Abstract: Natural language and artificial languages. Natural language

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Language (Natural) Language (Natural)

Language (natural language), stored in human consciousness, a complex system of rules, in accordance with which speech activity occurs, i.e. Deprivation and understanding of texts. All text is (material) object transmitting (intangible) meaning. The meaning arises in the consciousness of man, but, as you know, cannot be directly accessible to another person: there is no way to penetrate the thoughts of other people, because they are not material, i.e. No one of our senses are perceived. Language is just a means of "materialization" of thoughts: Turning into texts, receiving a material "shell" (or language substance), thoughts become available for perception and can be understood by another person. Thus, it can be said, in the general form, that language is a way of embodying intangible thoughts into a material substance, their "coding" with the help of material symbols (or "signs"), as well as the method of "decoding" of thoughts on this substance. The main substance for the texts of the natural language is the sound: these are air fluctuations perceived using hearing organs; Graphic substance (texts perceived visually) is secondary. Various sound substance translation systems in a more durable graphic (graphics (cm. Graphics (in linguistics)), or writing (cm. WRITING)) Play an important role in human culture, but developed and exist not for all natural languages. Any substance is linear: it arises and exists in time, some elements earlier, others - later. The thought is generally not linear; Therefore, the transition from the meaning to the text is a complex process and can influence the process of thinking itself.
"Coding" and "Decoding" of messages are two main types of human speech activities known as speaking and understandingOtherwise rotate and correspondingly, perception texts. A full-fledged language own involves the ability to successfully carry out both of these types of speech activities; The ability to generate texts is usually called active competence Language carrier (which in this case acts as a speaker), and the ability to understand the texts built by another carrier - passive competence Language media (which in this case acts as a recipient of the message).
In addition to speaking and understand, i.e. Communication, language can also perform other important functions, of which, first of all, it should be noted the functions of thinking and the storage function. Even in the absence of a direct addressee, a person thinks with the help of the language; Disabled (so-called non-verbal) thinking if possible (psychologists argue about it), then in any case does not play a central role in the human psyche. Thanks to the language, people can not only communicate with each other, but also create new knowledge and transmit it to descendants, overcoming the restrictions associated with space and time.
Language (and verbal thinking) is the most important feature of a person as a biological species; Disputes about animals (especially at higher primates, dolphins, etc.) systems like the human language continue, but, apparently, systems comparable in difficulty with natural language, no other biological species inhabiting the Earth, all same no. It is the language that makes a man man. On the other hand, as already mentioned, the language is most likely not a simple "weapon of thought": the structure of the tongue can also have a certain impact on thinking. In linguistics, a hypothesis about the possible dependence of the forms of thinking from one or another language, about the "nationally specific" methods of perception of peace and expression of meanings is actively discussed. The most radical form of this hypothesis (currently rejected by most specialists) in the 20th century was expressed by the American researcher of Indian languages \u200b\u200bB. L. Wharf (who did not have a special linguistic education), but certain observations of bilateral communication of the language and thinking were made and continue to be done Very many scientists.
All three concepts listed at the beginning of the article, i.e. Language, text and speech activity are equally important for understanding the nature of the natural language and are equally studied by the science of language - linguistics (cm. LINGUISTICS), or (theoretical) linguistics. At the same time, the language itself, as information stored in a person's consciousness, is intangible and directly not accessible observation, while speech activities and texts are material and can be accessible to observation. Using simplified metaphor, the language can be equated to the instructions for assembling some complex device (for example, a car or computer); In this case, the "assembly process" process is the analogue of speech activity, and the analogue of texts is the "Devices" themselves collected in accordance with the "instruction".
Nevertheless, the main task of theoretical linguistics is exactly the description of the natural language, i.e. Explanation of text construction rules. But since the natural language is not direct supervision, linguistics reconstructs language rules based on learning speech activities and texts. This position of linguistics is radically different from the position of many other sciences (especially natural), in which the objects of description and analysis are material and, as a rule, are directly accessible to observation and experiments. It is usually said that sciences whose objects are not available to direct observation are engaged in "modeling" of these objects, i.e. creating objects that can be performed immediately function as the modulated prototype. The language model is a complete dictionary-grammatical description of this language; It is assumed that the use of this model will make it possible to build and understand the texts in the appropriate language with the same efficiency, with what a native speaker does. Modern descriptions of the world languages \u200b\u200bare not yet considered to be fully adequate to this task, which is not surprising, since the task itself for the scientific knowledge of the world is unique.
Developing the metaphor's proposed above, it can be said that the linguist is like a person who, without having anything, except for the prepared samples of the collected cars, should understand the principle of the car's work and write an instruction on its assembly. Linguist analyzes the texts and reconstructs the language of these texts, i.e., the system of rules for which the texts are built. This is a task of a very big difficulty associated not only with the study of unconscious mental processes and with the study of human physiology, but also with the study of human society, its culture and history. The boundaries between the study of the language and the study of the psyche on the one hand and between the study of the tongue and the study of culture on the other side are uncertain and blurred; The development trend of modern linguistics is to continuously expand these borders and increasing the amount of information necessary to build adequate models of the language. It should also be remembered that linguistics on their own issues contact with semiotics (cm. Semiotics (information transmission science))studying the peculiarities of any iconic systems in human society (among which the language seems to be the main and most difficult).
To understand the specifics of the linguist, it is also significant that the "ordinary" native speaker, although it owns its language freely, not many can help a language researcher in solving his tasks. The use of the language as a whole unconsciously: a person knows how to speak the same way, as it can walk or breathe - by virtue of innate skills; Native language is not trained in the same way as they study, for example, a game of chess or driving a car. Therefore, the native speaker cannot explain how much why he expresses his idea, and not a different language manner, nor, especially as his native language is arranged (what grammatical categories in it, syntax rules, etc.): Language carrier knows how to use the tongue, but does not realize how he does it. The only question for which the native speaker can answer is the question of whether it is possible to say so ", i.e. Is it possible in his native language using a specific text to express a certain meaning. The extremely nontrivial task of extracting the language rules from the subconscious speakers can only be performed by a professional linguist.
In the speakers, the process of mastering the first, or native language occurs in childhood and is quite complicated and little studied. The ability to use the language (the so-called language ability, or language competence) is an important feature of the human psyche and is in humans, generally speaking, congenital. This ability is activated literally from the first days of the child's life: perceiving texts addressed to him, the child gradually (and unconsciously) opens the rules of the language by which they are built, and begins to build texts on their own - first imperfect, then - more and more close to that rate which is adopted in this language team. The speech activity of the child becomes a full-fledged on average for approximately 5-7 years. But if, at an early age, the child, for one reason or another, is isolated from the natural language environment, its language ability deviates and is subsequently not restored (this is, in particular, confirmed by the phenomenon of the so-called "Mowgli Children" who grew out of human society And they came to people already in a relatively adult condition: they could not live in human speech in all well-known science).
The tongue ability of an adult is also muffled in one degree or another: it is well known that mastering the second language is not in childhood in most cases conjugate with great difficulties, and the knowledge of the second language, as a rule, cannot be compared with the knowledge of the first or native (t . e. He learned in early childhood "naturally").
Until now, we used the word "language" in the singular, as if all of the representatives of humanity, the language was the same. It is well known that this is not the case: ways to move from the meaning to the text from different human teams are different (sometimes fundamentally different). In this sense, linguists talk about various languages \u200b\u200bof humanity, or about the languages \u200b\u200bof the world (English. their world" s. languages., Franz. les. langues. du monde. etc.). There are about 7 thousand different living languages \u200b\u200bin the modern world. It is impossible to indicate the exact number of living languages, because in many cases (especially in the absence of writing fixed norm) is not obvious boundary between different languages \u200b\u200band dialects of the same language. In addition, it is necessary to take into account the fact that there are such areas on the globe, which are still unsatisfactoryly examined in a linguistic attitude: it is reliably unknown, in no languages \u200b\u200bthey say peoples, living there, nor even how many languages \u200b\u200bare numbered there. These areas, first of all, are new Guinea and Amazon Pool, as well as some hard-to-reach areas of tropical Africa.
Nevertheless, despite the big (often - very large) differences between individual languages, in the structure of all languages \u200b\u200bof the world there is a lot in common. For theoretical linguistics, these differences are equally important, and this community; In this sense, it can be said that theoretical linguistics studies not only and not so much specific natural languages \u200b\u200bas the HOMO Sapiens language (that is, the sum of the general properties of all human languages). There is a special direction in linguistics, which is specially engaged in the boundaries of the variety of natural languages: this linguistic typologywhose task is to establish that "what could be and what can not be" in natural language, i.e. Learning language variatives. For linguistic typology, the preparation of complete modern scientific descriptions of all existing languages \u200b\u200bof the world is of great importance - the task that is currently very far from the final decision. The solution is also hampered by the fact that the number of living languages \u200b\u200bin the world is rapidly reduced: now there is a constant decrease in the number of carriers of small languages \u200b\u200bin favor of large and so-called "world" languages, which speaks the vast majority of the population of the Earth, to world languages The number of carriers is more than 100 million. It is customary to attribute, first of all, Chinese, English and Spanish, as well as Arabic, Hindi, Portuguese, Bengal, Russian and Japanese. It is known that large languages \u200b\u200bwhose supports are more than 1 million, there are about 350 in the world - it is only 5% of the languages \u200b\u200bof the world, but 94% of the world's population speaks in these languages. Accordingly, the remaining 6% of humanity speaks 95% of existing languages \u200b\u200b(many of them have only a few hundred and even several dozen carriers).
Reducing linguistic diversity has objective socio-economic reasons related to globalization processes in the modern world, rapid technical progress and the growing need for international communication; Evaluate this process as an unambiguous evil or unambiguous blessing is difficult. However, from the point of view of humanitarian knowledge (not only linguistics, but also ethnography, history, cultural studies, etc. Sciences) a sharp reduction in the number of live languages \u200b\u200bthroughout the life of the last five generations of people is definitely a negative process. Since each language as a system of expression is unique and unique, with the disappearance of each language, some significant part of the world's information is lost, about the past and this mankind. The preservation of the Language manifold of the Earth (as far as possible) and as a complete fixation of still existing languages \u200b\u200bis one of the most important generalizations of modern linguistics; This task is as important as, for example, the task of salvation of disappearing species of animals and plants. The preservation of the language diversity of the world, of course, is beyond the framework of one private science, but modern mass consciousness seems to have not yet fully learned the importance and globality of this problem.
Language structure
With regard to the structure of the Languages \u200b\u200bof the world, as already mentioned, have a lot in common. First of all, this concerns the principles of organizing language rules and principles of text construction. Any text in any natural language has a complex structure: it is non-elements in the sense, which consists of repetitive elements; These elements themselves may, in turn, consist of other, simpler elements, etc. The number of texts on any live language can be greatly great: the language allows you to express and inform the interlocutor of any meaning - and a multiple times reproducible in human communication, and absolutely new. The number of structural elements from which texts consist of, of course, but at the same time, the number of complex elements in tens and hundreds of times more than the number of the simplest elements. The ability to highlight the classes of repeating units in the text, which, in turn, consist of other, simpler units, is called the main constructive principle of the language, and the combination of such units of the same degree is traditionally called level Language. The level structure is characteristic of all natural languages \u200b\u200band allows you to describe their properties with the help of so-called level models underlying all modern grammatical descriptions.
Usually the following levels are distinguished: the level of texts (or discursive (cm. DISCURSIVE)), level of proposals and phrases (or syntactic (cm. SYNTAX)), levels of words and their significant parts morpheme (or morphological (cm. Morphology (in linguistics))), sound level (or phonological (cm. PHONOLOGY)). Such languages \u200b\u200bare also possible in which the number of levels is greater or less compared to the list of the list. The most universal character has "extreme" levels of the model, i.e. Phonological and discursive. In any language there are texts - and in any language there are elementary constructive units - sounds, differences between which are significant, i.e. the replacement of one sound to another affects the meaning of the language unit. Such sounds are called phonemes (cm. PHONEME). For example, Russian deaf and ringing consonants are different phonemes, since, for example, type units fence and z.butpore are different Russian words. The phonemes distinguish significant units of the language, but they themselves do not possess; The phoneme is the minimum senseless unit of the language. Such units in the natural language on average are only a few dozen (the most poor people are some languages \u200b\u200bof Oceania, in which there are only about 20 different sounds; the richests are some languages \u200b\u200bof South Africa, the Caucasus and North America, in which the number of the background can exceed 100).
The minimum language unit with an independent value (or the "minimum meaning unit") is customary called morph (cm. MORPHEME). So, Russian verb form perpela It consists of 6 phonemes transmitted in this case with 6 letters of the Russian alphabet, and 4 morpheme: consoles per- with the value of the beginning of action, root - pe-, suffix of the past time - l- and suffix (or, in traditional terminology, "endings"). Numbers. kind - but.
In languages \u200b\u200bsuch as Russian Morphem, are combined into words (or, more precisely, word form (cm. Formation)) And in some sense do not exist outside words. Wordformes are hard complexes of morpheme, in general, not allowing the branch of the morpheme by another word nor the transfer of the word in the word; In addition, it is the word formal (and not separate morphemes) that are involved in the formation of the structure of the next level, syntactic: supply and phrases in the languages \u200b\u200bof the Russian type are built precisely from the word forms, and not from individual morpheme. However, not in all languages \u200b\u200bthe case is exactly the way: in many languages \u200b\u200bof Southeast Asia, West Africa and other areas, objects like Russian words are practically absent. In such languages \u200b\u200b(they are often called insulating (cm. Insulating languages)) Almost every morphem can behave as a word (or, if you like, almost every word consists of only one morpheme).
Languages \u200b\u200bwith well-allocated flowforms (such as Russian) have another important feature. Morphemes in the composition of word forms are inhomogeneous in their meaning and in their properties. Extensive class stands out root Morpham (in each word there is at least one root) and a relatively few class of affix (cm. AFFIX) Morpham (modifying the value of the root), which can in the word and absent. On the other hand, morphemes are divided into grammatical and negramatical: Grammatical morphemes express enough abstract values \u200b\u200bfrom some small class ("Categories"), such that the expression of a single element of each category is necessary. Thus, the Russian verb in personal form requires a compulsory expression of the category of time, in the form of the past time - the mandatory expression of the genus and the number of subjects to be (and in English last time neither the genus, nor - in most cases - the number of subjects to be grammatical means is not expressed). The set and methods of expressing grammatical values \u200b\u200bare one of the most important parameters of the originality of each natural language. At the same time, the very existence of grammatical indicators is not universal - in the insulating languages \u200b\u200bof the "real" grammatical categories practically no.
In synthetic languages (cm. Synthetic languages) grammatical indicators are expressed in the main affixes, in analytical (cm. Analytical languages) - mostly service words (both in English, French, many languages \u200b\u200bof Oceania, etc.). Thus, both analytical, and insulating languages \u200b\u200bhave - by virtue of various reasons - a reduced morphological level, but strongly loaded syntactic: for grammatical models of these languages, the syntax rules are more important.
A complete description of any language includes, however, two components: grammar (cm. GRAMMAR)which takes into account the general rules for building units of all levels, and the dictionary, (cm. VOCABULARY) in which the individual properties of words are described - their lexical importance and individual characteristics of behavior in the text in combination with other words. All this gigantic information is stored in the consciousness of the native speakers and is used to build and understand texts.
Change language in time and genetic kinship of languages

In addition to the level organization and linearity, the natural language has another fundamental property: it is continuously changing over time. Every person's speech throughout his life remains unchanged, but the main changes occur when transferring a language from children to parents, during which the language system can be assisted with distortions. All such changes, however, are gradual and become visible at large time intervals. It should usually pass at least 200-400 years, so that changes in the pronunciation of sounds, the value of individual words and the use of grammatical forms began to accumulate and made the language of the ancestors in part or completely incomprehensible descendants. Of course, some events in the history of the people can accelerate the changes in the language (usually wars, conquest, a powerful influx of innerial elements and other external influences in the language), and can and slow down this process (for example, ethnic isolation and lack of external contacts); But in any case, it is impossible to completely stop changing the language
The tendency of the language to change in time has far-reaching consequences. First, it prevents the maintenance of cultural continuity: in fact, with time, the texts recorded in any language cease to be clear descendants. On the other hand, it is the threat of the loss of important (often sacred) texts in ancient languages \u200b\u200bstood at the origins of the earliest linguistic knowledge: to preserve the meaning and the sound of ancient texts was possible only by conscious study of the properties of the human language; Thus, linguistic traditions arose in ancient India, in ancient Greece, in the Arab world and in other regions.
Secondly, the variability of the language underlies families and groups of related languages. If different parts of the once of the unified people lose contact between themselves, the changes in the languages \u200b\u200bof each group are in different directions. As a result, a single language disintegrates in a few centuries first to close dialects, and then - farther and further divergent independent languages, up to a complete loss of any kind of similarity. Languages \u200b\u200barising from the overall ancestor by such a gradual discrepancies are called related, and unification of related languages \u200b\u200b- a group and family (cm. Family of languages) (The term "family" suggests a deeper relationship and a more distant moment of collapse of the seven-descendants in the family). So, after the collapse of a single Latin language in Europe, individual languages \u200b\u200bof the Romanesque group were formed (cm. Romanesque languages) - Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French, Romanian and a number of others. This process is examined in detail by numerous historical documents and written monuments.
The problem of kinship of languages \u200b\u200bacquires special complexity, however, in those cases (and most of them), when the history of the peoples studied to us exactly unknown. In linguistics there are strict methods for determining kinship of languages \u200b\u200b(open and developed mainly for another 19 century, in the framework of the so-called comparative historical linguistics. (cm. Comparative historical linguistics)); They are based on the fact that the similarities between the phonetic appearance of words with a close value in related languages \u200b\u200bare not accidental, but are based on regular correspondences. To determine language kinship, it should be used, of course, not by any words, but the most original; An even more reliable is the comparison of grammatical indicators - this allows almost completely eliminating the likelihood of borrowing. Traditional methods of comparative historical linguistics make it possible to detect the relationship of languages \u200b\u200bwith a depth of several thousand years; Such is the date of discrepancies of the most reliably established families of modern languages \u200b\u200b- Indo-European, Ural, Austronesian, Afrazian, Carvetle, Dravidian, etc. Currently, specialists are actively developing penetration methods into a deeper past; In a remote run, these methods may be able to allow a new one to take a fresh look at the problem of the origin of the human language, which currently has no solution in science.
V.A. Plunong

Federal Agency for Education

State educational institution
Higher professional education

Vladimir State University

Department "Philosophy and Religion"

By discipline: "Logic"

Topic: "Natural language and artificial languages"

Performed:

student c. 3UW-110

Usov O.I.

Checked:

Zubkov S.A.

Vladimir, 2011.

1. Introduction ....................................................................................... ..3

2. Home Part

2.1 Natural languages \u200b\u200b........................................................................ 4

2.2 Artificial languages \u200b\u200b......................................................................7

3. Conclusion ................................................................................................. 14

4. List of references used ...................................................... 15

1. Introduction

Any thought in the form of concepts, judgments or conclusions with the need is checked into the material and linguistic shell and does not exist outside the language. Identify and explore logical structures can only be analyzing the language expressions.

The language is a sign system that performs the function of forming, storing and transmitting information in the process of cognitive reality and communication between people.

Language is a necessary condition for the existence of abstract thinking. Therefore, thinking is a distinctive feature of a person.

The initial constructive component of the language is the signs used in it. The sign is any sensually perceived (visually, on the ear or in other way) the subject acting by the representative of another subject and the carrier of information about the latter (signs images: copies of documents, fingerprints, photographs; signs symbols: music signs, signs of Morse, Letters in the alphabet).

According to its origin, languages \u200b\u200bare natural and artificial. Kirillov V.I., Starchenko A.A. Logics. M., 1995. P. 10-11.

2. Home Part

2.1 Natural languages

Natural languages \u200b\u200bare the sound (speech) historically in society, and then graphic (letter) information iconic systems. They arose to consolidate and transmit the accumulated information in the process of communicating between people. Natural languages \u200b\u200bare speakers of centuries-old culture and are inseparable from the history of the people who own them.

Casual reasoning is usually conducted in a natural language. But such a language developed in the interests of ease of communication, exchange of thoughts to the detriment of accuracy and clarity. Natural languages \u200b\u200bhave rich expressive capabilities: with their help you can express any knowledge (both ordinary and scientific), emotions, feelings. Ruzavin G.I. Logic and argument. M., 1997. P. 111, 171.

Natural language performs two main functions - representative and communicative. The representative function lies in the fact that the language is a means of symbolic expression or presentation of abstract content (knowledge, concepts, thoughts, etc.), affordable by thinking by specific intellectual entities. Communicative function is expressed in the fact that the language is a means of transmitting or message this abstract content from one intelligent subject to another. In itself, letters, words, suggestions (or other characters, for example, hieroglyphs) and their aggregate form a material basis, in which the material superstructure is implemented - a set of rules for building letters, words, proposals and other language symbols, and only with the appropriate superstructure that Or another material basis forms a specific natural language. Petrov V.V., Pereverzev V.N. Processing language and logic of predicates. Novosibirsk, 1993. p.14.

Based on the semantic status of a natural language, the following can be noted:

1. Since the language is a combination of certain rules implemented on certain symbols, it is clear that there is not one language, but many natural languages. The material basis of any natural language is multidimensional, i.e. It is divided into verbal, visual, tactile and other varieties of characters. In principle, all these varieties are independent of each other, but in most actually existing languages \u200b\u200bthey are closely related to each other, and the verbal symbols are the dominant. Typically, the material basis of the natural language is investigated only in its two dimensions - verbal and visual (writing). At the same time, visual symbols are considered as a certain equivalent of the corresponding verbal symbols (the exception is only languages \u200b\u200bwith hieroglyphic writing). From this point of view, it is permissible to talk about the same natural language that has various varieties of visual symbols (for example, about Moldovan language with writing both on the basis of Cyrillic and on the basis of Latin).

2. By virtue of the differences in the basis and add-in, every specific natural language represents the same abstract content unique, insensitive. On the other hand, in any particular language, such an abstract content is also present, which is not represented in other languages \u200b\u200b(in a particular period of their development). However, this does not mean that each specific language has its own, special scope of abstract content and that this sphere is part of the language itself. For example, the "table", "table" represent the same abstract content, but this content itself (that is, the concept of the table) does not apply to any Russian or English. The sphere of abstract content is one and universal for any natural languages. That is why it is possible to transfer from one natural language to any other natural language, despite the fact that all languages \u200b\u200bhave different expressive opportunities and are at different stages of their development. For logic, natural languages \u200b\u200bare of interest not by themselves, but only as a means of representation united for all languages \u200b\u200bof the sphere of abstract content, as a means that allows "to see" this content and its structure. Those. The object of logical analysis is the abstract content itself as such, while natural languages \u200b\u200bare only a necessary condition for such an analysis.

The sphere of abstract content is a structured area of \u200b\u200bclearly distinguishable objects of special kind. These objects form a certain rigid universal abstract structure. Natural languages \u200b\u200brepresent not only those or other elements of this structure, but also certain holistic fragments of it. Any natural language to some extent really reflects the structure of objective reality. But this mapping is superficial, inaccurate and controversial. Natural language is formed in the process of spontaneous social experience. His superstructure complies with the requirements not a purely theoretical, but the practical (mostly ordinary) human activity and therefore is a conglomerate of limited and often contradictory rules (including the well-known rule "no rules without exception").

But whatever perfect was the superstructure of Russian English or German, it does not ensure knowledge of how to broadcast a natural language in a language, for example, machine teams. Therefore, there is a need to create artificial languages.

2.2 Artificial languages

Artificial languages \u200b\u200bare auxiliary iconic systems created on the basis of natural languages \u200b\u200bfor accurate and economical transmission of scientific and other information. They are designed using a natural language or a previously constructed artificial language. The language that acts as a means of building or studying another language is called the metalanas, the basis of the language-object. The metalanak, as a rule, has a richer compared to the language-object expressive opportunities. Kirillov V.I., Starchenko A.A. Logics. M., 1995.

Any artificial language has three levels of organization:

· Syntax - the level of the structure of the language where relations are formed and examined between signs, methods of education and the transformation of iconic systems;

· Sinematics, where the relationship of the sign is being investigated to its meaning (the value under which it is understood by either the thought, expressed by the sign, or an object indicated by him);

· Pragmatatic, where there are ways to use signs in this community using artificial language.

The construction of an artificial language begins with the introduction of the alphabet, i.e. The set of characters with which the object of this science is indicated, and the rules for building the formulas of this language. Part of the correctly built formulas is taken for axioms. Thus, all knowledge, decorated with the help of an artificial language, acquires an axiomatized form, and with her evidence and reliability. Dmitrievskaya I.V. Logics. M., 2006. P. 20

A characteristic feature of artificial languages \u200b\u200bis the unambiguous certainty of their dictionary, the rules for the formation of expressions and imparting values. In many cases, this feature turns out to be the advantage of such languages \u200b\u200bin comparison with natural languages, amorphous from both the dictionary and the rules of education and importance. Ivin A.A. Logics. M., 1996. P. 17.

Artificial languages \u200b\u200bof varying degrees of rigor are widely used in modern science and technology: chemistry, mathematics, theoretical physics, computing, cybernetics, communication, stenograph.

For example, mathematics from the very beginning were striving to formulate evidence and theorems on a clear dialect of a natural language. Although the vocabulary of this dialect is constantly expanding, the main forms of proposals, ligaments, unions remain practically the same as they have been developed in antique times. For a long time it was believed that the "mathematical dialect" consists of strictly formulated proposals. But already in the Middle Ages, the development of algebra led to the fact that the formulations of the theorems often became more and more inconvenient. Accordingly, the calculations became increasingly difficult. Even in order to simply understand the phrase: "The square of the first, folded with the square of the second and with a double product of the first to the second, is the square of the first folded with the second," a significant effort is required. Mathematical severity and convenience began to contradict each other. Then noticed that this rule of the mathematical language can be reduced to several conditional signs, and now it is written briefly and clearly:

x 2 + 2 xy + y 2 \u003d (x + y) 2

This was the first stage of clarifying the mathematical language: the symbolism of arithmetic expressions, their equalities and inequalities was created. The language of mathematical logic, which became the symbolic language of modern mathematics, originated at the moment when the inconvenience of the mathematical language for the needs of mathematics was finally conscious. The new symbolism clarified the mechanical nature of many transformations, allowed us to give simple algorithms for their implementation. N.N. N. N. Applied logic. Izhevsk, 1997. p.27-29.

The role of the formalization of the natural language in scientific knowledge and in logic in particular:

1. Formalization makes it possible to analyze, clarify, determine and explain the concepts. Many concepts are not suitable for scientific knowledge due to their uncertainty, ambiguity and inaccuracies. For example, the concepts of continuity of the function, a geometric shape in mathematics, simultaneity of events in physics, heredity in biology differ significantly from those ideas that they have in everyday consciousness. In addition, some initial concepts are denoted in science. The same words that are used in the spoken language to express completely other things and processes. Such concepts of physics, as power, work, energy, reflect well-defined and accurately indicated processes: for example, the force is considered in physics as a reason for changing the speed of a moving body. In conversational speech, this concept attaches a wider, but an indefinite meaning, as a result of which the physical concept of force is not applicable to the characteristic, for example, a person.

2. Formalization acquires a special role in the analysis of evidence. Presentation of evidence in the form of a sequence of formulas obtained from the initial using the exactly indicated transformation rules gives it the necessary severity and accuracy. What important is the rigor of evidence is evidenced by the history of attempts to proof axioms about parallel in geometry, when instead of such evidence, the axiom itself was replaced by an equivalent statement. It was the failure of such attempts forced N.I. Lobachevsky recognize this proof impossible.

3. Formalization based on the construction of artificial logical languages \u200b\u200bserves as a theoretical foundation for the processes of algorithmization and programming of computing devices, and thereby computerization is not only scientific and technical, but also of another knowledge. Ruzavin G.I. Logic and argument. M., 1997. p.36-38.

The artificial language generally accepted in modern logic is the language of predicate logic. The main semantic categories of the language are: names of objects, sign names, suggestions.

Object names are separate phrases denoting objects. Each name has a double value - substantive and semantic. The name value is a lot of items to which the name refers (Denotat). The semantic value is the inherent properties of items with which many objects (concept) are distinguished.

The names of the signs are the qualities, signs or relationship of objects. Usually it is a fant, for example, "be red", "jump", "love", etc.

Suggestions are a language expressions in which something is approved or denied. According to its logical meaning, they express the truth or lie.

The logical language also has its own alphabet, which includes a certain set of signs (symbols), logical ligaments. Using a logical language, a formalized logical system is constructed, called predicate calculus. Kirillov V.I., Starchenko A.A. Logics. M., 1995. P. 11-13

Artificial languages \u200b\u200bare also successfully used by logic for accurate theoretical and practical analysis of mental structures.

One of these languages \u200b\u200bis the language of the logic of statements. It is used in a logical system called the calculus of statements, which analyzes the reasoning, based on the trendy characteristics of logical ligaments and distracted from the internal structure of judgments. The principles of building this language will be set forth in the chapter on deductive conclusions.

The second language is the language of predicate logic. It is used in a logical system called predicate calculus, which, when analyzing reasoning, takes into account not only the truth characteristics of logical ligaments, but also the internal structure of judgments. Consider the composition and structure of this language, the individual elements of which will be used in the process of meaningful course.

Designed for a logical analysis of reasoning, the language of the logic of predicates structurally reflects and accurately follows the semantic characteristics of the natural language. The main sense (semantic) category of the predicate logic language is the concept of the name.

The name is a certain meaning of a language expression in the form of a separate word or phrase, denoting or node any out-language object. The name as the language category thus has two mandatory characteristics or values: the subject value and the semantic value.

The subject value (denotate) of the name is one or a lot of any objects that are designated by this name. For example, the Denotat named "House" in Russian will be all the variety of structures that are designated by this name: wooden, brick, stone; single-storey and multi-storey, etc.

The semantic meaning (meaning, or concept) of the name is information about items, i.e. Inherent properties, with which many items are distinguished. In the example above, the word "house" will be the following characteristics of any home: 1) This construction (building), 2) is built by a person, 3) is intended for housing.

The relationship between the name, meaning and denothe (object) can be represented by the following semantic scheme:

This means that the name denotes, i.e. Indicates objects only through sense, and not directly. Language expression that does not make sense cannot be named because it is not meaningful, and therefore not defined, i.e. Does not have denotat.

Types of the language names of predicates defined by the specifics of naming objects and representing its main semantic categories, these are names: 1) objects, 2) signs and 3) proposals.

The names of items indicate single objects, phenomena, events go their sets. The object of research in this case can be both material (aircraft, zipper, pine) and ideal (will, legal capacity, dream) objects.

The composition differences the names are simple, which do not include other names (state), and complex, including other names (Earth satellite). On denotat, names are single and general. A single name indicates one object and is represented in the language language with its own (Aristotle) \u200b\u200bor is descriptively (the largest river in Europe). The total name denotes a set consisting of more than one object; In the language it is presented by a nominal name (law) or is descriptively (large wooden house).

The names of signs - qualities, properties or relationships are called predicators. In the proposal, they usually fulfill the role of a tame (for example, "to be blue", "run", "give", "love", etc.). The number of names names to which the predicator belongs is called its locality. Predicators expressing properties inherent in individual subjects are called single (for example, "blue sky"). Predicators expressing relations between two or more objects are called multi-site. For example, the predicator "Love" refers to a double ("Maria loves Peter"), and the predicator "give" - \u200b\u200bto a triple ("Father gives the book to Son").

Offers are names for language expressions in which something is approved or denied. According to its logical meaning, they express the truth or lie.

The alphabet of the predicate logic language includes the following types of signs (characters):

1) A, B, C, ... - Symbols for single (own or descriptive) names; They are called subject constant, or constants;

2) x, y, z, ... - symbols of general names of objects that make values \u200b\u200bin one or another region; They are called subject variables;

3) P1, Q1, R1, ... - Symbols for predicates, indexes over which express their locality; They are called predicate variables;

4) p, q, r, ... - symbols for statements that are called utteral, or propositional variables (from Latin Ropositio - "statement");

5) - symbols for the quantitative characteristics of statements; They are called quantifiers: - quantifier community; It symbolizes expressions - everything, everyone, every, always, etc.; - Quantitor existence; It symbolizes expressions - some, sometimes, it happens, it appears, exists, and the like;

6) Logic ligaments:

Conjunction (Union "and");

Disjunction (Union "or");

Implication (Union "If ..., then ...");

Equivalence, or double implication (Union "If and only if ..., then ...");

┐ - denial ("incorrectly, that ...").

Technical signs of the language: (,) - left and right brackets.

This alphabet does not include other characters. Permissible, i.e. Having meaning in the language of logic predicates of expression are called properly constructed formulas -PPF. The concept of PPF is introduced by the following definitions:

1. Any propositional variable - P, Q, R, ... there is PPF.

2. Any predicate variable taken with a sequence of subject variables or constants, the number of which corresponds to its locality is PPF: A1 (x), A2 (x, y), A3 (x, y, z), and "(x, y , ..., n), where A1, A2, A3, ..., Ан - Signs of the metalanas for predicators.

3. For all formulas with subject variables, in which any of the variables are associated with a quantitor, the expressions of Ha (x) and ha (x) will also be PPF.

4. If A and B - formulas (A and B - the signs of the methanewoman to express the schemes of formulas), then the expressions:

also are formulas.

5. Any other expressions, in addition to those provided in paragraph 1-4,

there are not the PPF of this language.

3. Translation

The language, as is known, is a means of communication, communication between people, with the help of which they exchange each other with different thoughts, information. The idea finds its expression in the language, without such an expression of the thought of one person, they are inaccessible to another. With the help of the language, there are knowledge of various objects. The success of knowledge depends on the proper use of natural and artificial languages. The first stages of knowledge associated with the use of a natural language. A gradual deepening in the essence of the object requires more accurate research systems. This leads to the creation of artificial languages. The greater accuracy is knowledge, the more realistic is the possibility of its practical use. Thus, the problem of developing artificial languages \u200b\u200bof science is not a purely theoretical, it has a certain practical content. At the same time, the dominate of the natural language in knowledge is indisputable. No matter how developed, abstract and formalized a specific artificial language, it has its source a certain natural language and develops according to the unified natural laws of the language. Dmitrievskaya I.V. Logics. 2006.

4. List of used literature

1. Ivin A.A. Logics. - M.: Enlightenment, 1996. - 206 p.

2. N. N. N. N. N. Applied logic. - Izhevsk: Publishing House Udmurt. University, 1997. - 384 p.

3. Dmitrievskaya I.V. Logics. - M.: Flint, 2006. - 383 p.

4. Petrov V.V., Pereverzev V.N. Processing language and logic of predicates. - Novosibirsk: Publishing House of Novosibir. University, 1993. - 156 p.

5. Ruzavin G.I. Logic and argument. - M.: Culture and Sport, Uniti, 1997. - 351 p.

6. Kirillov V.I., Starchenko A.A. Logics. - M.: Lawyer, 1995. - 256 p.

Ruzavin G.I. Logic and argument. - M.: Culture and Sport, Uniti, 1997. - 351 p.

Petrov V.V., Pereverzev V.N. Processing language and logic of predicates. - Novosibirsk Publishing House of Novosibir. University, 1993. - 156 p.

Petrov V.V., Pereverzev V.N. Processing language and logic of predicates. - Novosibirsk: Publishing House of Novosibir. University, 1993. - 156 p.

Natural languages \u200b\u200bare languages \u200b\u200bon people, such as English, Spanish, and French. They were not designed by people (although people try to impose some rules for them); They developed naturally.

Formal languages \u200b\u200bare languages \u200b\u200bthat are developed by people for specific applications. For example, the notation that mathematics is used as a formal language, which is especially good to designate relations between numbers and symbols. Chemists use a formal language to represent the chemical structure of molecules. And the most important:

Programming languages \u200b\u200bare formal languages \u200b\u200bthat have been developed for settlement expressions.

Formal languages, as a rule, have strict syntax rules. For example, 3 + 3 \u003d 6 is a syntactically correct mathematical statement, but 3 \u003d + $ 6 - no. H2O is a syntactically correct chemical name, but 2zz is not.

The syntax rules are two types: relating to lexems and structure. The lexemes are the main elements of the language, such as words, numbers and chemical elements. One of the problems, from 3 \u003d + $ 6 is that $ is not a legal lexery in mathematics (at least as much as we know). Similarly, 2zz is not legal, because there is not a single element with the Abbreviation ZZ.

The second type of syntax error refers to the structure of the operator, which is arranged like a lexeme. Approval 3 \u003d + $ 6 is structurally incorrect because you can't put a plus sign immediately after the equality sign. Similarly, molecular formulas must have lower indexes after the name of the element, and not earlier.

As an exercise, create what looks like a well-structured English proposal with unrecognizable lexemes in it. Then write another sentence with all the current lexems, but with an unacceptable structure.

When you read the proposal in English or the operator in the formal language, you must find out what the sentence structure is present (although in the natural language you do it subconsciously). This process is called syntactic analysis.

For example, when you hear the phrase "the second boot fell", you understand that the "second boot" is the subject, and "fell" - predicate. After you have disassemble the offer, you can figure out its value or its semantics. Assuming that you know what "shoes" is and what it means to fall, you will understand the overall subtext of this offer.

Although formal and natural languages \u200b\u200bhave many features in common lexems, structure, syntax and semantics, there are many differences:

ambiguity - Natural languages \u200b\u200bare full of ambiguity when people communicate with contextual tips and other information. Formal languages \u200b\u200bare designed to be almost or completely unambiguous, which means that any approval has exactly one value, regardless of the context.

redundancy - To compensate for ambiguity and reduce misunderstanding, natural languages \u200b\u200buse a lot of redundancy. As a result, they are often verminated. Formal languages \u200b\u200bare less redundant and more briefs.

literality - Natural languages \u200b\u200bare full of idiom and metaphor. If I say: "The second boot fell" there, probably there is no shoe and there is nothing to fall. Formal languages \u200b\u200bmean exactly what they say.

People who grow, talking in natural language, often have to adapt to formal languages. In a sense, the difference between formal and natural languages \u200b\u200bis similar to the difference between poetry and prose, but to a greater extent:

Poetry

Words are used for their impression, as well as for their meaning, and all the poem together creates an effect or an emotional response. The ambiguity is not only generally accepted, but is often intentional.

Prose

The literal meaning of the word is more important, and the structure contributes to a greater understanding. The prose is more amenable to analysis than poetry, but still often ambiguous.

Programs

The value of the computer program is uniquely and literally, and can be consciously completely through the analysis of the lexeme and structure.

Here are some tips for reading programs (and other formal languages). First, remember that formal languages \u200b\u200bare much more dense than natural languages, so you will need more time to read them. In addition, the structure is very important, so therefore is not a very good idea to read from top to bottom, from left to right. Instead, learn how to analyze the program in your head, identifying the lexemes and interpreting the structure. To top it all, the details matter. Trivia, such as spelling errors and bad punctuation that you can get away from hand in natural languages \u200b\u200bcan be of great importance in the formal language.

First program

Traditionally, the first program that is written in a new language is called "Hello, World!", Because everything that she does is displays the words "Hello, World!". In Python, it looks like this:

print "Hello, WORLD!"

This is an example of a print operator, which actually does not print anything on paper. It displays the value on the screen. In this case, the result is words:

Quotes in the program mark the beginning and end of value; They do not appear as a result.

Some people are judged by the quality of the programming language for the simplicity of the program "Hello, World!". According to this sample, Python does it as much as possible.

Glossary.

Solution to the problem - Problem developing, finding solutions and reflection of the solution.

High-level programming language - Programming language similar to Python, which is conceived to be easy for people to read and write.

Low-level language - programming language that is designed to be natural for computer execution; Also called the "machine language" or the "assembler language".

Portability - Program property that can work on more than one form of computers. Interpretation - executing a program in a high-level language by transferring one of its lines at a time.

Compilation - One-time translation of a program written in a high-level language into a low-level language in the preparation for subsequent execution.

Source - The program in the high-level language before its compilation. Object code - compiler output after he translated the program. The code executed is another name for the "object code", which is ready for execution. The script is a program stored in the file (as a rule that will be interpreted).

Program - A set of instructions that defines the calculations. The algorithm is the overall process of solving class problems.

Bug - Error in the program. Debugging is the process of searching and removing any of the three types of programming errors.

Syntax - program structures. The syntax error is an error in the program that makes the impossible analysis (and, consequently, the impossibility of interpretation).

Error execution - An error that does not occur until the program starts to run, but which prevents the program to be continued.

An exception - Another name of the execution error. Semantic error - a mistake in the program that makes it do something else than what was meant by the programmer.

Semantics - The meaning of the program. Natural language - any of the languages \u200b\u200bin which people say and who have developed naturally.

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abstracton the topic:

"Natural I.artificial languages"

Plan

1. The concept of language

2. Natural language

3. Artificial language

Conclusion

Bibliography

1. The concept of language

Before we proceed to the study of differences between artificial and natural languages, the concept of language should be disassembled.

What is a language? Language is a system of signs that serves as a way to communicate, transmit information and expressing personality. The language of words is a socio-psychological phenomenon that allows us to transmit and store, both information and accumulated by our ancestors. As a result, the language of people is needed and historically determined. The language is the so-called system of codes, signs. The sign is nothing but any perceived sensitly object that serves as a representative of another subject and a carrier of information about this subject (signs images: photos, copies of various documents, fingerprints; characters signs - for example, alphabetic letters, musical notes, Morse signs).

Society of people is unthinkable without signs. Any thought can be transferred from one person to the perception of the other, with sound signs. The very concept, thought arises in the man's head before the sound complex comes, otherwise the words. When we try to choose a sound complex for some concept, the very concept itself is already in our head. In order for the language to appear, a person must first form a sound complex, and then compare it with the world around us, establish a sign correlation.

2. Natural language

"Natural" and "artificial" is dividing languages \u200b\u200bby origin.

Natural language- in linguistics and language philosophy The language used to communicate people and not created artificially (unlike artificial languages)

Natural Language Functions:

· Communicative:

Stateing (for a neutral fact of fact)

Question (for a request for fact)

Appeal (for encouraging to action),

Expressive (to express the mood and emotions of the speaker),

Contactor (to create and maintain contact between interlocutors);

· Meta-language (for interpretation of linguistic facts);

· Aesthetic (for aesthetic impact);

· The function of the indicator of the belonging to a specific group of people (nation, nationality, profession);

· Information;

· Cognitive;

· Emotional.

Properties of the natural language:

· Unlimited semantic power - the fundamental infinity of the naetical field of the language, the ability to transfer information relative to any area of \u200b\u200bobserved or imaginary facts;

· Evolutionaryness - unlimited ability to infinite development and modifications;

· Manifestability in speech - manifestation of a language in the form of speech, understood as a specific speech that occurs in time and clothed in a sound or writing;

· Ethnicity is an integral and bilateral connection of the language with an ethnicity.

The essential property of the language is its duality, finding its expression in the existence of the following language antinomies:

· Antinomy of objective and subjective in the language;

· Antinomy of language as activity and as a product of activity;

· Antinomy of stability and variability in the language;

· Antinomy of the ideal and tangible nature of the language;

· Antinomy of the ontological and gnoseological nature of the language;

· Antinomy of the continual and discrete nature of the language;

· Antinomy of language as the phenomena of nature and artifact;

· Antinomy of individual and collective in the language.

Human everyday reasoning is conducted in the natural language. This language has developed to simplify the communication process, exchange of thoughts at a loss of clarity and accuracy. Natural languages \u200b\u200bhave enormous expression capabilities - you can express any feelings, experiences, knowledge, emotions.

Natural language executes the main functions - representative and communicative. Representative function is output from the fact that language is a means of expression using symbols or an abstract character representation, (for example: knowledge, concepts, thoughts) affordable due to the thinking of specific intellectual entities. The communicative function is manifested in the fact that the language is the possibility of transmitting an abstract character from one intelligent person to another. Symbols, letters, words, suggestions are based on material basis. It realizes the material superstructure of the language, that is, this is the commonality of the rules for building words, letters and other language symbols, and only with this superstructure of one or another material basis forms a specific natural language.

Based on the semantic status of the natural language, we note the following:

Based on the fact that the language is a set of rules, therefore, there is a huge number of natural languages. The material basis of any language, natural origin is multidimensional, this means that it is divided into visual, verbal, tactile varieties of signs. All these types do not depend on each other, but in a large number of existing languages \u200b\u200btoday, they are inextricably linked, and the main - verbal symbols.

The material basis of the language, natural origin, is studied only in two dimensions - verbal and visual, otherwise the letter.

By virtue of the distinces in the superstructure and base, a separate natural language, shows the same abstract content in unique, unique. On the other hand, in any separate language, such an abstract content is shown, which is not shown in other languages. However, this does not mean that each separate language has its own special scope of abstract content. For example, the "man", "MAN" explains to us one abstract content, but the content itself does not apply not to English not to the Russian language. The sphere of abstract content is the same for different natural languages. That is why the translation from one to another natural language is possible.

The object of logical analysis of the language is an abstract content, while natural languages \u200b\u200bare only a necessary condition for such an analysis.

The sphere of abstract content is the structural area of \u200b\u200bvarious objects. Objects base some unique abstract structure. Natural languages \u200b\u200bshow the elements of this structure, as well as some fragments. Any natural language in a sense reflects the structure of objective reality. However, this description shows a superficial and controversial nature.

During the formation, the natural language varied is due to the interaction of cultures of different peoples and technical progress. As a result, some words lose their meanings over time, while others opposite acquire new ones.

For example, the word "satellite" - only one value was used before (fellow traveler, comrade on the way.), And today it has one more - a space satellite.

Natural language lives its own life. It contains a lot of features and nuances that prevents the senses in words. It does not help this and the presence of a huge amount of hyperball, figurative expressions, archaism, idiom, metaphor. In addition, the natural language is full of exclamations, interjections, the meaning of which is difficult to convey.

3. Artificial languages

Artificial languages \u200b\u200bare special languages \u200b\u200bthat, unlike natural, are designed targeted. They can be designed with the help of a natural language or previously constructed artificial language. The language that acts as a means of building or studying another language is called the metalanas, the basis of the language-object. The metalanak, as a rule, has a richer compared to the language-object expressive opportunities.

Distinguish the following types of artificial languages:

· Programming languages \u200b\u200band computer languages \u200b\u200b- languages \u200b\u200bfor automatic information processing using computers.

· Information languages \u200b\u200b- languages \u200b\u200bused in various information processing systems.

· Formalized science languages \u200b\u200bare languages \u200b\u200bintended for the symbolic record of scientific facts and theories of mathematics, logic, chemistry and other sciences.

· Languages \u200b\u200bof non-existent peoples, created in fictional or entertainment purposes, for example: Elfi language, invented, J. Tolkin Klingon, invented by Mark Okrand for a fantastic series "Star Trek", language on "W, created for the film" Avatar ".

· International auxiliary languages \u200b\u200b- languages \u200b\u200bcreated from elements of natural languages \u200b\u200band offered as an auxiliary means of interethnic communication.

Artificial languages \u200b\u200bare most famous:

basic-Inglish, Volapauk, Ido, Interlingua, Latin-Sine-Flexion, Loban, Slubban, on "Vi, Novial, Occidenth, Simony, Solresol, Esperanto, IFKOUIL, Klingon, Elven languages.

Any artificial language has three levels of organization:

· Syntax - the level of the structure of the language where relations are formed and examined between signs, methods of education and the transformation of iconic systems;

· Pragmatatic, where there are ways to use signs in this community using artificial language.

For the purpose of creating artificial languages \u200b\u200bcan be divided into the following groups:

· Philosophical and logical languages \u200b\u200b- languages \u200b\u200bhaving a clear logical structure of word formation and syntax: slubbin, Tokypona, Iphuil, Ilax.

· Auxiliary languages \u200b\u200b- designed for practical communication: esperanto, Interlingua, Word, Slotan.

· Artistic or aesthetic languages \u200b\u200b- are created for creative and aesthetic pleasure: quince.

· Also, the language is created for the experimentation of an experiment, for example, to verify the Supira-Wharf hypothesis (about the fact that the language on which the person speaks is limiting consciousness, drives it into a certain framework).

By its structure, artificial language projects can be divided into the following groups:

· Agricultural languages \u200b\u200b- based on logical or empirical classifications of concepts: logan, Slubban, Ro, Solresol, Iphukil, Ilax.

· A posteriori languages \u200b\u200b- languages \u200b\u200bbuilt predominantly based on international vocabulary: interlingua, Ocidental.

· Mixed languages \u200b\u200b- words and word formation are partially borrowed from non-artistic languages, partially created on the basis of artificially invented words and word-forming elements: vapauk, Ido, Esperanto, Nao.

Consider the main stages of the construction of the artificial language on the example of creating a scientific language. Creating an artificial language begins with the construction of the alphabet, i.e. The set of characters with which the object of this science is indicated, and the rules for building the formulas of this language. Part of the correctly built formulas is taken for axioms. Thus, all knowledge, decorated with the help of an artificial language, acquires an axiomatized form, and with her evidence and reliability.

"The first square, folded with the square of the second and

with a twin product of the first to second,

there is a square of the first, folded with the second "

a significant effort is required. Mathematical severity and convenience began to contradict each other. Then noticed that this rule of the mathematical language can be reduced to several conditional signs, and now it is written briefly and clearly:

x 2 + 2 xy + y 2 \u003d (x + y) 2

The role of the formalization of the natural language in scientific knowledge and in logic in particular:

Artificial languages \u200b\u200bare also used by legal and logical science for theoretical or practical analysis of mental structures.

The artificial language generally accepted in modern logic is the language of predicate logic. The main semantic categories of the language are: names of objects, sign names, suggestions.

The names of the signs are the qualities, signs or relationship of objects. Usually it is a fant, for example, "be red", "jump", "love", etc. The proposal is the expressions of a language in which something is approved or denied. According to its logical meaning, they express the truth or lie. The logical language also has its own alphabet, which includes a certain set of signs (symbols), logical ligaments. Using a logical language, a formalized logical system is constructed, called predicate calculus.

Conclusion

language Syntax Logic Pragmatics

For me, as for a student, the main source of knowledge of knowledge from more experienced members of society is language. The success of knowledge during training depends on the proper use of natural and artificial languages. The first steps of knowledge are associated with natural language. A gradual study requires a more accurate study. This is what leads to the creation of artificial languages. The greater accuracy is our knowledge, the more realize the possibility of applying in practice. Consequently, the problem of developing artificial languages \u200b\u200bof science is not only theoretical, it has some practical content. And yet, the main role of knowledge is in the natural language. No matter how the abstract artificial language is also developed, it has a kind of natural language.

Listl.iterastructures

Bell E.T. Creators of mathematics. - M.: Enlightenment, 1979.

Bühler K. Language Theory: Representative Language Function. - M.: Progress, 1993.

Dal V.I. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. Modern writing. M.: AST, 2008

Dmitrievskaya I.V. Logics. M.: Flint, 2006.

Ozhegov S.I., Swedov N.Yu. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language: 80,000 words and phraseological expressions / Russian Academy of Sciences. Institute of Russian Language. V.V. Vinogradov. - 4th ed., Augmented. - M.: Azbukovnik, 1999.

Paducheva E.V. Dynamic models in semantics vocabulary. M.: Languages \u200b\u200bof Slavic culture.

Ruzavin G.I. Logic and argument. M.: Uniti., 1997.

Square B. Digital communication. Theoretical foundations and practical application. Per. from English - M.: Publishing House "Williams", 2003.

Schiffman H.R. Feeling and perception - P.: Peter, 2003, p. 128.

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Abstract: Natural language and artificial languages. Natural language

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