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There are already more than a thousand artificial languages, and more and more new ones are constantly being created, replenishing the language family and continuing the history of the languages of the past.
The first international artificial socialized language was created at the end of the 19th century by the German Catholic priest Johann Martin Schleier and was called volapuk, which literally translates as "world language". At the same time, in 1881, Schleier published the first textbook of this language "Volapukabled" ("Leaf of the World Language"). Reports were written on it, diplomatic negotiations were conducted, courses were opened at the University of Vienna, and Volapuk was accepted as a compulsory subject of the program at the commercial school in Paris. However, the flaws in the language, despite its logical and rational grammar, soon made it uncompetitive.
The most widespread artificial language today made a serious competition for Volapuk Esperanto, invented by the Warsaw optometrist and polyglot Ludwik Zamenhof in 1887, which, according to various estimates, numbers from one hundred thousand to several million carriers, the number of which is growing every year.
Artificial languages were created not only to facilitate human communication, but also for literary or cinematic fantastic works, because fantastic worlds with their fictional characters inhabiting the pages need their own language, confirming their originality and uniqueness.
One of the most famous and prolific inventors of artificial languages was english writer, professor at Oxford University J.R.R. Tolkien(yes, the author of the cult trilogy "The Lord of the Rings" and the science fiction novel "The Hobbit, or There and Back Again"). His merits include the creation of the Elvish language family and dialects, their grammar, lexical structure with varying degrees of detail, history of origin and development; the secret language of the Dwarves, Ents, the Black Speech of Mordor, the language of the greatest enemy of the free peoples of Middle-earth Sauron. Many of them have been used by the author to describe a fictional universe called Middle-earth: "Pedig edhellen?" (do you speak elvish?), "Guren * níniatha n'i lû n'i a-govenitham" (my heart will yearn until I see you again), "Gellon ned i gelir i chent gîn ned i lelig" (i love to watch your eyes sparkle when you laugh).
J. Tolkien himself in his letters spoke about the role of artificial languages in his works as follows:
“I think the fundamental 'fact' about all my work is that it is holistic and fundamentally linguistic in design. […] This is not a “hobby” in the sense of something completely different from the person’s main occupation, what a person does for distraction and relaxation. The invention of languages is the foundation of my work. The stories were written more in order to create a world for these languages, and not vice versa. For me, the word first appears, and then the story associated with it. I would prefer to write "Elvish". But, of course, a book like The Lord of the Rings has undergone serious editing, and I left there just as many “languages” as the reader could digest (although now I find out that many would like more). […] In any case, for me it is largely an essay on 'linguistic aesthetics', as I sometimes answer people who ask me what I wrote my book about. "
In a series of epic fantasy novels by a contemporary American science fiction writer, laureate of many literary awards and screenwriter George R.R. Martin often referred to as "American Tolkien", there are also many different artificial languages, including the so-called common language adopted in Westeros and brought by the Andals, which is spoken in all corners of the Seven Kingdoms, Dothraki, which is constantly found in books in the dialogues of the Dothraki and Daenerys Targaryen, the languages of the Summer Isles and Valyria, the dialects of the Free Cities.
On his blog, George Martin writes: “Several years ago I received a very nice letter from a reader who wanted to know more about High Valirin's vocabulary and syntax. To my shame, I was forced to reply, “Well… um… everything I know about High Valirin is limited to the seven words I’ve made up so far. When I need the eighth, I’ll come up with ... well, I don’t have a finished, invented language in my writing desk - the kind that Tolkien had. ”
However, when writing a series of books, J. Martin did not set himself the task of creating an artificial language, as it might seem at first glance. The purpose of the words and syntactic constructions invented by him is to convince his reader of the reality of the existence of actually fictitious peoples and tribes, to immerse his mind in an alternative reality.
The most original and entertaining of artificial languages is created in 1817 by a French musician Jean François Sudre, who lived in the south of France, an international universal language on a musical basis, known to the world under the name solresol: all words are composed of the names of seven musical notes, presented in various combinations.
As a result, solresol includes 2800 words: 7 monosyllables, 49 two-syllable, 343 three-syllable and 2401 four-syllable. A peculiar project has earned countless approval of various commissions of the Paris Academy of Sciences and scientific societies, met with recognition and support of such prominent public figures as Victor Hugo and Alexander Humboldt, and also brought its author a prize of 10 thousand francs at the international exhibition in 1851 in Paris and honorary medal and diploma at the international exhibition in 1862 in London.
Some examples from the Solresol dictionary:
I am - dore;
you you - domi;
my - redo;
wish - mythal;
be in love - milasi;
I love you - dore milasi domi;
month - doresol;
day - doremy;
time - doredo.
It is important to note that it is not at all necessary to study musical literacy or graduate from a music school to use it! One of the features of the musical language Solresol is the absence of synonyms and homonyms in it. To form antonyms, inversion is used, that is, the inversion of the order of syllables. The antonym word is read backwards: for example, fall- good, lafa- bad. To distinguish parts of speech, there is phonetic stress. In a verb, it is not put, in a noun it falls on the first syllable, in an adjective - on the penultimate, in an adverb - on the last: midofa- to prefer, midof- preferred.
Word la, similarly the in English, it is an article and is placed before a noun. Possessive pronouns expressed in two-syllable words starting with re and ending with the name of the note, and stand before the noun, and the order of the persons (I, you, he, we, you, they) corresponds to the order of the notes (do, mi, fa, sol, la, si): relay- "your" redo- "my".
Exercise: using the sentences translated into Russian in the artificial language Solresol, translate into the language Solresol: The young carpenter loves your cat.
1. Redo faresimi soldorela solsido fasimire.
My black cat is running fast.
2. Refa solmisire solfamido laredole la faresimi lyafamido.
His old teacher buys a little cat.
3. La Resolsoldo Ladorelya Resol Refasire Laredosol.
The carpenter sells our white box.
4. La dofarelya with strength la sisifado.
The rich man hates the lawyer.
Using the Solresol language, the actual "language chess", you can reliably encrypt information, solve logical problems, play an exciting intellectual game, and even write a book that you can not only read, but also sing! In addition, this language is a godsend for writers writing in the genre of a detective or thriller, and simply for all those who wish to surprise their friends and loved ones.
(USA)
Jan van Stenbergen, Igor Polyakov
G. I. Muravkin (Berlin)
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Notes (edit)
Literature
- Histoire de la langue universelle. - Paris: Librairie Hachette et C ie, 1903 .-- 571 p.
- Dresen E.K. For the common language. Three centuries of searching. - M.-L .: Gosizdat, 1928 .-- 271 p.
- Svadost-Istomin Ermar Pavlovich. How a universal language will emerge. - M .: Nauka, 1968 .-- 288 p.
- Dulichenko A. D. Projects of General and International Languages (Chronological Index from II to XX centuries) // Scientific Notes of the Tartu State. un-that. Issue 791. - 1988. - S. 126-162.
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Human language is a system of sound and visual symbols that people use to communicate and express their thoughts and feelings. Most of us deal mainly with natural languages, independently arising from living human communication. However, there are also artificial human languages created by people themselves, primarily for communication between representatives of different nationalities, as well as for literary or cinematic fantastic works.
Esperanto
Esperanto is the most famous and widespread of the artificially created languages. However, a more correct term is not “artificial”, but “planned”, that is, created specifically for international communication.
This language was constructed by the Warsaw physician and linguist Lazar (Ludwig) Markovich Zamenhof in 1887. He named his creation Internacia (international). The word "esperanto" was originally the pseudonym under which Zamenhof published his work. Translated from the new language, it meant "hopeful."
Esperanto is based on international words borrowed from Latin and Greek, and 16 grammatical rules that have no exceptions. In this language, there is no grammatical gender, there are only two cases in it - the nominative and the accusative, and the meanings of the rest are conveyed using prepositions. The alphabet is based on Latin, and all parts of speech have fixed endings: -o for nouns, -a for adjectives, -i for verbs in an indefinite form, -e for derived adverbs.
All this makes Esperanto such a simple language that an unprepared person can learn to speak it fluently enough in a few months of regular studies. In order to learn at the same level any of natural languages, it takes at least a few years.
Currently, Esperanto is actively used, according to various estimates, from several tens of thousands to several million people. At the same time, it is believed that for ~ 500-1000 people this language is native, that is, it is studied from the moment of birth. Usually these are children from marriages where the parents belong to different nations and use Esperanto for family communication. The prevalence of Esperanto is indicated, among other things, by the fact that the volume of Wikipedia in this language exceeds 100 thousand articles. And this is more than sections in natural languages such as Slovak or Korean.
Esperanto has descendant languages that lack a number of shortcomings in Esperanto. The most famous of these languages are Esperantido and Novial. However, none of them will become as widespread as Esperanto.
Example
This is how the beginning of Mikhail Bulgakov's work "The Master and Margarita" looks like in Esperanto: Foje en Moskvo, dum malnormale varmega printempa sunsubiro, du civitanoj venis la ĝardenplacon de la Patriarĥa lageto. La unua, vestita per griza somera kompleto, estis malalta, diketa, kalva, sian malfrivolan ĉapelon li portis en la mano, kaj sur lia bone razita vizaĝo vastis kolosaj okulvitroj en nigra korna muntumo. La dua, larĝaŝultra juna viro kun senorda rufeta hararo kaj kvadratita kaskedo sur la nuko, surhavis buntan ĉemizon, ĉifitan blankan pantalonon kaj nigrajn sportoŝuojn.(Translated by S. Pokrovsky.)
“One spring, at an hour of unprecedented hot sunset, two citizens appeared in Moscow, at the Patriarch's Ponds. The first of them, dressed in a gray summer pair, was short, plump, bald, carried his decent hat with a pie in his hand, and on his well-shaven face were placed supernatural-sized glasses in black horn-rimmed frames. The second - a broad-shouldered, reddish, well-rounded young man in a checkered cap tucked at the back of his head - was in a cowboy shirt, chewed-up white trousers and black slippers. "
Volapyuk
The Volapuk alphabet is based on Latin and consists of 27 characters. This language is distinguished by very simple phonetics, which should have made it easier to learn and pronounce it for children and peoples in whose language there are no complex combinations of consonants. The roots of most of the words in Volapuk are borrowed from English and French, but modified to fit the rules of the new language. There are 4 cases in Volapyuk: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative; the stress always falls on the last syllable. The disadvantages of this language include a complex system of verb formation and various verb forms.
Although the unusual sound and spelling of words in Volapyuk caused ridicule in the press, and the word “Volapuk” itself became synonymous with “gibberish,” the language quickly gained popularity. In 1880, the first textbook on German, and two years later newspapers were published in Volapyuk. By 1889, 25 magazines in Volapyuk were published all over the world and 316 textbooks were written in 25 languages, and the number of clubs for lovers of this language almost reached three hundred. However, gradually interest in this language began to fade, and this process was especially strongly influenced by internal conflicts in the Volapyuk Academy and the emergence of a new, simpler and more elegant planned language - Esperanto.
It is believed that at present there are only about 20-30 people in the world who own Volapuk. However, the Wikipedia section in this language outnumbers the Esperanto section in terms of the number of articles. The reason for this is that almost all Volapuk articles are created by bots.
Example
Ven lärnoy püki votik, vödastok plösenon fikulis. Mutoy ai dönu sukön vödis nesevädik, e seko nited paperon. In dil donatida, ye, säkäd at pebemaston, bi tradut tefik vöda alik pubon dis vöds Volapükik. Välot reidedas sökon, e pamobos, das vöds Volapükik pareidons laodiko. Gramat e stabavöds ya pedunons in nüdug; too loged viföfik traduta pakomandos ad garanön, das sinif valodik pegeton. Binos prinsip sagatik, kel sagon, das stud nemödik a del binos gudikum, ka stud mödik süpo.
“When learning a foreign language, vocabulary is difficult. It is necessary to constantly search for unknown words, and as a result, interest is lost. In the elementary part, however, this problem is overcome, because the correct translation of the word appears under Volapuk's words. A selection of (texts for) reading follows and it is assumed that Volapyuk's words are read aloud. Grammar and basic vocabulary are already given in the introduction; however, a cursory glance at the translation is recommended to ensure a common understanding. It is wisely said that a little teaching every day is better than a lot of teaching in one day. "
Loglan
Loglan was developed specifically for linguistic research. It got its name from the English phrase "logical language", which means "logical language". Dr. James Cook Brown began work on the new language in 1955, and the first paper on Loglan was published in 1960. The first meeting of people interested in Brown's brainchild took place in 1972; and three years later, Brown's book Loglan 1: A Logical Language was published.
Brown's main goal was to create a language free from the contradictions and inaccuracies inherent in natural languages. He suggested that Loglan could be used to test the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis of linguistic relativity, according to which the structure of language determines thinking and the way of knowing reality so much that people who speak different languages, perceive the world differently and think differently.
Loglan's alphabet is based on Latin graphics and consists of 28 letters. There are only three parts of speech in this language:
Nouns (names and titles) denoting specific individual objects;
Predicates that play the role of most parts of speech and convey the meaning of statements;
Words (English "little words", literally - "small words") - pronouns, numbers and operators that express the speaker's emotions and provide logical, grammatical, digital and punctuation connections. There is no punctuation in the usual sense of the word in Loglan.
In 1965, Loglan is mentioned in the novel by R. Heinlein "The moon is laying hard" as the language used by the computer. The idea of making Loglan into a human language understandable to a computer gained popularity, and in 1977-1982 work was done that finally rid it of contradictions and inaccuracies. As a result, after minor changes, Loglan became the world's first language with a grammar without logical conflicts.
In 1986, there was a split among Loglanists, the result of which was the creation of another artificial language - Lojban. At present, interest in Loglan has noticeably decreased, but there is still discussion of language problems in online communities, and the Loglan Institute is sending out its educational materials to everyone who is interested in the new language. According to various sources, there are from several tens to several thousand people in the world who are able to understand texts in Loglan.
Example
Mi tsodi lopo dricia. I hate memorization.
I lopo dricia ga puncko ice mi tsodi lo puntu. Remembering is painful, and I hate pain.
I na lepo mi setfa le purda lemi smina guo, de vijbangoi lia lepo le perla ga clidyfea sau le bitse je lomi cetlo dedjo. When I memorize a word, it disappears like a pearl through my slippery fingers.
Toki pona
Toki pona is a language created by the Canadian linguist Sonia Helen Kisa and has become one of the simplest artificial languages. The phrase "pona currents" can be translated as " good language"Or" kind language. " It is believed that its creation was influenced by the Chinese teachings of Taoism and the works of primitivist philosophers. The first information about this language appeared in 2001.
Toki Pona has only 120 roots, so almost all words in it have multiple meanings. The alphabet of this language consists of 14 letters: nine consonants (j k l m n p s t w) and five vowels (a e i o u). All official words are written in lowercase letters, only informal words, toki pona, such as the names of people or the names of peoples, geographical places and religions, begin with a capital letter. The spelling of words is fully consistent with their pronunciation, they do not change with endings, prefixes and suffixes and can act as any part of speech. The sentences are rigidly structured. So, for example, a qualifying word always comes after the qualifying one (adjective after a noun; adverb after a verb, etc.)
Toki Pona is primarily a language for communication on the Web and serves as an example of Internet culture. It is believed that several hundred people are currently using this language.
Example
jan wile e ali la jan weka e ali. To desire everything is to lose everything.
jan sama li lon poka. Birds of a feather flock together.
kulupu ike li pana e pali ike. With whom you lead, from that you will gain.
kulupu ike li ike e pali. Bad surroundings spoil good manners.
jan li sona la jan li pali pona. The one who knows his business works best. The master's work is afraid.
toki lili li sama sona. Brevity is the soul of wit.
Quenya
This language is the most famous of the languages created by the English linguist, philologist and writer J.R.R. Tolkien (1892-1973), who began his work in 1915 and continued it throughout his life. The development of Quenya, as well as the description of the Eldar, a people who could speak it, led to the creation of the classic literary work in the fantasy genre - the Lord of the Rings trilogy, as well as a number of other works published after the death of their author. Tolkien himself wrote about it this way: “Nobody believes me when I say that my long book is an attempt to create a world in which the language corresponding to my personal aesthetics could be natural. However, it is true. "
Quenya is based on Latin, Finnish and Greek. Quenya is difficult enough to learn. It includes 10 cases: nominative, accusative, dative, genitive, instrumental, possessive, separative, approximate, local and corresponding. Quenya nouns change in four numbers: singular, plural, fractional (used to indicate part of a group) and dual (used to indicate a pair of objects).
Tolkien also developed a special alphabet for Quenya - Tengwar, but the Latin alphabet is most often used for writing in this language.
Currently, the number of people who, to one degree or another, speak this language, reaches several tens of thousands. In Moscow alone, there are at least 10 people who know him at a level sufficient to write poetry on it. Interest in Quenya has grown significantly since the adaptation of The Lord of the Rings. There are a number of Quenya textbooks as well as language clubs.
Example
Man kiluva kirya ninqe oilima ailinello lúte, níve qímari ringa ambar ve maiwin qaine?
Man tiruva kirya ninqe valkane wilwarindon lúnelinqe vear tinwelindon talalínen, vea falastane, falma pustane, rámali tíne, kalma histane?
(J.R.R. Tolkien)
Who will see the white ship
leaving the last shore
obscure ghosts
in his cold bosom,
crying like seagulls?
Who will look at the white ship
butterfly beating
in the boiling seas
with wings like stars
on the seething sea
on the flying foam
on shining wings
to a dying light?
(Translated from English by N. Prokhorova)
Klingon language
The Klingon language (Klingon) is one of the languages created by linguist Mark Okrand specifically for the Klingons, one of the races of the science fiction television series Star Trek. This language has a complete grammar, syntax and vocabulary. During its creation, some languages of the Indians of North America were used, as well as Sanskrit.
The Klingon language was first spoken in 1979, and has since gained a large following. In 1992, the Institute of the Klingon Language was founded, publishing the HolQeD magazine every three months, dedicated to this language, linguistics and culture.
Although the Klingon developed its own script, most of its users now use the Latin alphabet. It is believed that several hundred people from different countries of the world speak this language. In 2004, Wikipedia was even launched in Klingon. Have search engine Google has a page on Klingon. There is also a page in this language at Deutsche Welle.
Example
qaStaH nuq? What happened?
jIyaj. I understand
jIyajbe ". I do not understand
nuqDaq "oH puchpa" e ". Where is the bathroom?
lojmIt yIpoSmoH! Open the door!
Everybody knows natural languages. And if he does not know, then at least he guesses - after all, they are spoken by all the people of our planet. But to avoid confusion, you can give them such a definition - this is the fruit of communication between people, which has arisen and improved over the centuries, has been influenced by cultures, traditions and Almost all languages are natural: this is Russian, and English, and Chinese, and German. , and Indian, and many others. They can be both simple and complex; both common and rare; and international, and used only in their own homeland.
What are artificial languages? Why are they called that? How did they come about? What are they needed for?
Artificial languages were created by man and were not influenced by cultural traditions and historical events. When creating such a language, a dictionary can be formed both from words that do not exist anywhere else, and from words from various natural languages. Its use is possible only for a relatively small circle of people who have undertaken the study of such a linguistic neoplasm, and the rules in it are often complex. As a rule, very, very few, mainly linguists, are engaged in comprehending the secrets of such languages.
However, they have artificial languages and their advantages: they can be used by encryptors, they are convenient to talk about something secret, with their help you can completely immerse yourself in the world of the work, if the characters there speak in a similar syllable.
Today there are many languages artificially created by man. But the most famous are only five.
Volyapyuk, one of the first artificial languages, was invented by a German. Due to its simplicity and uniqueness (all the words of this language were invented by the author) Volyapyuk quickly spread, for some time it was not only spoken, but also published in newspapers.
Esperanto, like Volapyuk, appeared in the 19th century and was even more popular than the first. In Esperanto, words are borrowed from several natural languages, more precisely, from the groups of Slavic, Romance and Germanic languages. Esperanto is spoken to this day, even people for whom it is native live. This is found in international families, where spouses speak Esperanto to each other, and children learn it from childhood.
Ido is an analogue of Esperanto, improved by the Frenchman Louis Couture and the Dane Otto Jespersen. However, Ido did not gain such popularity as Esperanto.
Quenya is the so-called invented by the world famous writer Tolkien. Created on the basis of the ancient group. Quite popular among fans of his work.
Slovianski is a very young language, created in 2006 to facilitate international communication between Slavs. Slavic is a language that is quite understandable to almost all speakers of Slavic languages, including Russians, Ukrainians, Croats, Czechs, Bulgarians and Belarusians.
Thus, using the example of Esperanto and Slavonic, we can conclude that artificial languages can bring tangible benefits when communicating between speakers of different languages.
However, this is not the end of the conversation about languages. V separate categories it is necessary to distinguish not only natural and artificial languages, but also artificially revived ones.
So, in the Czech Republic at the end of the 18th century, almost the entire population of the country spoke German, and Czech was forgotten. His dialects were spoken in countryside, and even then the peasants from different villages hardly understood each other. Realizing the sad fate of their native language, the native Czechs set about restoring it, in which they were very successful. It is another matter that to this day the Czech spoken and Czech literary are, albeit related, but completely different languages.
A similar story happened with Hebrew, which almost no one spoke in the 19th century. No, it was not forgotten - newspapers were printed on it, Jews from different countries used it for communication, but it was not used in everyday life, and therefore many words were simply not in it. Therefore, in order to revive this language, it was necessary not only to make people remember about it, but also to invent new words.
An attempt at artificial restoration was also made with respect to another, now almost unknown language - Kafarevus, but it was unsuccessful.
Artificial languages
: for or against
The claiḿ natural languagé To- a sign system created specifically for use in those areas where the use of a natural language is less effective or impossible. Constructed languages differ in specialization and purpose, as well as in the degree of similarity with natural languages.
There are the following types of artificial languages:
Programming languages and computer languages - languages for automatic processing of information using a computer.
Information languages are languages used in various information processing systems.
Formalized languages of science are languages intended for symbolic recording of scientific facts and theories of mathematics, logic, chemistry and other sciences.
Languages of non-existent peoples, created for fictional or entertainment purposes. The best known are the Elvish language, invented by J. Tolkien, and the Klingon language, invented by Mark Okrand for the fantasy TV series "Star Trek" (see Fictional Languages).
International auxiliary languages - languages created from elements of natural languages and offered as an auxiliary means of interethnic communication.
According to the purpose of creation, artificial languages can be divided into the following groups:
Philosophical and logical languages are languages that have a clear logical structure of word formation and syntax: Lojban, Tokipona, Ifkuil, Ilaksh.
Auxiliary languages are intended for practical communication: Esperanto, Interlingua, Slovio, Slavic.
artificial language natural specialization
Artistic or aesthetic languages - created for creative and aesthetic pleasure: Quenya.
Also, a language is created for setting up an experiment, for example, to test the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (that the language spoken by a person limits consciousness, drives it into a certain framework).
By their structure, artificial language projects can be divided into the following groups:
A priori languages - based on logical or empirical classifications of concepts: loglan, Lojban, ro, solresol, ifkuil, ilaksh.
A posteriori languages are languages built mainly on the basis of international vocabulary: interlingua, occidental
Mixed languages - words and word formation are partly borrowed from non-artificial languages, partly created on the basis of artificially invented words and derivational elements: Volapuk, Ido, Esperanto, Neo.
The most famous artificial languages are:
basic english
interlingua
latin blue flexione
occidental
simlian
solresol
Esperanto
The most famous artificial language was Esperanto (L. Zamenhof, 1887) - the only artificial language that became widespread and united around itself quite a lot of supporters of the international language. Esperanto is based on international words borrowed from Latin and Greek, and 16 grammatical rules that have no exceptions. In this language, there is no grammatical gender, there are only two cases in it - the nominative and the accusative, and the meanings of the rest are conveyed using prepositions. The alphabet is based on Latin. All this makes Esperanto such a simple language that an unprepared person can learn to speak it fluently enough in a few months of regular studies. It takes at least several years to learn any of the natural languages at the same level. Currently, Esperanto is actively used, according to various estimates, from several tens of thousands to several million people. At the same time, it is believed that for ~ 500-1000 people this language is native, that is, it is studied from the moment of birth. Esperanto has descendant languages that lack a number of shortcomings in Esperanto. The most famous of these languages are Esperantido and Novial. However, none of them will become as widespread as Esperanto.
For or against artificial languages?
Learning an artificial language has one big drawback - it is almost impossible to use it in life. This is true. An article entitled "Constructed Languages" published in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia states that: "The idea of an artificial language common to all mankind is in itself utopian and impracticable. Artificial languages are only imperfect surrogates of living languages; their projects are cosmopolitan in nature and therefore they are vicious in principle. " This was written in the early 50s. But in the mid-1960s, the same skepticism was characteristic of some scientists.
The author of the book "Principles of Language Modeling" P.N. Denisov expressed his disbelief in the possibility of implementing the idea of a universal language in the following way: “As for the possibility of decreeing the transition of mankind to a single language created at least by the type of the Esperanto language, such a possibility is a utopia. the inextricable connection of language with thought and society and many other purely linguistic circumstances do not allow such a reform to be carried out without disorganizing society. "
The author of the book "Sounds and Signs" A.M. Kondratov believes that all existing native languages can never be replaced by "any artificially invented" universal "language. He nevertheless admits the idea of an auxiliary language: "We can only talk about an intermediary language, which is used only when talking with foreigners - and that's all."
Such statements seem to stem from the fact that none of the individual projects of the universal, or worldwide, international language has become a living language. But what turned out to be impossible in some historical conditions for individual idealists and groups of the same idealists cut off from the proletariat, from the masses, may turn out to be quite possible in other historical conditions for scientific collectives and the masses who master the scientific theory of linguistic creation - with support of revolutionary parties and governments. The ability of a person to be multilingual - this phenomenon of linguistic compatibility - and the absolute primacy of the synchronicity of language (for the consciousness of those who use it), which determines the absence of the influence of the origin of the language on its functioning, open up to all peoples and peoples of the Earth the way in which the problem of their linguistic community. This will give a real opportunity for the most perfect project of the language of the new humanity and its new civilization to turn on all continents and islands of the globe into a living, controlled developing language. And there is no doubt that he will not only be alive, but also the most tenacious of languages. The needs that brought them to life are diverse. It is also important that these languages overcome the ambiguity of terms inherent in natural languages and unacceptable in science. Artificial languages allow one to express certain concepts in an extremely concise form, perform the functions of a kind of scientific shorthand, economical presentation and expression of voluminous mental material. Finally, artificial languages are one of the means of internationalizing science, since artificial languages are united and international.
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Linguistic activity and the definition of lexemes as the minimum units of vocabulary containing meaning. Classification by typological structure: polysynthetic, monosyllabic, inflectional and agglutinative languages. Macrofamily formation method.
The nature and essence of language. Naturalistic (biological) approach to language. A mental approach to language. Language is a social phenomenon. Language as a system of signs. Functions of the language according to Buhler. Functions of the language according to the Reformed. The theory of language, the direction of the signs of the language.
The single language of the Russian nation, the language of international communication in the modern world. The growing influence of the Russian language on other languages. A wonderful language of the world for the variety of grammatical forms and for the richness of the vocabulary, the richest fiction.
Consideration of methods of classification (areal, typological, genetic) and functions (communicative, cognitive, cognitive, voluntary) of language. Study of religious, ancient, onomatopoeic, biological hypotheses of the origin of language.
comparative analysis These two languages belong to different language families. The structure of nominative groups in the languages under consideration is largely isomorphic. Systems for encoding relationships within a noun phrase are characterized by two principles that are common
Translation studies as a science. The sound form of the word and its meaning. Words denoting socio-political and scientific concepts. Words denoting both general concepts and concepts of a special nature. False friends translator.
The concept of language in philosophy, its main structural units. The difference between human communication activity and animal communication. Language and speech: common and differences. The main characteristics and functions of the language. Concept and classification of linguistic signs.
The generalized grammar of immediate constituents (GGNS) is currently widely used in applied linguistics. Mathematically speaking, OGNS is a variant of the context-free grammar of immediate components. Historically, OGNS evolved from the grammar of Montague.
Great opportunities that knowledge opens up to everyone foreign languages... The reasons why you need to learn English, the use of the language in the fields of culture, economics, business, education, politics, leisure. Modern methods of teaching English.
In the 16th and 18th centuries. summarized the valuable achievements of the entire previous development of linguistic thought in the field of creating writing systems, methods of interpreting old texts, developing principles lexicographic description language.
The concept of linguistics as an academic discipline, its essence and characteristics, methods and stages of study, the history of origin and formation. History and features of linguistic teachings as an integral part of linguistics, its periodization and structural composition.
Latin as one of the most ancient written Indo-European languages and the basis of writing in many modern languages. The main stages, characteristic from the point of view of the internal evolution of the Latin language and its interaction with other languages.
Classifications of languages of the world, their criteria and factors. The essence of the typological and genealogical classification of languages, their varieties and distinctive characteristics. Language families, branches and groups in the modern world. The emergence of Indo-European languages.
