared in a dream to him and suggested to create a new language capable of uniting all the peoples.
Here it is necessary to make a reservation that in fact the first project on creating an artificial international language was universallot, created by the French linguist Jean Pyrro. However, he had no success at all. Vapauk managed to extend a little further.
The creation of the Claira Lee Classic germanFrom which the author eliminated the sound of R, having considered it too difficult for several nationalities, but left the original German melted vowels d, c, b.
Unlike intentionally simplified Esperanto, Vapauk was distinguished by complex grammatical and word-forming systems. Only forms of verbs in it could be counted several thousand. In addition, this language, like his progenitor, allowed to connect in one complex word An unlimited number of roots, which led to the emergence of such monsters as Klona("Secretary of the Directorate Factory"). Unfortunately, it is this complexity that caused the rapid decline of the freak.
vapauk artificial language international
2.2 Functioning of Vapauk in modern society
For twenty years from the date of its creation, this language has actively gained popularity. By 1889 he was trained over 210 thousand people in the most different countriesThe corresponding literature was created, periodicals were published. But in the same year there was a conflict between the shleyer and reformers who wish to somewhat simplify the freep for general use. The priest forbade any changes to his creation, and fans of artificial international languages \u200b\u200bswitched to Esperanto previously created by two years.
And at least in 1929, the Volpayuk was still somewhat transformed, total number His carriers today does not exceed 30 people. This is definitely not enough for the language to develop normally and distribute.
Conclusion
Thus, it can be concluded that artificial languages \u200b\u200bwere mainly created in order to facilitate people intercultural communication, as people need to overcome the "language barrier" and freely talk to each other, not quarreling due to misunderstanding.
It also turned out that a lot of artificial languages \u200b\u200bwere created in connection with books and films in which there is a different invented world and, accordingly, we need a language so that this world is similar to the real one. As it turned out, these fictional languages \u200b\u200bare very popular among people, as people are interested in worlds and their languages, and after the release of films or books there are a lot of followers of trillers or episodes of books or films. That is why some languages \u200b\u200bof artificial origin eclipse extinct languages \u200b\u200bin popularity.
Also, artificial languages \u200b\u200bare created by the linguists themselves sometimes for research purposes to observe the processes, compare the artificial language created with natural, or develop a language for a tribe that has only writing.
Bibliography
1. Actual problems Modern Interlinguistics: Sat. In honor of the 75th anniversary of Acad. P.A. Aristhe. INTERLINGUISTICA TARTUENSIS - 1). Tartu, 1982.
2. Akhmanova ABOUT. FROM, Bokarev E..BUT.International auxiliary language as a linguistic problem. - issues of linguistics, 1956, No. 6, p.65-78.
3. Isaev M..AND.The problem of an artificial language of international communication. - In the book: Problems of Interlinguistics. M.: Science, 1976.
4. http://london-moscow.ru/zachem_sozdavat_iskusstvennie_yaziki.
5. http://whoyoule.ru/texts/artificial-languages/
6. https: // RU. wikipedia.org.
Posted on Allbest.ru.
...Similar documents
Determination of artificial languages \u200b\u200band their position in modern linguistics. The theory of linguistic relativity in the context of the study of artles. Characteristics of the student of the magazine of Novoya. The main phonetic features of the Dotracian dialect.
thesis, added 07/26/2017
Investigation of the role of studying foreign languages \u200b\u200bin development international Tourism and intercultural communications. The history of the creation of the Warsaw doctor-oculist Ludwig replacing the first in the world of artificial language Esperanto; His popularity in the twentieth century.
course work, added 05/18/2011
Study of stylistic means of creating a fantastic world of the trilogy "Lord of the Rings". Studying the phonetic, lexical and grammatical structures of copyright artificial languages. Stylistics of the languages \u200b\u200bof elves, gnomes, walking trees, orcs, people.
coursework, added 03/26/2015
The concept of "artificial language", brief historical reference On the formation and development of artificial languages. Typological classification and varieties of international artificial languages, their characteristics. Planned languages \u200b\u200bas subject of interleduistics.
abstract, added 30.06.2012
Comparison of various ancient and new languages. Position of general linguistics. Submission of elements of the language by the laws of the general analogy. Simplifying the study of foreign languages \u200b\u200bas the main goal of creating the encyclopedia of all languages. Experience in the analysis of the Mexican language.
abstract, added 04.07.2009
Formation of national languages. The study of individual German languages. General characteristics Germanic languages. Comparison of the words of German languages \u200b\u200bwith the words of other Indo-European languages. Features of the morphological system of the ancient Germansky languages.
abstract, added 08/20/2011
Designed languages, their difference in specialization and appointment and determination of the degree of similarity with natural languages. The main types of artificial languages. The impossibility of using an artificial language in life as the main lack of studying it.
examination, added 04/19/2011
The origin of languages \u200b\u200band their influence on each other. The resettlement of a person and the development of languages \u200b\u200bin Europe, Oceania and Asia. Homo Sapiens in America and its language. Artificial languages: Baisik-Inglish, Esperanto, Makaton, Vapauk, Ido, Interligva, Latino-Sine-Flexion.
abstract, added 11/29/2015
Classification of the ancient Germannsky tribes and their tribal languages. Origin and history of runes. Certificates of German languages \u200b\u200bin the additional period. The beginning of the study of Germanic languages. The concept of kinship language. Indo-European features of Germanic languages.
examination, added 12.12.2009
Investigation of the problem of interaction of languages \u200b\u200bin modern linguistics. Analysis and characteristics of types of contacts of languages. Lexical borrowing as a result of contacting languages. The emergence of linguistic contacts in the history of the development of French.
The language was created by Canadian Sonya Lang and claims to be the title of the simplest of artificial languages. In his lexicon, only about 120 roots.
Artificial languages \u200b\u200bare such languages \u200b\u200bin which vocabulary, phonetics and grammar were developed for certain purposes. These are unreal, invented by one person languages. Today there are already more than a thousand, and new ones are constantly being created. The reasons for creating an artificial language are: relief of human communication, giving realism artistic literature And the fictionalities in cinema, linguistic experiments, language games, the development of the Internet and the creation of languages \u200b\u200bunderstandable to all the peoples of the planet.
- Grammelot. Language style used in the theater of humor and satire. This is a kind of gingerbread with sound-resistant elements along with Pantomimoy and Mimicria. Grammelot was popularized by Italian playwright Dario Fo.
- Esperanto. The most common artificial language in the world. Today, more than 100,000 people speak free on it. He was invented by the Czech Okulist Lazar Ramgofo in 1887. Esperanto has simple grammar. In his alphabet 28 letters and built on the basis of Latin. Most of Vocabulary taken from Romance and German languages. Also in Esperanto a lot of international words, understandable without translation. There are 250 newspapers and magazines on Esperanto, 4 radio stations are broadcast, there are articles in Wikipedia.
- Vendergud. Was designed by Teenager-Teenkind William James Sadis based on Romanesque languages. Sadis knew about 40 languages \u200b\u200band translated freely from one to another. Sadis created Vendergud in the book entitled "Book of Werderwide", which he wrote at the age of 8. The language is built on Latin and Greek vocabulary and grammar, there are also elements of German, French and other Romanesque languages.
- AUi. Created by John Waigant. It is based on the philosophical concept of education of all concepts from the small number of concepts of elementary, and the elementary concept of the language. Its name itself is translated as "cosmos language." Each sound in AUi is associated with the concept referred to them. All vocabulary is built by combining basic concepts.
- Nadcat. The fictional language on which teenagers in the novel of Anthony Burgessa "Clockwork Orange" are communicated. In Nadcat, part of the vocabulary is English, part is the fictional, created by the author on the basis of the Russian language. Most often, Russian equivalents are recorded by Latin and have some distortion. The grammar system is based on english language. In addition, there is a slang of French and German, Malay and Gypsy languages, Cockties, and words made by Bourgess himself.
- Litzpick. Used in online games, chat rooms, SMS and other channels of electronic communications. The language was created as a cipher that users who know the key to it. In Litspik, the numbers and symbols replace the letters. It also makes intentional mistakes, there are phonetic variations of words and neologisms.
- Telsoan. Artificial language, created in 1980 by the 14-year founder of the Virtual Microgovernment of Telsos Robert Ben-Madison. Telsoan is based on the languages \u200b\u200bof the Romanesque Group.
- Klingon. Linguist Mark Okrand came up with a Klingon on requesting the company "Paramount Pictures" for the series, and then films of the film "Star Path". On him talk to aliens. In addition to them, the numerous fans of the series took over the tongue. Currently, in the US, there is the Institute of the Klingon language, which publishes the periodicals and translations of the literary classics on Klingon.
- Tokypona. The language was created by Canadian Sonya Lang and claims to be the title of the simplest of artificial languages. In his lexicon, only about 120 roots. There are no names of animals and plants. But in the unofficial dictionary there are designations for countries, nations, languages \u200b\u200bthat are written with a capital letter. In Tokypone, everything is simplified: vocabulary, phonology, grammar and syntax.
- Na'vi. This fictional language was developed by a linguistic floor by a fromemer commissioned by the company "James Cameron Production" for the film "Avatar". According to the scenario, Na'vi languages \u200b\u200bare residents of Pandora's planet. Today in its dictionary there are more than 1000 words. Work on the Na'vi language continues. By the way, according to its grammatical and lexical structure, Na'vi resembles Papuass and Australian languages.
To date, there is a considerable amount of artificial languages \u200b\u200bin the world. Some of them are well known, only small groups of people know about others. But none of them has not yet become truly popular. And can they generally become a substitute for languages \u200b\u200bnatural?
The dream of a universal language appeared in people for a very long time. And it would seem, what could be easier? Create a tongue with a very simple, but tank grammar and sufficient vocabulary. Such that he could do without much effort to study the person who is confident that he does not have any abilities in mastering languages. But, as practice has shown, this is not enough.
Such languages \u200b\u200bare already hundreds. Some of them were intended to communicate people from all over the world (,), others - only for individual social groups (,). Attempts to create languages \u200b\u200bfully built on logic () were also taken. Other creators of artificial languages \u200b\u200btreated this case as a kind of creativity (). Move people and other motifs.
But the result remains the same - none of the artificial languages \u200b\u200bso much has been able to become quite popular in order for with his help, it would be possible to communicate freely in a variety of corners of the Earth. Usually everything is limited only to the narrow circle of interested people. The exception is only Esperanto, which can boast by carriers that consider this language to be native (these are children born in international families). According to some reports, Esperanto own about 2 million people worldwide. However, many linguists are confident that this figure is very high.
For the widespread distribution of the planned language (that is, an artificial language for international communication) is not enough only that it is simple. There will be many other obstacles on his way, the existence of which did not even conceive the creators of the first artificial languages. After all, language is more than just a means of communication. There is a theory that a person perceives the world through the prism of a native language that determines his consciousness and directly affects the type of his thinking.
Flag of artificial languages.
On it is depicted Babylonian tower, the background serves ascending sun.
Why there are individuals - languages \u200b\u200bdetermine the consciousness of whole nations. It is not for nothing that all the conquerors always seek to impress the value of their native adverbs conquered by them (typical examples - and). Language is also a whole layer of culture. If, of course, he is not artificial.
In addition, in order for the language to become really popular, he must interest a large number of People, please them. Just to take and make any language to the means of international communication is impossible.
There is another problem. In order for the planned language to remain a truly universal tool for international communication, it is necessary that there are no dialects in it. And the emergence of each new word should be considered by special commissions. And this, you see, not a simple task.
There are other difficulties. However, despite them, new artificial languages \u200b\u200bwill be constantly being created in the future. Basically for needs and, sometimes. Languages \u200b\u200bwill also appear, the appointment of which is just a language game, entertainment. But as for languages \u200b\u200bfor international communication, it is doubtful that anyone today will seriously hope to create something like that. It makes no sense - with such a task today it copes well, whose popularity is constantly growing. Do not forget that English is relatively simple to explore. Yes, and with a cultural layer here everything is in order.
Does it make sense to learn any artificial language? If there is enough time, definitely yes! But exclusively as a hobby. This is a wonderful warm-up workout, a way to learn a lot of new things, familiarize yourself with the unusual forms of expression of various other ideas. And yet, this is a way to get acquainted with interesting people from all over the world, which also interested in the language chosen. The famous Hungarian polyglot expressed an excellent thought, according to which, "the language is the only thing that is not even bad to study." The study of any language will only benefit.
Artificial languages, signal systemsCreated for use in areas where the use of a natural language is less efficient or impossible. Artificial languages \u200b\u200bdiffer in the appointment, the range of specialization and the degree of similarity with natural languages.
Non-specialized general-purpose languages \u200b\u200bare international artificial languages \u200b\u200b(which are called planned languages \u200b\u200bif they have been implemented in communication; see interledstics, international languages). In the 17-20th centuries, about 1000 projects of such languages \u200b\u200bwere created, but only one of them received real use (Vapauk, Esperanto, IDO, Interlingua and some dr.).
In a functionality, such artificial languages \u200b\u200bare divided into logical (claiming human language reform as a means of thinking) and empirical (limited to the task of building a language as an adequate means of communication). In material relations, languages \u200b\u200bare a posteriori (borrowing lexical and grammar material from natural source languages) and a priori (deprived of material similarities with natural languages). Another classification parameter is the form of expression (manifestation) of the language material. Artificial languages \u200b\u200bhaving two ordinary forms of expression (sound and written) are called pazilanes. It is opposed to them, on the one hand, the systems of artificial languages \u200b\u200bhaving only one form of expression, for example, written (Pazigraphy) or gesture (Pazimology), and on the other - the system, striving for the infinite variability of the forms of expression: such is the "musical language" of salt-re- Salt J. Swider (1817-66; France), which could be expressed by the help of the notes corresponding to them sounds, numbers, gestures, spectrum colors, semaphore signals or flaple signaling, etc.
The distinctive feature of the class of international artificial languages \u200b\u200bis that their typology changes in time (while natural languages \u200b\u200bit wears a timeless character): in initial period Lingvoconstruction The systems prevailed, logical on function and a priori according to the material, but over time, the focus of lingvoprojects gradually shifted towards empiricism and recovery. The equilibrium point between multidirectional trends falls in 1879, when the first artificial language, implemented in communication, - Vapauk (created by I. M. Shleyer; Germany). In its system, logicalism is balanced with empiricism, and a prioritism with aposterioria. For this reason, Vapauk considers the language of a mixed logical-empirical and a priori-agothematory type: it bodies words from natural languages \u200b\u200b(English, German, French, Latin, etc.), but modifies them in order to simplify the pronunciation, eliminate the phenomena of homonymy and synonymy And do not give a hand to one source language over others. As a result, borrowed words lose experiment, for example, English WORLD\u003e VOL 'MIR', SPEAK\u003e Rük 'talk' (from here Volapük 'World Language'). Volapuka's grammar has a synthetic character (see syntheticism in linguistics), it includes a large number of nominal and verb categories (2 numbers, 4 cases, 3 persons, 6 times, 4 inclination, 2 types and 2 pledge). Practice has shown the complexity of using such a system in communication, and in the subsequent semiotic range of artificial languages \u200b\u200bis narrowed, they are increasingly approaching the type of natural languages.
Artificial languages \u200b\u200bbegan to be created mainly on the basis of international vocabulary, with a certain streamlining of it on the autonomous rules of this artificial language (autonomist artificial languages) or conservation in the form as close as possible to natural languages \u200b\u200b(naturalistic artificial languages). The grammar of artificial languages \u200b\u200bbegan to be built according to analytical type (see analytics in linguistics) with a maximum reduction in the number of grammatical categories used. The stage of wide communicative use of posteriori artificial languages \u200b\u200bwas opened by the Language of Esperanto (Created by L. Rezoyofom in 1887; Poland), which remains the most commonly used of all existing artificial languages. Significantly smaller distribution had a language IDP (reformed Esperanto, created in 1907 L. De Befron, L. Kutyura, O. Esperesen, V. Ostvald et al.; France). Fame from naturalistic projects: Latino-blue-Flexion (or Interlingu-Peano; 1903, J. Peano), Okidenthal (1921-22, E. Val; Estonia) and Interlingua Jala (created in 1951 Association of the International Auxiliary Language under the guidance A. Gouda; USA). Synthesis IDO and Occidental is presented in the project Noviol Esperesen (1928; Denmark).
Lit.: Couturat L., Leau L. Histoire de la Langue Universelle. R., 1907; IDEM. Les Nouvellers Langues International. R., 1907; Drimen E. K. for the general language. M.; L., 1928; Rônai R. Der Kampf Gegen Babel. Münch., 1969; Bausani A. Le Lingue Inventate. Roma, 1974; Knowlson J. Universal Language Schemes in England and France 1600-1800. Toronto; Buffalo, 1975; Kuznetsov S. N. On the question of the typological classification of international artificial languages \u200b\u200b// Problems of interlinguistics. M., 1976.
S. N. Kuznetsov.
Specialized artificial languages \u200b\u200bof various purposes - these are symbolic languages \u200b\u200bof science (languages \u200b\u200bof mathematics, logic, linguistics, chemistry, etc.) and languages \u200b\u200bof man-machine communication (algorithmic, or programming languages, languages operating systems, data database management, information, request-response systems, etc.). General feature Specialized artificial languages \u200b\u200bare a formal method of their description (definition) by the task of the alphabet (dictionary), the rules of education and the transformation of expressions (formulas) and semantics, i.e., the method of meaningful interpretation of expressions. Despite the formal method of determining, these languages \u200b\u200bare mostly not closed systemsSince the rules for the formation of words and expressions allow recursion. Therefore, as in natural languages, the dictionary and the amount of text generated potentially infinite.
The beginning of the creation and application of specialized artificial languages \u200b\u200bcan be considered to be used in Europe from the 16th century of letter notation and symbols of operations in mathematical expressions; In the 17-18th centuries, a language of differential and integral calculus was created, in the 19-20th century - the language of mathematical logic. Elements of symbolic lingules of linguistics are created in the 1930-40s. Symbolic science languages \u200b\u200bare formal systems intended for the presentation of knowledge and manipulate them in the respective subject areas (there are also independent language of knowledge presentation languages), that is, they are implemented in them a limited number of languages \u200b\u200b(metalinguistic, representative), at the same time they are Perform functions that are not characteristic of the natural language (for example, to serve as a means of logical output).
The development of human-machine communication languages \u200b\u200bbegan in the 1940s together with the appearance of a computer. The first languages \u200b\u200bof this type were the languages \u200b\u200bof describing computing processes by referring machine commands and data in binary code. In the early 1950s, symbolic coding systems (assemblers) are created, in which mnemonic symbolic designations of operations (verbs) and operands (objects, additions) are used; In 1957, the Fortran programming language was developed in the USA, in 1960 a group of European scientists offered the language of Algol-60. Typically, the text in programming language consists of a program header, descriptive (declarative) and procedural parts; The declarative part describes objects (values) on which actions will be carried out, in the procedural part in the imperative or centential (narrative) form, calculations are set. Calculations in programming languages \u200b\u200bare specified in the form of operators (proposals), which include operands (variables and constants) and symbols denoting arithmetic, logical, symbolic, multiple and other operations, and computational functions; There are special grammatical structures for the task of logical conditions, cycles, composite operators (analogues complex offers), Designs for the task and use of procedures and functions, data input and output operators, operators for accessing the translator and to the operating system, i.e. to programs that interpreting the text in programming language and following its correct execution (understanding). From artificial languages, programming languages \u200b\u200bare closest to natural languages \u200b\u200baccording to the composition of the linguistic functions performed by them (there are communicative, representative, condative, fate and metalinguistic functions). For programming languages, as well as for the natural language, the asymmetry of the expression plan and the content plan (there is synonymy, multi-consciousness, homonymy). They serve not only for programming itself, but also for professional communication programmers; There are special versions of languages \u200b\u200bto publish algorithms.
By the 1980s, there were apparently over 500 different programming languages, numerous versions (dialects) of some of the most common languages \u200b\u200b(Fortran, Algola-60, PL / 1, Cobol). Programming languages \u200b\u200bhave a certain extent by the property of self-development (extensibility) due to the possibility of determining the infinite number of functions in them; There are languages \u200b\u200bwith defined types of values \u200b\u200b(Algol-68, Pascal, Hell). This property allows the user to determine its programming language by means of this.
Close to programming languages \u200b\u200band other means of man-machine communication: Languages \u200b\u200bof operating systems, with which users organize their interaction with the computing machine and its software; Languages \u200b\u200bof interaction with databases and information systems with which users are determined and introduced information into the system, asks in the system various data. Private (and originally arising) The form of requesting languages \u200b\u200b- information and search languages \u200b\u200basked by information-searching thesaurus, the classifiers of concepts and objects or simply dictionaries, automatically compiled by the system when entering information into it. The textbook text has the form of a call proposal, which lists the concepts that are signs of such data. Information and search languages \u200b\u200bcan be purely vocabulary (without grammar), but may also have grammatical means of expressing syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations between concepts. They serve not only to formulate queries to information system, but also indexing means (i.e., mapping contents) of texts entered into a computer.
To interact with the computer, it is also strictly formally defined part (subset) of a natural language, the so-called limited natural, or specialized natural, language that occupies an intermediate position between natural and artificial languages. Expressions in a limited natural language are similar to expressions in a natural language, but they do not use words whose values \u200b\u200blie outside this subject area, complex for analysis, or irregular grammatical forms and structures.
Lit.: Sammet J. Programming Languages: History and Fundamentals. Engwood cliffs ,; Ceytine G. S. The features of natural languages \u200b\u200bin programming languages \u200b\u200b// Machine translation and applied linguistics. M., 1974. Vol. 17; Morozov V. P., Ezhov L. F. Algorithmic languages. M., 1975; Black A. I. Introduction to the theory of information search. M., 1975; Andryzhenko V. M. Linguistic approach to the study of programming languages \u200b\u200band interaction with computer // Problems of computing linguistics and automatic text processing in a natural language. M., 1980; Lekomtsev Yu. K. Introduction to the formal language of linguistics. M., 1983.
V. M. Andryuschenko.
Artificial languages \u200b\u200bof the above classes are used in the real world. The opposite of them is artificial languages \u200b\u200bof virtual (fictional) worlds created by the imagination of utopian philosophers (starting with "Utopia" T. Mora), science writers, authors of the projects of "Alternative History" and others. At the turn of the 20-21th century due to development New media and the emergence of the Internet class of such languages \u200b\u200bcalled virtual (fictional, fictitious, fantastic) has sharply expanded its borders.
The peculiarity of virtual languages \u200b\u200bis that their authors make up not only the language of the language, but simulate the communicative situation as a whole (fictional time, place, participants in communication, texts, dialogues, etc.). In the 20th century, the fame of Novoyases, described in the Satyrian anti-nightopia J. Orwell in 1948, and a variety of language projects J. Tolkina (the trilogy "Lord of the Rings"); Virtual languages \u200b\u200bare used not only in literary works, but also in films and serials, role-playing gamesThey compose and play songs, they are dedicated to a significant number of Internet sites. Society of supporters of such languages \u200b\u200bare being created, as a result of which they are sometimes transformed into the languages \u200b\u200bof real human communication. In contrast to international artificial languages \u200b\u200blike Esperanto, which are developing in the direction approaching them to natural languages, virtual languages \u200b\u200bfollow in reverse direction, mastering semiotic possibilities unusual for human communication ("Alternative Semiozis" as a sign of "alternative world"). See also Tolkian languages.
Lit.: Sidorova M. Yu., Shvalova O. N. Internet Linguistics: Fictional Languages. M., 2006.
In the 19th century linguistics (less often in modern linguistics), the term "artificial languages" was also attached to subsystems (or modifications) of natural languages, which differ from other subsystems of a greater degree of conscious impact of a person on their formation and development. With such an understanding [G. Paul (Germany), I. A. Boduen de Courtee, etc.] on the artificial languages, on the one hand, literary languages (In contrast to dialects), and on the other - professional and secret languages \u200b\u200b(as opposed to a nationwide language). Literary languages \u200b\u200bare distinguished by the greatest artificiality, which are more or less arbitrary synthesis of a number of existing dialects (for example, Lansmol; see Norwegian language). In these cases, the antithesis "artificial - natural" is equal to opposition to the conscious and spontaneous.
In some linguistic concepts, artificially recognized all human languages \u200b\u200bon the grounds that they act as a product of human creativity ("the creation of humanity", N. Ya. Marr) and in this sense, the natural communication of animals is opposed. Antithesis "Artificial - Natural" thereby came closer to the antithesis "Social - Biological".
The study of artificial languages \u200b\u200bboth in its own sense and in the appendix to artificially ordered subsystems of natural languages \u200b\u200ballows you to realize general principles The devices and functioning of the language in general, expanding theoretical ideas about such properties of the language as systemicity, communicative suitability, stability and variability, as well as the limits of the conscious impact of the person in the language, degree and types of its formalization and optimization.
Lit.: Marr N. Ya. General course of teaching on language // Marr J. I. Selected work. L., 1936. T. 2; Paul G. Principles of language history. M., 1960; Boduen de Courtee I. A. Selected Works on General Linguistics. M., 1963.T. 1-2.
