The concept of modern Russian literary language. Literary language, dialects and spaciousness.

Literary language- The national language of writing, the language of official and business documents, school learning, written communication, science, journalism, fiction, all manifestations of culture, expressed in verbal form (writing and sometimes oral), perceived by the speakers of this language as exemplary. The literary language is a language of literature in a broad sense. Russian literary language functions both orally and in writing speech.

Signs of literary language:

1) availability of writing;

2) The rationance is a fairly steady way of expression, which expresses historically established patterns of the development of the Russian literary language. The rationance is based on the language system and is fixed in the best samples of literary works. This method of expression prefers the educated part of society;

3) codification, i.e. consolidation in scientific literature; This is expressed in the presence of grammatical dictionaries and other books containing the rules for using the language;

4) a stylistic manifold, i.e., the diversity of the functional styles of the literary language;

5) relative stability;

6) prevalence;

7) general consumption;

8) community;

9) Compliance with the use, customs and capabilities of the language system.

The protection of the literary language and its norms is one of the main tasks of the culture of speech. The literary language unites people in the language plan. The leading role in creating a literary language belongs to the most advanced part of society.

Each of the languages, if it is sufficiently developed, has two main functional varieties: literary language and live speaking speech. Live spoken speech every person sends from early childhood. The development of the literary language occurs throughout the development of a person up to old age.

The literary language should be generally aware, i.e., affordable to the perception of all members of society. The literary language should be developed to such an extent to be able to serve the main areas of activity of people. In speech, it is important to comply with grammatical, lexical, orphoepic and accentological norms of the language. Based on this, an important task of linguists is to consider everything new in the literary language in terms of compliance with the general laws of the development of the language and the optimal conditions for its functioning.

Modern Russian literary language is multi-functional, that is, it performs the function of the household language of competent people, the language of science, journalism, government, the language of culture, literature, education, media, etc.

However, in certain situations, the function of the literary language may be limited (for example, it can function mainly in writing speech, and territorial dialects are used).

The literary language is used in various spheres of public and individual human activity. The literary language differs from the language of fiction, but at the same time, as it may be formed. The main sign of the language of fiction is that it performs a greater aesthetic function.

The language of fiction is a special language system forming on the basis of an ethnic language and is its functional species.

One of the most basic properties of the language of fiction is preserving the text and ensuring communication between generations. It is used exclusively in artistic works.

For artistic speech, the use of all linguistic means is characterized. Language funds include not only words, expressions of the literary language, but also elements of the spaciousness, jargon, territorial dialects.

The language of fiction is closely related to the system of artistic works, epithets, metaphors, personification (revitalization of non-living objects) are widely used, etc. Many funds of the literary language acquire a special function: antonyms, synonyms are used for a more colorful description of the heroes, their characters , habits, habits, etc.

The usual concept of language norms is not applicable to the language of artistic literature. In the language of artistic literature, everything is correct, which serves as an accurate expression of the author's thoughts. This is the main difference between the language of fiction from the literary language.

In the language of fiction, there may be literary and non-veteral speech, correct and incorrect words, phrases and suggestions, etc.

Dialects perform function different from the literary language. They have a different scale of action. Territorial dialects are also called local counseling, since each dialect is limited to the distribution location, i.e., language forms are used on a certain territory of the country. This is due to the fact that the language on a certain territorial space is separated.

The peculiarity of the territorial dialect is that it is used only in everyday life, i.e., when communicating between people in areas not related to business, official public communication.

And, in addition to the function of domestic communication, territorial dialects have no other functions in contrast to the literary language, which has many different functions, one of which is to communicate in everyday life.

Any territorial dialect has its own special, characteristic features or, in other words, has its own rules. These characteristic features are expressed by sounding, grammar, vocabulary, word formation, etc. However, these norms cannot be mandatory for all.

This is another feature of the territorial dialect, since the norms of the literary language are commonly suitable for all persons using the language. Therefore, the norms of the territorial dialect may be called norms only conditionally.

The territorial dialects are called certain words, phrases, determining the name of any objects, actions, phenomena, etc. It happens that the same word in different territorial dialects has a different meaning or word, the phrases available in a specific territorial dialect coincide Sound or even writing with the word, phrase of the literary language, however, the importance in the territorial dialect is absolutely different.

You can reveal three main features distinguishing dialects from the literary language:

1) limited use of a territorial dialect on a certain territory;

2) the execution of the territorial dialect of only one function - communication in everyday life;

3) Lack of societies for all users of the language.

The use of certain words and phrases in one way or another, it is considered a national phenomenon. The spacious is used by persons who do not own or have a lesser extent by the norms of the literary language. The spacious does not have such a feature as territorial limitations. The focus does not have strictly defined norms, i.e., the most various forms words and phrases.

2. Culture of speech: the subject and task of the course. Related disciplines. The main components of the culture of speech.

Culture of speech is such a set and such a organization of language funds that

a certain situation of communication subject to modern language standards and

communication ethics allow you to provide the greatest effect in achieving

communicative tasks.

We will try to prove the need for each of the components of this.

definitions. All of them five, including three components of speech culture:

1) regulatory;

2) Communicative;

3) ethical; as well as:

4) the choice and organization of language means as a necessary condition for achieving

regulativity, ethiquids and good communicative properties of speech;

5) Communication efficiency as the ultimate goal of speech culture. Let's start with the latter

components.

Culture speech begins where language provides the ability to choose and

of different organizations your funds for the best achievement

communication goals. The choice and organization of language funds are carried out on

different levels of the language system for all components of the culture of speech. Question

the norm arises when there are two or more applicants for it:

regulatory kilometer or abnormative kilometer, regulatory contract or

less regulatory prosecution, etc.

Ethical component, on the one hand, regulates in different situations

communication choice between, for example, such ritual ways of expression

goodbye, like goodbye, all the best, well, hello, and, on the other

the parties prohibits the swords for expression, for example, emotions. For

achievements of communicative perfection of the text are equally important and the choice, and

organization of language funds both within the offer and within

text. Expressing one thought suggestion of type will begin rain

Mushrooms will go and, subject to high humidity, you can expect active

growth of mushrooms are implemented in texts of different functional varieties.

It is quite clear that systemic phonetic, lexical and grammatical

descriptions of the literary language in general and modern Russian literary

language in particular also fix the literary rate, but unlike

research on the culture of speech in them is recorded and those norms - and their large

a lot - which are not related to the choice. It does not follow from this that

descriptions of the language system do not provide information about the versions on the border

or abroad of the literary language. It is necessary to clearly represent that

culture of speech as a scientific discipline is impossible without support for regulatory

dictionaries and grammar. But, on the other hand, it does not follow from this that

speech culture is not an independent discipline, but "squeezing" from systemic

regulatory descriptions of the language. First, it is a culture of speech knows

the codification of the norm, and therefore the connection of the regulatory system descriptions of the language and

culture speech in its regulatory component is bilateral. And secondly, and this

the main thing, no system description of the language aim to determine

ways to achieve maximum communication efficiency.

The effectiveness of communication is the "final product", the creation of which

must facilitate the theory of speech culture in its practical application. Under

with the effectiveness of communication, we understand the optimal way to achieve

communicative goals set. Communicative communion goals

drawn related to the basic functions of the language. Well known system

language functions developed by P.O. Jacobson. Reference,

emotive, magical, actual, metalinguistic (assessment of language

funds), poetic function. Already this simple list of functions

it shows that the purpose of communication is a complex and multidimensional phenomenon.

The aesthetic function of the language implemented in

language of fiction. Language of fiction

it is impractical to make the object of culture of speech, as this area

art with their specific laws that differ sharply from

the laws of the implementation of other language functions and which therefore studies the special

linguistic discipline. Different goals of communication can be considered as

some speculation of language functions. Such concretization for understanding

language proficiency culture is necessary because to achieve

different purposes Language facilities and their implementation can be quite different.

So, the purpose of establishing contact between the speaking people implies before

total, the very fact of communication, and it is not very important for its achievement, for example,

such necessary for scientific text Quality as consistency

wording.

The effectiveness of communication is responsible primarily for communication

the component of the culture of speech, but this does not mean that the normative and ethical

components are insignificant for communication efficiency. Violation of regulativity

can lead simply to misunderstanding if, for example, instead of regulatory

a specially known dialectic or

jargon word, but more often in this case, efficiency is reduced by other,

rather, pragmatic psychological than the actual linguistic, reason:

abnormative use issues the insufficient education of the speaker and

moves listeners respectfully to apply to what has been said.

seriously suffered from the fact that these deputies found a weak

possession of the norms of the modern Russian literary language. Similar to

it affects the efficiency of communication and violation of ethical

communication norms: unethical appeal to the interlocutor, use so

called obscene vocabulary, etc. can generally interrupt communication

the reason that in everyday life is formulated as follows: "I don't want to do with this Ham

speak".

It would be wrong to think that the fundamentals of the theory of culture developed here

species are created from scratch. All three named speech culture components

one way or another studied, but these studies, as already noted,

conducted apart and for different purposes. Ethical component of culture

speech studied in another area of \u200b\u200blinguistics - in the description of the language for purposes

his teaching as awkward. And this is understandable, since ethics of communication,

ethical bans in different languages \u200b\u200bare different and cannot automatically

postpone from one language to another. In Russian, for example, much

wider than Western European languages, the appeal to "you" is common.

As for the communicative aspect of speech culture, then in general the Russians

traditional ideas on this score were outside linguistics. This

the aspect of communication, as mentioned, was considered in rhetoric. Okay

it is known that rhetoric is one of the conquests of ancient civilization. Antique

rhetoric usually determined as a type of art with a strictly defined goal

Arts convince. The main parts of the ancient rhetoric were: finding

subject, location of material, his verbal expression.

If you stay on an ancient culture of the understanding of rhetoric as

oratory art convincing or later understanding of rhetoric as

art not only oral, but also a written speech with different target

orientation, then for the theory of speech culture, oriented on average

language media, such rhetoric can not automatically enter as

required component In the culture of speech as a scientific discipline. Would

unreal to present the purpose of teaching all the art of the word, such art -

food is a little. But, on the other hand, there is no doubt that achievements

rhetorical studies for speech culture are useful. In particular, good

the theory of culture of speech should not only give the basis for standard

imported, paths to mastering the tongue as art. It should be

mark Other: Often, recently, the rhetoric understands as something

such than in principle everyone can own, and then in the terminological plan

the concepts "rhetorical" or "communicative component of culture of speech"

what is different from each other. We prefer the term "Communicative

the component of the culture of speech "just because we do not want to" compromise "

antique understanding of rhetoric as art.

The task of creating a culture of speech as a special linguistic discipline

requires to combine all three components of speech culture in one, whole

theoretical concept. One of the motives of such an association is already named: all

three components work to achieve one goal - communication efficiency.

There is another motive. What kind of component of the culture of speech is mentioned,

there is always due to the norm, i.e. Selection and legalization of one or more

options as a regulatory. Therefore, undoubtedly, it would be right

call the components of the culture of speech is not just ethical and communicative, but

components of the ethical and communicative norm. And if we do not do this,

this is just because then the name "regulatory norm" would sound ridiculous.

Based on the said, speech culture can be defined as discipline,

studying a literary rate and a codifying this rate that in relation to

the regulatory component is almost always done. It is normativeness

makes it treats a culture of speech as a single discipline, and not

simple conglomerate of different disciplines.

It seems that one of the weakest areas of research on

culture of speech is the lack of a special methodology for such studies,

what, by the way, it prevents many culture of speech to consider scientific

discipline. Perhaps you can call the only study on culture

speech in which based on strict statistical methods is determined

the frequency of variants of different levels of the language system. In other cases

one of the options is codified as the only or preferred either

based on both the clerk of the researcher or on the basis of opinion

Thus, if the culture of speech wants to exist as a special

linguistic discipline requires a single complete consistent

the theory of this discipline with its fairly strict method. Consider

several more in terms of creating such a theory of speech culture components.

The concept of the norm. Variability of the norm. Types of rules. Dynamic nature of the norm. The reasons affecting the change in the norms.

Norm - These are currently existing Language units and regularities of their use for all members of the team in this language team, and these mandatory units may be the only possible, or to perform in the form of options coexisting within the literary language.
The change in the norms is preceded by the appearance of their options, which actually exist in the language at a certain stage of development and are actively used by its carriers. Normal options are reflected in the dictionaries of the modern Russian language.
Three degrees of regulation:
1) strict, rigid, does not allow options
2) neutral, allowing equivalent options
3) more mobile, allows forms of spoken and outdated language
Options (doughs) are varieties of one and the same language units with the same value detected in different language levels. May be equal, i.e. interchangeable in all situations, regardless of speech style, and non-equivance - semantic and regulatory - chronological.
Dynamic and historical variability of the norm.
The norm is one of the conditions of stability, unity and identity of NAC. Language. It is wrong to think that the norm is still, it develops and varies in time, and the degree of mobility of the norm of non-etinakov in different languages.
The norm is the emerging, not always predictable.
In ancient Russian language there were 3 numbers (table, 2 tables, tables). From the 18th century, the form of a dual number is destroyed, but it has been preserved:
1) them. P.N. C. Sushch, denoting pair items (horns, sleeves, eyes, shores, etc.)
2) R.P. units. h. + Nutigative (2,3,4) ending -Apasses: train-trains (in the 19th century tractors; tractor- 1940 Tractors-1963 A \u003d s)
Sources of changes in the norms of the literary language are:
Live spoken
Local counseling
Spacious
Professional jargon
Other languages

The main reasons for speech errors:
1. Neon understanding of the word
2. Lexical combination
3. Eating synonyms
4. Use of Omonymov
5. Use of multivalued words
6. Multicillion
7. Lexical infertion of statements
8. New words
9. Outdated words
10. Words of foreign language origin
11. Dialectims
12. Conversation and spaticrous words
13. Professional Jargonisms
14. Phraseology

4. Effective and accentological norms of the modern Russian language.

Strength standards, or accentological norms are violated especially often. This is due, firstly, the fact that the variability of the norms leads to the inevitable (albeit temporary) coexistence of old and new options, and this generates fluctuations in choosing one of them, secondly, the difficulty of absorbing the emphasis, which in Russian is a distinguished and mobile: passport, arrest, protocol, etc. When the grammatical forms are formed, it often goes from one syllable to another: river - river, head - head, etc.

1. Strengthening the grammatical functions of the emphasis

At the same time, the direction itself in the historical movement of accents can even be the opposite: on the initial syllable (volatile - volatile, Lemeh - Lemeh) - to the final syllable (Guba-Guba, the skiing ski). However, in fact, and in another case, the change in the emphasis was useful, justified. As a result, it arose a clearer opposition of grammatical forms. Wed: The Pivaging Single Lip, LEMERA - a nominative multiple lip, lemheh.

2. An important feature of the injury development is the consolidation of obsoletic or incoming options for sustainable combinations or phraseological circulation. Usually say: hit the forehead, but spend on the forehead; Take sin on the soul, but per capita. The dependence of the emphasis from constructively determined semantic differences is clearly manifested in the use of brief forms of some adjectives: the exploits are great, but the boots (who?) It is great; These people are not thin, but full, but they are full (what?) new ideas.

3. It is known that some words have the choice of stroke depends on the lexical value (the glacier - the "cellar with ice", the glacier - "cluster of ice in the mountains"; book - "to cover armor", book - "Consider anything" and t. P.).

As a result of comparative observations, historically multidirectional stress movement was found:

regressive - move from the last syllable to the beginning or closer to the beginning of the word, progressive - Move strokes from the first syllable to the end or closer to the end of the word.

Research suggests that regressive accentological development is now prevailing in the following groups of accent options: a) in two-, three-sided names of the male genus: Bondar\u003e Bondar, Spext\u003e Spelling, etc.; b) Three-, four-, five-seat verb forms in the past time: IS INSTALLED\u003e ISTELL, Ripped\u003e Ripped, Born\u003e Born, Salzary\u003e Salzary, etc.; c) for the forms of the present time of the verbs: will include\u003e turn on, modified\u003e will be modified, etc.

Progressive accentological development prevails in the following groups of accent options:

a) in derivatives of three-, four-stage adjectives: Tiger\u003e Tiger, Pradedovsky\u003e Pradheddyovsky, factory\u003e factory, etc.;

b) in two, three-sided forms of infinitive: to fish\u003e Fishing, approve\u003e tool, rust\u003e rust, etc.;

c) Some double console verbs in the forms of the past time: dug\u003e dug, poured\u003e poured, etc.;

d) in the case forms of one-, double nouns and brief forms adjectives in multiple number: stem\u003e stem, ground\u003e Gruzny, hill\u003e hill, close\u003e close, right\u003e true, etc.

Naturally, to establish the rate of emphasis, it is not enough to know only the direction of accentological displacements. Trends in the movement of emphasis - this is necessary, but only an approximate reference point. The concept of the same norm of verbal emphasis is individually and is composed of the sum of signs, an important place among which belongs to the selection of a particular word, a public assessment and understanding of this stress against the background of a historical and literary tradition.

Pronunciation of vowel sounds

The main feature of the Russian literary pronunciation in the field of vowels is their different sound in shock and unstressed syllables with the same writing. In unstressed syllables, vowels are subjected to reduction. There are two types of reduction - quantitative (when the longitude and the power of the sound decreases) and the high-quality (when the sound itself changes in an unstressed position). Less reduction exposed vowels in the 1st estate syllable, more - in all other syllables. Vowels [a], [o], [e] are subjected to unstressed syllables of both quantitative and high-quality reduction; The vowels [and], [s], [y] do not change in unstressed syllables of its quality, but partially lose the duration.

1. Publications in the 1st estate syllable:

a) after solid consonants on the site O and A pronounced a weakened sound [a]: in [a] yes, n [a] ha, m [a] sk well, with [a] dy, s [a] boron; After solid hissing w and sh in the place A and o, a weakened sound is also pronounced [a]: F [A] RA, W [A] NGLER, W [A] GI, W [A] FER.

Note 1. After solid hissing g, sh and after c before soft consonants, the sound of the type [s] is pronounced with the ghost [e], denoted conditionally [EE]: F [EE] to fly, to coolant [Е], f [Е] ket, in The forms of the plural number of the word Horse: a horse [OE] dei, a horse [Е] Dyes, etc .. in the forms of indirect cases of numerical on-day: TDDC [ЕE], TDIDZ [Е] TI, etc.; In rare cases, the sound [OE] is pronounced on the spot A in the position before solid consonants: RJ [EE] Noah. Well [Е] Smin.

Note 2. Unstressed [o] pronounced in alliances but and that, and also allowed in some foreign language words, for example: B [O] A, B [O] MOND. rococo. Well [o] Rec.

Note 3. The preservation of the unstressed syllables is a feature of the regional pronunciation, so the pronunciation of the M [] Square, P [O] the coup, p [o] we are going, in [o] Zit. In [О], the prize does not correspond to the norm;

b) after solid hissing f, w and c on site, the reduced sound of the type [s] is pronounced with the pride of [E], denoted conditionally [EE]: F [EE] on, W [OE] Phenition, C [EE] Lui;

c) after the soft consonants on the place of the letters I and E, as well as after soft hissing h and in place A, a weakened sound [and] with the pridebook [E] is pronounced, denoted conditionally [IE]: M [IE] sleep, P [IE ] Turn, M [IE], h [IE] Si [IE] to dity, as well as in the forms of multiple words of the word Square: Blue [IE] dei, bad [IE] Dyes, etc.;

d) In place, I and E at the beginning of the word, the sound [and] with the ghost [E], denoted by [IE], in combination with the preceding [th]: [JIE], [JIE] NTAR, [YIE] Yotar.

Note. Preserving [a] in the unstressed syllable after soft consonants is a feature of the regional pronunciation, so the pronunciation of [B'a] bina, bina, h [a] Sy, [ya] yats, [ya] does not match the norm.

2. Vowels in other unstressed sylavas:

a) in the absolute start of the word on the place of the letters A and about always uttered a weakened sound [a]: [a] RBUZ: [A] CNO, [a] of the rodobil, [a] clamp;

b) After solid consonants in unstressed syllables, except for the 1st estate, in place A and about the pronounced sound, the average for the sound between [A] and [s], a short-term duration, denoted conditionally [ъ]: G [KH] fishing, to [ъ] Randas, app [ъ] to [ъ];

c) after soft consonants in unstressed syllables, except for the 1st estate, in place A / I and E is pronounced reduced, medium in the sound between [and] and [e], a short-term duration, denoted conditionally [b]: [P ' B] Tatch, [l'] Bubble, you [n'e] Su, h [b] Lovek.

3. Vowel and at the beginning of the root after the prefix or preposition ending on solid consonants, is pronounced as [s]: from the Institute - and [Zy] of the prestection, with Igor - [Sy] Mount; Saving in this position [and] and mitigating the consonant in front of it is a regional pronunciation line and does not correspond to the norm.

4. Impact vowel sounds on site E and E. In the pronunciation of words, there are difficulties due to non-dissolution in the printed text of the letters E and E, because For their designation, only the letter E is used (except for educational literature for younger students and foreign students). This provision leads to distortion not only graphic, but also the phonetic appearance of the word, is the cause of frequent utterance errors. Therefore, it is recommended to remember two rows of words:

A) with the letter E, on the site of which sounds [e]: scam, bulk, bluff, being, ice, head, grenader, fisher, life, innovative, procession (but a godfather), a fishing line, non-exhaust, unworthy, guardianship, settled (settlement), successor, successor, surveillance, modern, jar, barley, etc.;

b) with the letter E, on the site of which, sounds [o]: hopeless, Vero, Engraving, Glasil (permissible bile), Hard (permissible bile), otdock, commruise, xendz (but xendza), maneuvers, mercenary, condemned, made , translated, listed, ceremony, destroyed, drove, brought, brown, scuba, scrupulous, beltented, mixture, Tesh, Schörsk (coarsever), lump, etc.

In some pairs of words, various meanings are accompanied by a different sound of the shock vowel [o] or [e]: the expired (term) - the expired (blood), announced (screaming as an announced) - announced (decree), perfect (singing) - perfect (opening) .

Consults before "e"

In foreign language unwanted words, consonants before e are not softened, as in the original Russians. This applies primarily to dental consonants (except L) - T, d, s, s, n, r.

Solid [t] pronounced in such words

atheism, Atelier, Stand, Aesthetics

Solid [T] and in the foreign language console inter-:

in [TE] Rvei

as well as in a number of geographical names and other own names:

AMS [TE] RDAM, DAN [TE]

The sound [d] is not softened in the words code, model, modern, etc., as well as in such geographical names and surnames as

Delhi, Rhodesia Descartes, Mendelssohn

The sounds [s] and [s] are pronounced firmly only in a few words:

[SE] Ntencia, Mor [ZE]

Also solid [s] and [s] are found in the names and surnames, such as

Joseph, Seneka

The sound [n] also remains solid in the names and surnames

Re [NE], [NE] smelting)

Most words are pronounced with solid [n], but there are cases when [n] is softened:

neolithic, neologism

But in most words of foreign-speaking origin, the consonants before e are softened in accordance with the norms of Russian literary pronunciation, so this pronunciation is completely unacceptable as

pro [FE] quarrel, ag [re] sorry, [Bere] t, etc.

Frameological tanks.

Frameological trading - It is sustainable combination of words,

arising in Russian as a result of the literal translation of the foreign language

phraseologism.

For example: Fighting for life (eng. Struggle for life), break off the head (it.

aUFS HAUPT SCHLAGEN), paper does not blush (lat. Epistola non erubescit), with

bird flight (FR. A VOL D'Oiseau), from the bottom of my heart (Fr. de Tout Mon

Variants of nouns name suffixes

1. In pairs of grooves - sparrows, pebbles - pebbles The first options (with the sutixes-hazel, -sh) are used in neutral style, and the second (with the suffix -ubs) have a folk and conversational tint.

In a pair of edge - the original word is inherent in a conversational tint, and the second is dialectical.

2. In pairs of Loznyak - Loznik, Bereznyak - Bereznik The second options (with a soffix - -nik) are dialectic.

Variants of case forms of nouns names.

In addition to the main end, which has the overwhelming majority of nouns of this decline, may be the end of the variant, which have relatively small categories of words (along with the main). Most often, the form with variant endings differ from the main stylistically, less often - semantically, and sometimes these differences are combined.

1st declination

PEITIVE case of nouns of male. Along with the main ending -and Isome discharges Nouns male genus under certain conditions Possess a variant ending -Y / -U.

Variant shapes with the end -Y / -Yu. can have:

1) nouns real in designation measure, quantity: "piece cheese", "glass kefir", "a cup tea", "few pERSU", "lot snow";

2) nouns real and abstract when designating the object, to which the action is distributed partially (genitive dividing): "Add sahara", "Pull soup", "Skip cold",
"Caution fear"; cf. also: " Go Kisa, "said Ostap" (I. and P.); "Give narzan", – I asked Berlioz "(M. Bulg.);

3) Nouns abstract with the denotation of the number of signs: "Little order", "so many shumma", "lot brilliant"; Wed Also as well:" All about glasses only petty, and proku. There are no hair in them "(wing);

4) nouns with the value of an abused multiplicity in the designation of quantity, in negative structures: "Many people", "so many loss", "NO income";

5 ) noun abstract and concrete with pretexts without, for, up, from, from, with(sO) In short-range combinations: "I installed the regiment with rows of books. I read, read, and all uselessly"(P.);" Once in the student, the winter time I from the forest came out "(N.Nekr.).

Variant forms on -Y / -Yu.
Fasted (as "mandatory") for a number of phraseological units:
give Mahu, no and remember, not to give the go, not to give a descent, with the world on a thread, without a kind without a tribe, our regiment arrived, with an eye on the eye et al. In others: phraseological units along with forms on -Y / -Yu. Possible main forms: do not file(view), Komar nose(nose)
not pumped out(ozboy) not and etc.

Forms on -Y / -Yu.
They are used mainly in the living spoken speech and in the artistic literature reflecting its genres, being one of the peculiarities of the spoken style. Characteristic example: "Yes ... And then the Baran seemed. Weight One hundred thirty kilogram. Families - in! "(V.Soll.). Wed and" Go Kisa ... ". In general, these forms are gradually declining. Their use is mandatory in two cases: 1) as part of a number of phraseological units (see above); 2) and nouns with diminishing suffixes (mainly on -OK (- ): Cheese, Coffe, Seagull, Medsk, also kefirchik (in quantitative combinations).

The proposed case of noun male genus. The main end of the 1st decline -E.
It has most nouns: in Gama, in(about) city, in makeup, in(about) Jazz, in the alley, in the stadium, on a chair; About the fountain, in the refrigerator, about the hero, in May, in Saraj etc.

Literary language - the processed form of a nationwide language, which has a greater or less in writing fixed standards; Language of all manifestations of culture expressed in verbal form.

Literary language is always the result of collective creative activities. The idea of \u200b\u200b"fixedness" of the norms of the literary language has a well-known relativity (with all the importance and stability of the norm, it is movable in time). It is impossible to imagine the developed and rich culture of the people without a developed and rich literary language. This is a large social value of the very problem of the literary language.

Among linguists there is no consensus about the complex and multifaceted concept of a literary language. Some researchers prefer to speak not about the literary language as a whole, but about its varieties: or about the written-literary language, or about the phrase and literary language, or the language of fiction, etc.

The literary language can not be identified with the language of fiction. These are different, albeit correlate concepts.

Literary language - the heritage of everyone who owns it. It functions both in writing and in conversational forms. The language of fiction (language of writers), although usually focuses on the same norms, concludes a lot of individual, unintelligible. In various historical epochs and different peoples, the degree of proximity of the literary language and the language of fiction turned out to be unequal.

The literary language is the general language of writing of this or that people, and sometimes several peoples are the language of formal business documents, school education, public communications, science, journalism, fiction, all manifestations of culture, expressing in verbal form, more often writing, but Sometimes even oral. That is why the written-book and oral-conversational forms of the literary language, the emergence, the ratio and the interaction of which are subject to certain historical laws. (Vinogradov V.V. Selected Proceedings. History of the Russian Literary Language. - M., 1978. - P. 288-297)

There is a distinction between the literary language and the national language. The national language acts in the form of a literary language, but not every literary language immediately becomes a national language.

The literary language, the Nadaelectric subsystem (form of existence) of the national language, which is characterized by such features as regulativity, codification, polyfunctionality, stylistic differentiation, high social prestige in medium medium of this national language. The literary language is the main means serving the communicative needs of society; It is opposed to the unexpected subsystems of the national language - territorial dialects, urban coin (urban surprise), professional and social jargons.

Normal Language- A set of rules that streamline the use of linguistic means in speech.

Language rate is not only a socially approved rule, but also the rule that is objectified by real speech practice, the rule reflecting the patterns of the Yaz. Systems and confirmed by the wording of authoritative writers.

The concept of "norm" applies to all levels of the literary language.

1. 1. Lexical norms First of all, we assume the correctness of the choice of the word and the relevance of the use of it in a well-known value in generally accepted combinations. Direct attitude towards them has a stylistic, social and territorial stratification of vocabulary (surprise and professionalism, jargonisms and dialectisms). In the field of vocabulary, closely associated with the material and spiritual life of society, and therefore, an exclusively permeable on the part of various kinds of off-language impacts, the formation and development of norms is complex and not always predictable. The assessment of the admissibility of the word, the correctness of its use is associated with the ideology, the worldview of native speakers, therefore, it is precisely most often categorical judgments that are often based on the subjective perception of language facts. The most complete and objective description of lexical norms is contained in reputable sensitive dictionaries.
2. 2. Accent norms Provide the correct staging, which is an important sign of competent, literary speech. The variation and change in accent norms are due to a number of reasons: the influence of territorial dialects ( keta - Keta, Blizzard - Blizzard), interstitial contacts and exposure to an iNoyasic accentological model ( revolver - Revolver, Industry - Industry), socio-professional speech features ( mining - mining, report - report). However, the main factors of the development of stress are the causes of an intra-system: the impact of an analogy, i.e., the likelihood of individual language facts is more generally structurally understood words ( sparkle - sparkle by analogy with spin et al.), and the trend towards rhythmic equilibrium, causing the transition of stress in multi-line words from extreme syllables closer to the center ( debarcader - Debarcader, accompaniment - accompany). For a modern Russian literary language, a strengthening of the grammatical functions of the emphasis is characterized. Development of naphtack stress ( on the hill - on the hill) Eliminates the reduction of the vowels in a grammatically significant position, thereby contributing to the recognition of the word form.
3. 3. Orphoepic norms Suppose the correct pronunciation of words, which serves as an important sign of speech culture. The main features of the development of the orthoepic norms of the Russian literary language are: a) the elimination of dialect pronunciation; b) erasing differences between Moscow and St. Petersburg pronunciation; c) rapprochement of pronunciation with spelling ( bile - bile, boring - boring).
4. 
   4. Orphographic norms - It is official established rulesEnchanting a uniform transmission of speech on the letter. The scientific description of the Russian language spelling standards was first implemented by Academician Ya. K. Grotto. The proprietary regulation is carried out by law, as well as by improving spelling dictionaries.
5. 
   5. Morphological norms - These are the rules for the opinion and word formation, determination of the wording of the word, the establishment of a functional specialization of variant wordforms. Compared to other language levels, morphological norms are most formalized and therefore relatively easier to unification and standard regulation. The oscillation of morphological norms is caused by both historical causes (mixing and hybridization of types of declining, liner, etc.) and the effects of irreversive intrasystem factors: contradiction between the form and content of language units ( horrible chloride and hORRIBLE CHOLDINA), the influence of the grammatical analogy ( capel and kapaet - by analogy with the verbs of the 1st productive class of type: plays, shakes, decides etc.). For the morphological norms of the modern Russian literary language, the dependence of the choice of word formation from syntactic structures (a bowl of soupBut usually pour soup) and acquiring optional-stylistic differences ( on vacation and in Spoken Speech on vacation, sons and in solemn speech sons). Morphological norms are described in grammar, and fluctuations in forms with the relevant recommendation are presented in sensible dictionaries and dictionaries of difficulties.
6. 
   6. Syntactic norms Proper the correct construction of grammatical structures and compliance with the forms of approval of members of the sentence. Oscillations in the region. Control (Wed: search for help and help demand money and money, fear dad and pope performed courage and courage, production control and above production) are caused by both external factors (syntactic gallicizms, the impact of related languages, etc.) and intrasystem reasons: a) bringing the form and content of the linguistic unit; b) meaning and formal structural analogy; c) semantic conversion of phrase components; d) the emergence of standardized wonders leading to the reproduction of the structure of phrases.

Literary language and dialects

Pronunciation features are often fixed in nicknames. So, you can hear: "Yes, we call them pummers, they are on sh They say; Here, for example, shchych (now)". Science learning territorial varieties of language - local doves, or dialects- called dialectology (from Greek. Dialektos "Speak, adverb" and Logos "Word, Teaching").

Each national language includes literary language and territorial dialects. Literary, or "standard", call the language of everyday communication, formal business documents, school learning, writing, science, culture, fiction. His distinctive feature - regulatory, i.e., the presence of rules, which is mandatory for all members of society. They are fixed in grammar, reference books and dictionaries of the modern Russian language. In dialects also apply their linguistic laws. However, they are not realized clearly carriers of the govors - rural residents, especially do not have written incarnations in the form of rules. Russian dialects are peculiar only oral form existence, in contrast to the literary language, possessing both oral and written form.

Speaking, or a dialect, one of the basic concepts of dialectology. The dialect is the smallest territorial variety of language. It tells residents of one or several villages. The scope of application of the show with the same as the scope of the literary language, which is a means of communication for all speaking in Russian.

Literary language and dialects constantly interact and influence each other. The impact of the literary language on the dialects, of course, is stronger than the dialects on the literary language. Its influence is distributed through school education, television, radio. Gradually, the talks are destroyed, lose their characteristic features. We left and go along with the people of the older generation many words denoting rites, customs, concepts, household items of the traditional village. That is why it is so important as possible and more details to record a lively language of the village.

In our country, for a long time, a dismissive attitude towards local counseling as a phenomenon with which it is necessary to fight is to fight. But it was not always so. In the middle of the XIX century. Russia accounts for a peak of public interest in folk speech. At this time, the "Experience of the regional Great Russian Dictionary" (1852) was published, where they were specially assembled by dialect words, and " Dictionary Living Great Russian language "Vladimir Ivanovich Dalya in 4 volumes (1863-1866), which also includes a large number of dialect words. Materials for these dictionaries actively helped collect lovers of Russian literature. The magazines, the provincial statements of the time from the room published various kinds of ethnographic sketches, dialectic descriptions, local rice dictionaries.

The opposite attitude towards the dialects is observed in the 30s. of our century. In the era of the breakdown of the village - the period of collectivization - the destruction of old ways of conducting the economy, family structure, the culture of the peasantry, i.e., all the manifestations of the material and spiritual life of the village were proclaimed. A negative attitude towards the dialects spread in society. For the peasants themselves, the village turned into a place where it was necessary to run to escape, to forget everything that is connected with it, including language. A whole generation of rural residents, consciously abandoning his tongue, at the same time failed to perceive the newly new language system for them - a literary language - and seize it. All this led to a drop in language culture in society.

Respectful and careful attitude towards dialects are characterized by many peoples. For us, the experience of countries is interesting and instructed Western Europe: Austria, Germany, Switzerland, France. For example, in schools french provinces Introduced by a native dialect, which is placed in the certificate. In Germany and Switzerland, literary and dialecty bilingualism and constant communication on a dialect in the family are generally accepted. In Russia, the beginning of the XIX century. The educated people, coming from the village to the capital, spoke on the literary language, and at home, in their estates, communicating with neighbors and peasants, often used the local dialect.

Now people talking to a dialect is inherent in an ambiguous attitude towards their language. In their minds, the native language is estimated in two ways: 1) through a comparison with other, neighboring dialects and 2) through a comparison with the literary language. The emerging opposition "its" (its dialect) - "Alien" has a different meaning. In the first case, when "someone else's" is another talk, it is often realized as something bad, ridiculous, on what can be laughed, and "its own" - as proper, clean. In the second case, "his" is estimated as bad, "gray", the wrong, and "alien" - literary language - as good. Such an attitude to the literary language is fully justified and understandable: thereby realizing its cultural value.

I. Introduction What is the charm of people's speech! And picturesque, and touching, and seriously L.N. Tolstoy Earth is native, the land is native ... This is primarily the place where our life began, where she passes or passing our childhood. They are always close and the roads of each of us. Even if, becoming adults, we turn out to be away from them. Native places are all that surrounds and accompanies us in childhood, including speech, with whom it is related to the beginning of our life who introduced or introduces us to a complex and beautiful M IR life. Native speech, since childhood, the usual speech is often fought by the most lively signs of step offices. And it's not by chance that in the memoirs of adults about childhood, in their ideas about their native land, when they are away from him, the native speech in its most vivid and peculiar manifestations is also occupied. It is impossible to disagree with the poet Nikolai Rynchenkov, 1 who writes: I didn't collect rare words, but the sound of my native always lives in the soul ... His origins deep and clean, I myself have a clearness. So let them complement the linguistic dictionaries, the solid poems of poets by heart. What exactly is the originality of his own speech? In our opinion, in many respects. First of all, in the general manner, in the pace of speech, in the intonation color and in the sound design of it. Studies show the brightness and image formation of the local dialect. And this is the sign and the peculiarity of the native speech of our region! We observe that the words - the talks are used by residents make it a speech easily recognizable and in their own way close to those associated with this terrain. Naturally, peculiarity and uniqueness of speech native region Can manifest itself in a variety of phonetic and grammatical features of it. To better feel and perceive your native speech, it is necessary to relate more to it. We must learn to imagine not only what they say, but also what they say. Determine in speech what makes it a kind of, accurate, attractive or just memorable. The entrance of the work is talking and carefully listen to the speech of local residents who work in the field, on a farm, in the forest, who grabs herd, works at the apiary, is engaged in construction, who is their everyday labor and creates everything necessary for life. At the same time, we learn much than rich Russian, the native speech of the native land. "Russian language," wrote Konstantin Paustovsky, "opens to the end in his truly magical properties and wealth only to the one who blood loves and knows" to the bone "of his people and feels the secret charm of our Earth ..." The studies have shown that the dialective The vocabulary is used in artwork. The degree and nature of the use is the most different: the transfer of speech and individualization of the character, with the designation of any objects, realities, etc. Conducting conversations with relatives, neighbors, local old-timers, consistently identify the originality of dialectic vocabulary. It was the vocabulary that introduces us to the traditional culture of the village, the vital construction and mentality of the peasant. On our view-time Russian language completely displaced the living, the juicy speech of our ancestors. It can only be heard from the elderly. This is promoted by the media. A person who owns a literary language, in most cases will understand the integral word, but not everyone will understand a dialective speech if it contains the actual lexical dialectisms. With the departure of carriers of our ancient culture, it is more difficult to restore and the island language. Carefully listen to the speech of the native land! The studied language belongs to the southern nascha of the Russian language. It is characterized by the "Akane", the pronunciation of "G" with a silence, a variable particle "TO", the dialect form of the dual and proposed case of the only number of nouns of the III of the climbing, T. in the endings of the verbs of 3-Golitz, etc. Our speech is different from the govers of residents of neighboring regions: Tambov, Kursk, Voronezh, Orlovskaya, Ryazan. The paper presents words that first could be heard in our region, some of them are consumed in speech and now. Now people talking to a dialect is inherent in an ambiguous attitude towards their language. In their minds, the native language is estimated in two ways: 1) through a comparison with other, neighboring dialects and 2) through a comparison with the literary language. But should a person be ashamed of his "small homeland" language, forget him, cast out from his life? What does the dialect mean from the point of view of the history of the Russian language and the Russian people, in terms of culture? To answer these questions, learn the new on the dialects, our research work will help to get acquainted with the lexical composition of dialects, in which we allocate the following hypothesis: the dialectic vocabulary gives the Russian language, sincerity, makes a diverse language, inimitable, which has a beneficial effect on his lexical composition. The study of dialectisms is expanding knowledge about the lexical composition of the Russian language. The dictionary vocabulary is replenished and at the expense of those words that are known only in a certain locality. Digectorists study dialects with various methods: descriptive, writing and studying exploring how concrete wasted lingvogeographic, making up modern dialects card dialects; Historic, and dialectful and integer variance times, cards - dialectological satin. In our work, we use the descriptive method with the study of dialects and dialects of residents of C. Cords. Created dictionary of dialects. Work is simple and available in the presentation. ________________________________________________________________ 1 1 Ryninkov N. "Fairy Tale of My Childhood" (M., 1976) Content I.V.Vondering .................................................................... .................................... ii. Dialects and literary language ............................................. 1. Features of the dialect of residents with. Bills ................................. 1.1. The variable particle is in dialect ....................................................... 1.2. Differences in the endings of the verbs of 3-Little .....................................................3. The dialect form of the duty and the proposed case of the only number of nouns of the III decline ............................................................................................................................................. 1. Body ..................... 2. Names of collective assistance in rural work ........................ 3. Names of grasp .................................................................. 4. Names of wooden dishes for the dough ...................... IV. How to treat dialects ................................................... V. Conclusion ..................................................................................... VI . Literature ........................................................................ VII. Appendix ..................................................................     Involvement of school students in research work on the study of residents with. Bills; Collection and systematization of material; Development of research skills of students. Using research results in educational work 2. Dialects and literary language The language of the Russian village is unusual. Studying it, you can learn about the differences in the pronunciation of words, in grammatical forms, names of objects and concepts. Probably, many have come across that residents even nearby villages differ from each other with their talk. Science, which studies the territorial varieties of language - local dialects, or dialects - called dialectology (from Greek. Dialektos "Speech, adverb" and Logos "Word, Teaching"). Each national language includes literary language and territorial dialects. Literary, or "standard", call the language of everyday communication, formal business documents, schooling, writing, science, culture, fiction. His distinctive feature is normalization, i.e., the presence of rules whose compliance is required for all members of society. They are fixed in grammar, reference books and dictionaries of the modern Russian language. In dialects also apply their linguistic laws. However, they are not realized clearly carriers of the govors - rural residents, especially do not have written incarnations in the form of rules. Only the oral form of existence is characteristic of Russian dialects, in contrast to the literary language, which has both oral and written form. Speaking, or a dialect, one of the basic concepts of dialectology. The dialect is the smallest territorial variety of language. It tells residents of one or several villages. The scope of application of the show already than the scope of the literary language, which is a means of communication for all speaking in Russian. 3. Features of the train of residents with. Bills 1. Icanail in the first estate syllable, which is a transitional stage of the show to the literary norm of pronunciation (Teliphon, Vidno, Mitla, Middvex). 2. Declination of the word "mouse" by the type of nouns of a male family (there is no mouse, the cat caught a mouse). 3. Distribution of word forms: Morkva (carrots), beets (cooler), etc. 4. Widely distributed in the return form of the verb particle "-" (dressing, gathering, Nales, Melles, Dralsi). Residents with. Bills also like to say "smiling" instead of "smiling": "I was waved," "I ran away," "dressed up", or simply add this suffix to different words: "Follow". 5. The words "Valek" should be considered specific for Lipetsk govors (flat wooden barber To dyuct the linen during rinsing), "Komari" (small forest ants). 6. Replacing the "F" by the sounding "KH" both in the original and borrowed words, with the exception of the words of Turkic origin (for example, "Hiffer" Farm, Sarabran - Sarafan. 7. Soft "T" in the forms of a third party and The multiple number of verbs (it is wearing, they wear). 8. The transition of nouns of the middle kind with a unstressed flexion (variable when declining or aite, part of the word at the end of the word form) in the female genus (fresh meat, beautiful dresses, fatty milk, big village, My hay). Here we simply do not share the middle and female genus. 9. Forms of parent and vinitive cases of personal and returnable pronouns "Mene", "You", "ourselves." 10. Discretion of the form varied in the family and the number of the forms of assistant pronoun: " There is another interesting feature of the dialect - this is a "goy", in science it is called "g" frictionative (the sound formed by friction of the air in the slot between the frontal speech bodies, the slit sound). We are talking to sleep, choir, Michren, Horry. " Poisy "We have even representatives int Elling. This is a specific peculiarity of our pronunciation, which, by the way, relates us to the Ukrainians. She is rooted in the history of the development of Slavic tribes, but exactly how it arose, still remains a mystery. For clarity, we offer a sample of a small dialogue held in our village :? So, the dialectful word is inherent in two main features: it serves as a means of communication on a certain territory and at the same time not included in the vocabulary composition of the literary language. The dialectic vocabulary resembles the integral vocabulary and spaticrous words differ from dialectic, primarily by the fact that they do not have in the territory of the language of isoglosses (boundaries). This is an abnormative vocabulary of a communal nature in the national language. 1.1. A changeable particle is in a dialect in Russian literary language - more often in conversational speech - an amplifier-separation particle is used. We will watch the speech of the inhabitants with. Bills. Can I hear: did you not forget the keys?; On vacation when you go?; I will write to write, but you will correct you; I do not have to answer for this; Immediately do not do this; Here is a joy what!; He knows himself, he read about everything he read. This particle is called postpositive, because it stands after (Latin POST) words to which it belongs. The separation particle frequent use is characterized by residents of agreed villages - Bills. But how does the famous fairy tale about the chicken row from the mouth of the oldest resident of the village - Prokudina A. P. "Was D" Es Baba. N. "They were Kury" to "A R" Aba. SN "Asla Kurych" to "A Yaich" to "N" and Pustuuu, and Zalatuyu. D "Studio B" Il-b "Il, N" and Razh "Il, Grandma B" Ila-B "Ila, N" and Resz "Slah. Mouse B "Azhala, Tail" Ica Makhnulau, Yaich "to" Uzz "El. D" Classes, Baba Plakla. Kurych "K" And said: "N" and cry ", D" Et and Baba, ya "Ace Yaich" to "Pastuyu, N" and Zalatuyu ". We observe that the dialectful unstressed endings I. and V. P . mn. h. i-and in the words of Wed. r. on the site of the literary-and (- me). Changing the endings in this form (as in the first topic) is associated with phonetics. In the show, where in the proclast position, the vowels change their Sound and are pronounced weakly, the sounds [a] and [s] in the composition of unstressed endings sound very similar: [ъ] and [s] ([and] after soft consonants). Since many words m. and g. r. have in I. and V. p. Mn. H. Unstressed ending - ы (s), it penetrated into Wed. R.: Poly, words, herds, windows, villages, brices, eggs, etc. ?? in Most dialectal forms coexist with literary: windows and windows, villages and villages, etc. It is characteristic of the unstressed endings - they are in I. and V. P. Mn. in the words of Wed. R.: Overe, Eggs , Vidras. Such forms are still at the beginning of the XIX century. were literary and allowed in high-style, for example, in the famous Pushkin 2DOD "WILLY": ??? Alas! Where to And I'll throw the eyes - everywhere Beach, everywhere gland, laws are a murdered shame, uniliest tears ... But an example from 2 comias of A. S. Griboyedov "Mount from the mind": ?? Needles and scissors like a mile! Pearls, lighted in Belly! Many similar examples and other writers and poets. Gradually, these forms were displaced from the literary language - in one exception. They remained from the words on -ko: Apple - apples, Nestsdyshko - Nests, etc. On the example of the phenomena, you can make sure that the morphological changes in Russian dialects are often associated with the peculiarities of pronunciation of unstressed vowels. Morphological and phonetic levels of the language are not isolated, they are closely related to each other. 1.2. Differences In the endings of the 3rd facial verbs, this dialectic difference is one of the main. In the South Russian diamonds of the verbov of the 3rd face. and mn. h. I and II of the lugs have at the end of [t "] (T - soft). For example: I go, write, write, etc. They go, writing II SPR. He is sitting, mowing, and so on they sit, Connect and so on. Soft-believe is characteristic of both the Ukrainian literary language: the verbs of the II of the Holyness is present both in units. and in the mn. h. (VIN walk, sit down, go poite, sit), in the verbs of the Iliness - Only in the mn. h. (Sharp lip, carry), in the 3rd face of units. There is no consonant [t "] in the end, there is no: VIN LíZE, NEST. Such a pronunciation of verbs of the 3 -th person. and MNCHESHOLY II and II of the stuffiness is characterized by residents of our locality. Communicating with the inhabitants of Cords, you can hear: he walk PA Garden and Lyubitz Yablaki. Sying the old men on Zavalinki and Balakyut about Maslade. 1.3. The dialect form of the dual and proposed case of the only number of nouns of the III decline in the Russian literary language there are three decisions of the nouns. Nouns of the feminine are related to I (Earth, Baba) and III (Night, horse). In many collectors there is a tendency to simplify the decline system, to the union of all nouns of the female clan in one decline, which is observing both in our work. Everyday the words of the III of decline in Russian dialects are significantly less than words i decline, therefore Usually "win" the end of I declining, first of all in D. and P. P. We give examples: to the furnace, on the mud, in the furnace, in the dirt, on the horsepower to the stove, in the mud, in the MIS And the palm. The replacement phenomenon of the endings of the III decline in the end of I. We present the records of the Council: we are here on the FSE in the γryazy. On γryaz go. Koladena, on Schynele Vada frozen. Love he f Dust Vazizz. Lashada is not Pathadi. Replacing the endings of the III decline in the end of the decline I take place not only in D. and P. p. Replaced and the end of T. P. This is observed from the local dialect. Mother with daughters passed. The hall, even the γ mass was washed. Glades embroidered. 3 γarmoni Hadili. Much less often, and only as an option, the end of I declined in V. P .: Fsu was waiting for her at night. The chalet lost pile. The replacement of the case endings of the III of the decline in the end of I. This was carried out more consistent than in others, and the declination of the nouns of the female kind looks like this: the case of the I SKL. III SKL. I. Land Dirt R. Land of Mud D. To the ground on the mud / mud V. Earth mud / Dirt T. Earth mud / mud P. in the ground in the mud as seen from the table, it is only form I. p. III decline to borrow The end-like, as a special III, the declination will disappear at all and all nouns. R. Will vary in one type. There are nouns that have completely passed into I declining: Shalya, sir, disease, et al. III. Using a dialectic vocabulary 1. The name of the evening meetings of young people, everything, perhaps, met and know the words: Sowing, gazebo, fellow, walking, dance. But the others of their "counterparts" are unlikely to know you: Street, parties ... This series of evening youth meetings can be continued. It should be noted that youth meetings depending on the purpose of them are divided into two groups. The first group - meetings on which the second - meetings for entertainment are operating. From conversations with the people of the elderly, we find out that "the gatherings are an evening meeting of young people in winter. Walked from the hut in the rank in turn - a series; In turn and kerosene brought. The girls came to gatherings with a bark. The guys brought harmonica, all sang songs, dancel. " "Street - in summer with the song and accordion; Sowing - with work; Parties - with treat. " The most frequent in the village were meetings with work, where the girls converged to sprinkle, knit, sew, embroider, weave lace. Here, if you allowed the custom, you came guys, some of them wearing rope, and then all having fun together. There were several groups of girls in the village: 12-14 years, 15-17 years old and over 17 years old. Communicating at work, youth laughed, Balaguril, halted chastushki, in which the names of the evenings were mentioned. Here is one of the chastushka: how to our dolls did not appear on our gatherings: they passed through the river in the water failed. The above words denote and walk in winter in the house, sometimes with a treat, and in the summer - on the street. Street - so called spring-summer walking. Probably, this word displaced the old name of the dance. 2. The names of collective assistance in rural assistance for a long time among the people existed a wise custom of helping each other during the construction of the house, harvest, the aboser, spinning of wool, etc. So it was in our village. According to stolen, collective care was arranged in different cases. Usually, the whole world helped widows, orphans, sorrows. Quite often the neighbors agreed in turns together to export on the fields to the fields, chop cappist, which was always quasil in large quantities . Communicated, when it was necessary to fulfill an urgent or laborious job: to prepare the hay, collect a harvest, put a log house, block the roof and others. Usually to help or the beam took place so. The owner convened in advance - invited neighbors, relatives, sometimes all the village or even familiar from other villages. The assistants came with their labor instruments, tools, if necessary - with horses and carts. After the work, the owners were treated for help - those who helped them. Before the feast, workers changed out in elegant clothes that took with them. After dinner, the dances were flooded, shed songs and chastushki: the sweetheart will help - even wait, but I will go. The name of the help (with the options for helping, tamper) is known only in 30 dialects in Russia. One of the options for this word (sweatshop) is consumed by local residents and now. The custom collective care is still alive in the village. Without mutual assistance, as you know, life in the village is unthinkable. Traveler and Naturalist, Academician I. I. Lephechin left such impressions in the "daytime tests of the trip ... According to different provinces of the Russian state" (end of the XVIII century): "Help is called the fact that small-seamless, however, wealthy people convene their neighbors to help help They remove ripen bread ... Another kind of rocker with any praise is worthy, which is called orphan or a widow in the urine. " And this is already writes our contemporary A. Predashin ("Town"): "Help is a collective business, and not the boss! .. Help is a voluntary business, here each in the core, and reject a person - it's like to disgrace it." (We are talking about the help of a hub - the construction of the house.) Annex777 3. Suggesting "Thick and Rusky Stone Doubt, who has granted in the furnace with grasp, from time to time he looked in his direction," writes D. N. MamminSibiryak. But rows from the poem of S. Yesenin: Mother with grazing is not swimming, bent low, the old cat to the mahotka is steaming for pair milk. The word grasped themselves when we were talking with one of the residents with. Bills (Sotnikova L.I.). It turns out that this item is necessary when cooking in a Russian oven. Gipping is an iron weapon, with which they put heavy cast iron and pots in the oven. It is an iron curved plate that is fastened on a long wooden stick so that the hostess can put in the fire and get out of the depths of cast iron furnaces shams, with porridge, with water. Usually, grasp in the house there were several, they were different sizes, for large and small pots, and with handles of different lengths. It was usually the case, as a rule, only women, as cooking, and indeed everything connected with the stove was female care. It happened that they used it as an instrument of attack and defense. Baba, armed with grazing, is almost a classic image in the village. No wonder there is such a proverb: With the grasp of Baba - even on the bear! Confirmation of this find both in a lively dialective speech: do not go to me, but I will disagree with you with a horror! However, we know other names of the grasp. One of them is Rogach. It is used in most of the residents of the Lipetsk region, in particular, in the inhabitants of our village. I. A. Bunin, whose estate was in the Oryol province (currently - the Lipetsk region), in the story "Village" writes: "A friendly solder easily raised on the horns and has moved into the oven powder cast iron," - using a dialect word to designate the gravity used in the part of Orlovsky Govors. The name itself is not only widespread in the vast territory of Russian govors, but is also a literary language belonging. It is often possible to meet in the artistic literature when describing the peasant life: "... shops, a table, a handicraft on the rope, a towel on a nail, YXVM in the corner and wide sixth, stolen pots, - everything was like in ordinary hollow." (A. S. Pushkin. Bakpatan daughter.) Dialectims most often use those writers who themselves from the village or at least for a long time lived in the village and are familiar with the local talk. But such words require very careful with them. Skump and stag are the same, these two words can not be used when listed in one row. In our opinion, the listed names of the grasp have the following etymology. In one case, it is obvious that the subject is called so for his form: Rogach reminds the horns. In another case, the connection with the verb is noticeable: the grasp is something that the pots are grasped. 4. Wooden dishes for dough talking about wooden dishes for test rye flour You can recall the proverb that says: "Rye bread all over the head." For centuries, bread in the villages themselves, in every home, in every family. Rye bread was the necessary daily food, he baked with sour, yeast dough. It is believed that the recipe for the preparation of this test, i.e., with Zavskaya, the Slavs borrowed in IV-V centuries. And before that time they prepared bread from fresh dough. Studies have shown that in the village for the yawk, the hostess was used beer thick, yeast, but more often they just left a piece of the dough in the dishes. After the dough rises, they are smeared with his hands, forming breads and plant on a wooden shovel into the oven on the under, sometimes underlying cabbage leaves so as not to burn the bottom. Usually, rye dough kneaded (dissolved) in wooden dishes, seized by wooden or iron hoops. Less often such dishes were hollowed out of a solid piece of wood. Her main names: Quash, Deli, Dejka. In our village it is called - down. From the intelligent dictionary, we learn that the word deja is very ancient. (See Figure, Appendix No. ????) It comes from Indo-European root * DHEĝįH with the meaning of "knead" (clay, dough). They go to him. TEIG, eng. Dough "Dough" in the Ukrainian language dishes for the test is named Dija, in Belarusian - Jiage, in Western Slavs (see dictionary of linguistic terms) are also common names with this root, such as Cesh. Díže, Díž, FIG. Dieža. Talking about rustic life, writers often mention these names. Our contemporary, writer E. Nosov read: "From time to time, she [mother] was worn out of time, but to the end and not straightening the bogged back, alternately removed from the brushes, like mittens, white swells of the dough, flew them in Dejo, scraped Edge palm. The bread is the main wealth of the farmer in the farmer, so there was a significant place in many traditional rites, magical acts. For example, when moving to a new housing, the hosts carried Dezh with a test, kneaded still in an old house, so that in a new place was wealth, a lot of bread. This is what kind of bread song I remembered Prokudina A.P. Be, my balance, full-full, full of full, with the edges of Roven! The dishes personified the ranks, a fusion life and wealth. Even soapy on special days: for pure Thursday (last Thursday before Easter) or on the day of Ivan Kupala (July 7, Nov.T., June 24 under Art. - In the church calendar, this christmas is St. John the Baptist Baptist) When the water is attributed to the healing, purification force. Because the balance is belonging to a female help, she participates in all in the girls' divorce and wedding ritual. This is how one of the codniest ghosts occurred: the quasch was put on the head of the girl who had to go from the ass estates to the goal. If the girl, without falling, reached the open gate and went out to the street, it means that she will marry the coming year. Even the bride in front of the crown on the guard was combed, disguised or just put it on it, which symbolized the transition of a girl in a different social condition. There existed a lot of progress about the dough. The argument to you in Dezh! And so ugly spoke about the negligent hostess: according to guests, it is forgotten by the guests. A lot of mysteries are preserved and puzzled in it: I listen, I will listen to: a sigh for a sigh, and in the hut either soul; Without hands, without legs, mountain climbs; Above the tree grows; Not alive, but breathe. Currently, Dezh replaced the other dishes - enamelled pans and bowls. After the test it is immediately washed. Bread bake not in a Russian oven, but in electrical or gas oven . Maybe therefore homemade bread is not so fragrant and tasty? IV. How to treat dialects Literary language and dialects constantly interact and affect each other. The impact of the literary language on the dialects, of course, is stronger than the dialects on the literary language. Its influence is distributed through school education, television, radio. Gradually, the talks are destroyed, lose their characteristic features. We left and go along with the people of the older generation many words denoting rites, customs, concepts, household items of the traditional village. That is why it is so important as possible and more details to record a lively language of the village. In our country, for a long time, a dismissive attitude towards local counseling as a phenomenon with which it is necessary to fight is to fight. But it was not always so. In the middle of the XIX century. Russia accounts for a peak of public interest in folk speech. At this time, the "Experience of the regional Great Russian Dictionary" (1852) was published, where for the first time, dialect words were specially collected, and the "explanatory dictionary of the living Great Russian language" Vladimir Ivanovich Dalya in 4 volumes (1863-1866), which also includes A large number of dialect words. Materials for these dictionaries actively helped collect lovers of Russian literature. The magazines, the provincial statements of the time from the room published various kinds of ethnographic sketches, dialectic descriptions, local rice dictionaries. The opposite attitude towards the dialects is observed in the 30s. of our century. In the era of the breakdown of the village - the period of collectivization - the destruction of old ways of conducting the economy, family structure, the culture of the peasantry, i.e., all the manifestations of the material and spiritual life of the village were proclaimed. A negative attitude towards the dialects spread in society. For the peasants themselves, the village turned into a place where it was necessary to run to escape, to forget everything that is connected with it, including language. A whole generation of rural residents, consciously abandoning his tongue, at the same time failed to perceive the newly new language system for them - a literary language - and seize it. All this led to a drop in language culture in society. In Russia, the beginning of the XIX century. The educated people, coming from the village to the capital, spoke on the literary language, and at home, in their estates, communicating with neighbors and peasants, often used the local dialect. Russian writers, classics and contemporaries, well-knowledgeable village and its language, use in their works elements of local speech - dialectisms that are introduced into artistic text to characterize the speech of characters, descriptions of the peculiarities of local nature, rustic life. Meeting examples from fiction, was convinced of this. It was the vocabulary that introduces us with the traditional culture of the village, the vital construction and mentality of the peasant. In our opinion, dialectology is closely connected with history, archeology, ethnography, since it is inseparable from the life of the people. Each historic period is a tribal era, the era of the Old Russian principalities of the XII century, the time of the elevation of the Moscow principality in the XV century. and so on. - left his mark in modern Russian counseling. In the Middle Ages on the Eastern Slavic lands (the Belarusians, Russian and Ukrainians include the eastern Slavs), the Russian and Ukrainians) occurred by the territories between the feudal principles. We observe that there are sometimes archaic phenomena in modern show, reflecting the dialect features of Praslavyansky language - ancestor of all Slavic languages. So, each of the dialects is generated by the history of the people, and in this sense they are all equal. And the modern Russian literary language also has a dialectage basis. V. The next page of research work is turned over. It's time to summarize. Working with dialects we got involved, interested. For myself did not one discovery. We hope that for students of our school, friends, the younger generation, many assembled will also be interesting. Work on each word made it possible to raise the veil into the past of our region, in her story. Therefore, it can be said, the word has become a link between the past and the present, which means that the future. Research and observations of the dialect features of the speech of local residents make it possible to note their grammatical and lexical features that distinguish between old-timers. The phonetics of the dialect was studied, a general characteristic was determined. The result of the work was a dictionary of dialects. There were so many acquisitions that they were afraid to lose at least one of them. In the 337Slov. It has the names of animals, plants, dishes, household items, buildings, agricultural instruments, fields, wells, verb values \u200b\u200bin action, etc. This was helped by local residents - people of different professions. Time flies. The fact that yesterday seemed eternal, today changes until unrecognizable disappear completely, and tomorrow no one will not remember about him. From the memory is erased and anonymous language with lexical dialectsms, because they are forgotten by traditions, people, their affairs ... It is impossible to live without the knowledge of the history of the native land, without the knowledge of the history of their language. Increasing the words of the word - our duty. It is necessary for us. It is necessary to our descendants. Native speech is one of the strongest principles that unite people, first of all - relatives and countrymen, is an important keeper of the specifics of national culture. A person with a native speech displaced turns out to be emotionally and intellectually depleted, deprived of his roots, losing a solid social orientation. This applies not only to those who today continue to live in the village, but also a huge number of citizens in the first generation, which have recently formerly by rural residents. Still V.I. Dahl wrote: "A lively popular language that saved in the life of the spirit of the Spirit, which gives the language durability, strength, clarity, integrity and beauty should serve as a source and treasury for the development of educated Russian speech ...". Dialects are not yet collected and recorded. It means that there is the same exciting job, and one discovery will be done.

The concept of "National Russian Language" includes, on the one hand, a normalized literary language and, on the other, the territorial and social dialects standing outside the literary norm, as well as the surprise. Therefore, in it, along with the dominant literary "basis", there are "inclusions" in the form of dialectisms (in [o] Yes, kooms, bask, take the weather (bad weather), cf.lit. In [a] Yes, rooster, beautiful, bad weather ), Jargonisms (bucks - dollars, laces - parents, Tusovka - a gathering, goulab, street gatherings of young people, a fight, etc., cool - trendy, business, arrogant, etc.), spacious words and forms (kilometer, put, colidor, Streams, tubaret, many business, ehey, etc.).

Any social dialect has a narrow sphere of propagation (used only within a certain social group or layer), is limited territorially and, moreover, limited to the time of its existence. Social dialects are an objective and ancient phenomenon. The language of the nobility has always been distinguished from the language of commoners, the language of the clergy - from the Language of Mijan, the language of workshops - from the language of trading people. Almost every of us is a member of a specific family, was a schoolboy, he has his own circle of communication, enters a certain social group or a group of interests, mastered or extracts any profession - and all this is somehow connected with the introduction or at least familiarizing This or that social dialect.

The specifics of the literary language, as already noted above, is most clearly manifested in opposition to other forms of the existence of the language. If you imagine these forms as a polynomial number of coexisting components, then the extreme positions, despite the diversity of specific situations, occupy a literary language and territorial dialect. The opposition of these two forms is due to the entire system of their distinguishing signs, of which some are leading and unconditional, others can under certain conditions, as it will be noted below, neutralize.

I. The dialect is a territorially limited form of language existence.

In the feudal era of its borders are correlated with the borders of feudal territories. But in other historical conditions, the territorial limitations and association of the dialect remains strength, and it is revealed to the most fully in opposition to the literary language. Undoubtedly, modern Arab dialects are primarily the conversational language of the population of each Arab country, but significant literature begins to create in recent decades. Thus, they represent other and significantly more complex linguistic formations than dialects medieval EuropeHowever, the territorial limitations and the association of modern Arab dialects acts, along with their other characteristics, in opposition to the Arab literary language, one and common in all Arab countries. This specificity of the dialect remains everywhere in the era of the formation and development of national languages, although the system of system signs of the dialect may be blown under the influence of the literary language, especially where the literary language has sufficient unity and regulation.

The literary language as opposed to the dialect is not characterized by such intensive territorial limitation and connectedness. Any literary language has a more or less defined superchalter. This also applies to the era of so intense crushing as the era of feudalism. So, in France XI-XII centuries. In Western English-Normo-Anzhui possessions, a written-literary language is being formed in such literary samples, like a song about Roland, the pilgrimage of Charles Great, the works of Mary French. Although some regional color is reflected in phonetics and morphology of these monuments, none of them can be recognized by a separate dialect of the Western Group: Norman, Francesky or a dialect of the North-West or South-Western subgroup. Therefore, it turns out to be possible only in the most general form to coincide with local features in the language of these monuments to different dialect groups of that time.

A similar phenomenon is observed to a greater or lesser extent and in other literary languages \u200b\u200bof a donational period, more precisely - before the period of developing a unified literary standard or a nationwide language standard. So, in Germany, where feudal fragmentation was especially significant and sustainable and literary language performed in several regional versions, which had differences not only in the phonetic-graphic system, but also in lexical composition, and in part in morphology, already in the monuments of the literary language XII -XIII centuries, both poetic and prosaic, there is no direct reflection of the dialect system of the area to which one or another monument belongs: conscious selection is traced, the elimination of narrow-dialectic features. In the context of the existence of written fixation and (although limited) trade and cultural ties between the individual territories in Germany, starting from the XIII - XIV centuries. There was an intensive interaction between the established regional variants of the literary language. Even the north of the country, the most isolated in language relations, has not remained isolated. In this regard, the penetration of southern forms and southern vocabulary, which often displaced local forms from the literary language of Central Germany as in the West in the Cologne region (Wed, the local-Stl is influenced by the more general -nd- in the words type Fingen ~ Finden), Mainz (cf. Also ousting the Mediterranean placed forms of HER "He", HIM "to him" southern ER, IM), Frankfurt am Main and East, in Thuringia and Saxony (Wed. The same pronoun system). A curious consequence of these processes were numerous regional dublites in the language of the same monument; in mid-month monuments of the XIV century. Local Biben "tremble", Erdbibunge "Earthquake", Burnan "burn", Heubt "Head", got alongside more southern Pidmen, Ertpidmen, Brennen. Conscious imitation of a certain version of the literary language can be traced already in the XIII century, when most authors sought to write in a language close to the laws of the south-west version, since the South-West was then the center of the political and cultural life of Germany.

The proto-dealed nature of the literary language of the era of feudalism is connected with the features of the system of styles of the literary language, gradually developing already in that epoch. The formation of styles of philosophical and religious, scientific, journalistic literature contributed to the development of the formation of vocabulary, which did not exist in dialects and discovering an inter-dealectic nature. In a number of countries (Western European countries, Slavic countries, many countries of the East), the formation of these literary styles is carried out under the influence of a foreign literary language - in Slavic countries under the influence of the Old Slavonic literary language, in Western Europe under the influence of Latin, in the Middle East under the influence of Arab Language, in Japan under the influence of the Chinese language, etc. This is a foreign language influence, in turn, contributes to the separation of literary languages \u200b\u200bfrom territorially and leads to the formation in their system of propulsioned traits. Therefore, the language of the ancient Russian monuments, although reflected certain features of the dialecty regions, was characterized by a diverse mixing of Russian and old Slavonic elements and thereby did not possess the territorial limitation that characterizes the dialect.

This feature of the literary language is most fully and thus the most complete opposition of the dialect is manifested in the era of the existence of national unity, when a single general general standard is issued. But other cases are possible when an ancient written literary language is so distinguished from the process of developing live dialects, which turns out to be isolated from their territorial diversity, as it was in Arab countries, in China and Japan, and the support on the archaic tradition may occur In different historical conditions and in different periods of the history of specific literary languages. So, the medieval Chinese literary language VIII - XII centuries. Big rely on book sources of VII - II centuries. BC, which contributed to its separation from spoken language style; In completely different conditions, similar patterns characterized the development czech language XVIII century (see below).

II. The literary language is opposed to a dialect and social functions that it carries out, and thereby on its own style.

Since the formation of a literary language, a division of domestic communication is usually left in the dialect of a dialect. The literary language can potentially function in all spheres of public life - in fiction, in public administration, in school and science, in production and everyday life; At a certain stage of the development of society, it becomes a universal means of communication. This process is complicated and diverse, since in addition to the literary language and the dialect, intermediate forms of everyday-spoken speech take part (see pp. 525-528).

Within the consideration of distinctive signs of the literary language, highlights the multifunctionality and the associated style diversity of the literary language as opposed to the dialect. Undoubtedly, these qualities are usually accumulated by a literary language in the process of its development, but the trend of this form of the existence of a language to multifunctionality is essential, moreover, the very formation of a literary language occurs in the conditions of developing its functional-style diversity.

The functional load of the literary languages \u200b\u200bis not the same in different historical conditions, and the decisive role is played here the level of development of society and the common culture of the people. The Arab Ancient Literary Language is made in the VII - VIII centuries. As a language of poetry, Muslim religion, science and schools as a result of a high level of development, which the Arab culture reached. The stylistic variety of an ancient Greek literary language is inextricably linked with different genres of literature (EPOS, lyric poetry, Theater), with the prosperity of science and philosophy, with the development of oratory art.

A different picture is observed in Western Europe. The origins of the literary languages \u200b\u200bof Western Europe were poetic and prosaic genres of fiction, folk Epos; In Scandinavia and Ireland stand out, along with the style of epic poetry, the prose-style style of ancient sag. The language of the ancient runic inscriptions (V - VIII centuries) is adjacent to the supervision of the language of the language. XII - XIII centuries. - The flourishing period of the knightly lyrics and knightly novel - give high samples of Provencal, French, German, Spanish literary languages. But these literary languages \u200b\u200bare relatively late to serve science and education, partly as a result of the inhibited development of science, but mainly due to the fact that the conquest of the literary language of other areas of communication was hampered in Western European countries to the long-term Lady of Latin in the field of law, religion, government, government, education and prevalence in the domestic domestic communication. The displacement of Latin and replacing it with the literary language of this people proceeded in many ways in different ways in various European countries.

In Germany from the XIII century. German penetrates not only in diplomatic correspondence, in private and legal and state certificates, but also in jurisprudence. Large legal monuments, Sachsenspiegel and Schwabenspiegel, enjoyed great popularity, as evidenced by the existence of numerous handwritten options from various fields of Germany. Almost at the same time, German begins to conquer and the sphere of government. He dominates the imperial office of Charles IV. But Latin remains the language of science. In fact, until the end of the XVII century, it is long dominated in university teaching: back in the XVII century. Reading lectures in German met fierce resistance. To a certain strengthening of Latin's positions, even in some literary genres (drama) contributed to Germany and the Renaissance.

In Italy, in the XV century. Due to the general direction of the culture of the Renaissance Latin, it turns out to be the only officially recognized language of not only science, but also of fiction, and only a century later, the Italian literary language gradually conquers citizenship rights as a multifunctional written language. In France, Latin was used in the XVI century. Not only in science, but also in jurisprudence, in diplomatic correspondence, although Francis I have introduced French to the Royal Office.

Typologically close features detects the functioning of literary languages \u200b\u200bin ancient Russia, in Bulgaria and Serbia. Thus, for example, the development of an ancient Russian literary language also occurred under conditions of peculiar bilinguals, since the area of \u200b\u200bthe cult, science and some genres of literature served Old Slavonic language. Until the end of the XVII century. This foreign language, albeit nearby language, was opposed to a literary language on a national basis, i.e., the Russian literary language in his own sense of the word, therefore the use of the Russian literary language, its style diversity was limited: he acted only in business writing, in such monuments As the Russian True, and some genres of literature (saints, chronicle and some other monuments). Only at the beginning of the XVIII century. The process of destruction of bilingualism and as a result of this is a gradual functional-style enrichment of the literary language.

In most of the Literary languages \u200b\u200bof the USSR, the features of the universal means of communication are formed only after the October Revolution as a result of the conquest of the literary language of such areas as public administration, science, higher education. Changes in the system of functional styles of these languages \u200b\u200bare connected with this, as part of their vocabulary (CP. Formation of socio-political and scientific terminology) and in syntax patterns. This applies even to languages \u200b\u200bwith a long-lasting written-literary tradition, such as Georgian, Ukrainian, Armenian, Azerbaijani literary languages.

Therefore, such distinctive signs of a literary language, as a multifunctionality and the associated style diversity, are not absolute and stable. The character of this multifunctionality, the rate of accumulation in the literary language of those signs that turn it into a universal means of communication, depend on the historical conditions in which this literary language is functioning, from the previous history.

In most literary languages, the sector of domestic communication will later be mastered if this literary language is generally becoming a universal language in the course of its development. Even in France, where the unity of the literary language was emerging early, the sphere of oral communication retained significant local singularities until the XVIII century. .

Unlike the literary language, the territorial dialect is typically does not know the multifunctionality and style diversity, since after the discretion of the literary language, the main function of the dialect is to serve as a means of communication in everyday life, in everyday life, that is, its "functional style" is a conversational speech. The so-called litectures on dialects represents most often regional variants of the literary language. The question of how to determine the place of literature on dialects in Italy is controversial. In this country, as a result of the late National Association (1861) for a long time, along with a commonly language literary language, its own dialect flourished in each province, apparently not only in the function of the everyday-conversational means of communication in different layers of the population. It is usually indicated that from the XV - XVI centuries. There existed regional fiction and even in late XIX. in. - early XX century. In Genoa, a working log was published at the local dialect. However, is it really literature on a dialect in own meaning of this word, or these are regional options for a literary language associated with the existing regional and urban coins, it is currently difficult to solve. However, it is significant that one of the largest connoisseurs of this issue B. Milorini does not identify the language of this literature with a dialect in his own sense of the word: First, he calls Italiano Regionale ("Regional Italian"), the second - Dialetto LOCALE ("Local, or territorial dialect" ), the commonital literary language is simply called Italiano "Italian". The question of Arab dialects, acting as a means of communication in various Arab countries, is even more complicated. In any case, their status is different than the status of dialects in the narrow value of this word.

III. The nature of the distribution of a literary language and a dialect on communications to a certain extent is associated with the ratio of written and oral language forms. Often you can find a statement about the preferential links of the literary language with writing, about the special role of book style in the development of literary languages. To a certain extent, this position is fair. The treated form of most modern languages \u200b\u200bwas created in the options of book-written styles and in fiction; Development of unity and general binding, i.e., the design of the language standard is often carried out earlier in writing language, which is generally greater than the oral form. Not only in countries such as Germany or Italy, where for a long time A single literary language was associated with an advantage with writing, but also in other countries the processes of normalization, i.e. the codification of consciously fixed norms, correlated at the first stages of this process mainly with a written language. Along with fiction literature in a number of countries (Russia, France, Germany), the language of business writing has played a decisive role in this process. In addition, in some countries there are literary languages, which, being sharply opposed spoken language, are more ancient than the conversational language, the type of language and exist actually only in writing; At Ceylon, the Singalese literary language exists only in writing, while maintaining an archaic grammar system (flexive) and sharply differing from analytical language Communication; In China, Wenian was a written language, whose historical model was the literary language of medieval China VIII - XII centuries; In Japan, Bango - a written-literary language, whose historical model is the literary language of Japan XIII - XIV centuries. In India, written-literary Sanskrit coexists with living literary languages; A similar situation is partly in Arab countries, where a literary language, whose historical model was classic Arabic, is mainly a book-written language.

However, the relatives considered above between the literary language and the written form are not universal and cannot be included in its general typological characteristics. As noted above, the existence of an oral species of the literary language is as "normal" case, as well as the existence of written-literary languages. Moreover, it can be argued that in certain epochs of the cultural history, the processed form of language, opposed to the spoken language, exists mainly in oral species (cf., for example, the Greek literary language of the Homer's era). Many nations literary language practically ancient writingNo matter how paradoxically sounded it, and in writing it is fixed later what was created on the oral species of the literary language. So it was with the language of epic creations from different peoples of Asia, Africa, America and Europe, with the language of oral law, religion. But in a later era, in the context of the existence of writing and along with the development of written literary styles, the literary language often acts in oral species; cf. Language of Provencal Troubadur XII century, German Minesingers and Spielmen XII - XIII. etc. On the other hand, the system of styles of modern literary languages \u200b\u200bincludes not only written styles, but also a conversational style, i.e. modern literary languages \u200b\u200bact or orally. The status of literary and spoken styles in different countries of unequal. Its competitors there may be not only territorial dialects, but also different interim shapes of the existence of a language such as a sour-speaking language in Czechoslovakia, UmganGSSPRACHE in Germany, the so-called Italian jargon in Italy. In addition, book styles are implemented verbally (cf. language of official speeches - political, scientific, etc.).

Therefore, the ratio of writing and oral form in applied to the literary language and the dialect is not expressed in the fact that only the written or only oral form is fixed behind each of them, but in the fact that the development of book-written styles, their diversity characterizes only a literary language, independently From whether the literary language is one or it is implemented in several versions (see below).

IV. The social base of the literary language is the category of historical, however, as well as the territorial dialect; In the advantage there is a leading role here, a social system plays, in which one or another literary language was created and in the context of which a literary language is functioning. Under the social base is understood, on the one hand, the social sphere of the use of the literary language or other forms of the existence of the language, i.e., what public group or group are carriers of this form of the existence of the language, and on the other - what public layers take part in the creative process of creating this Forms. The social base of literary languages \u200b\u200bis determined primarily by what language practice is based on and whose samples follow a literary language in its formation and development.

During the heyday of feudalism in Europe, the development and functioning of the literary language was mainly due to the knight and clerical culture, which led to a certain limitation of the social base of the literary language and its well-known separation from the spoken language not only rural, but also the urban population. The oral specification of the literary language was represented by samples of knightly poetry with the strict selection of narrow-graded themes inherent in the strict selection of narrow-sized subjects, with traditional plot stamps that definitely also stamps are linguistic. In Germany, where Knight's culture developed later than in other European countries, and where Knight's poetry was under the strong influence of French samples, the language of this poetry was literally flooded by borrowing from french: not only in certain words, subsequently disappeared from the language together with the disappearance of knightly culture (CP. Chancun "Song", Garcun "Boy", "Page", Schou "Joy", "Fun", Amie "Beloved", Rivier "Creek" , "River", etc.), but also whole turns. This style of the German literary language was opposed by two other functional styleassociated with the book-written type of the German literary language XIII - XIV century: the style of clerkal and the style of legal literature. The first of them detects a significant influence of Latin in vocabulary and especially in the syntax (participial "turns, turnover of wine. P. With inf.), The second is the closest to the spoken language. Apparently, however, in the oral form of a literary language, which was represented by the church preaching (cf., for example, the preaching of Bertoldold Regensburg XIII century. or Gailera von Kaiserberg XV century.), It is found to bring the crico-book style and the style of the people's conversational both in lexical formation and in the syntax. Thus, To determine not only the social base of the German literary language of the XII - XIV centuries, which is implemented in the aggregate of different styles opposing every-time-spoken language (represented by many territorial dialects), but also the social conditionality of the style differentiation within the literary language itself.

Describing the processes of development of the literary languages \u200b\u200bof China and Japan, N. I. Konrad wrote that the social significance of the medieval literary language in these countries is limited to certain, comparatively narrow, public layers, mainly - the dominant class. " This explained the big gap, which existed between writing and literary and spoken language.

In France, from the XIII century. There is a relatively single written-literary language that displaces other written-literary options. Decree of Francis I (1539) on the introduction of French instead of Latin was also aimed at using dialects in stationery practice. French normalizers of the XVI-XVII centuries. focused on the yard language (see Activity traveled in France.)

If their narrow social base is more or less typical for medieval literary languages, since the carriers of these languages \u200b\u200bwere dominant classes of feudal society, and literary languages \u200b\u200bserved the culture of these public groups, which, naturally, was reflected primarily on the nature of the literary styles, the process of formation And the development of national literary languages \u200b\u200bis characterized by increasing tendencies to their democratization, to expand their social base, to rapprochement of book-writing and public-spoken styles. In countries where medieval written-literary languages \u200b\u200bdominated for a long time, the movement against them was associated with the development of a new dominant class - bourgeoisie. Folding and designing the so-called "ordinary" language in China and Japan, further developing in the national literary language, is related to the emergence of capitalist relations and the growth of the bourgeoisie. Similar social factors acted in countries in Western Europe, where the formation of nations occurred in the conditions of the emerging capitalism (see below).

The history of literary languages, changing the types of literary language associated with changes in the social base of the literary language and through this link - with development processes public building. However, the progressive course of history is accompanied by the mandatory expansion of the social base of the literary language, its democratization. Much in this process depends on specific historical conditions. Interesting changes in the history of the Czech literary language in this regard. XVI in. - the golden age of Czech literature and the Czech literary language, which has reached the famous unity during this period. In the era of the Gusitsky Wars, a certain democratization of the literary language occurs, in contrast to the narrowly class of its nature in the XIV - XV centuries. . After the suppression of the Czech uprising of 1620, Czech, as a result of the nationalist policy of the Habsburgs, is actually expelled from the most important public areas, in which Latin or German are dominated. In 1781, the German language becomes state language. The national oppression led to the fall in the culture of the Czech literary language, as Czech language was used by the rural population, not in the literary language. The revival of the literary Czech language took place in late XVIII - early XIX century. In connection with the growth of the national liberation movement, but the figures of literature and science were relying at the same time not on a living spoken language, but in the language of literature of the XVI century, far from the spoken language of different layers of the Czech people. "A new literary Czech language," Matheus wrote, "thus became the most archaic member of the Honorary Family of Slavic languages \u200b\u200band tragically moved away from the conversational Czech language." Under these conditions, the social base of the Literary Czech language in the XIX century. It turned out to be more narrow than in the era of the Gusitsky Wars.

The latitude of the social base of the territorial dialect is inversely proportional to the latitude of the social base of the literary language: the already the social base of the literary language, the more specifically limited language practice, it embodies, the wider the social base of non-leaturated forms of the existence of the language, including the territorial dialect. Wide distribution of dialects in Italy XIX - XX centuries. opposes the limitations of the social base of the literary language; In Arab countries, a limited social base of the literary language is already in the x in. contributed to the widespread development of dialects; In Germany, XIV - XV centuries. The predominant connection of the German literary language with book-written styles led to its use only among the public groups who owed a diploma in German, since literacy was then the privilege of the clergy, the city intelligentsia, including the staff of the Imperial, Prince and City Office, partly nobility, representatives which were often small, the majority of urban and rural population remained a carrier of territorial dialects.

In the next century, the ratio changes. The dialect is displaced as a result of the onset of the literary language and different types regional coins or interweenacles (see below), and he maintains the most strong position in rural areas, especially in more distant settlements from large centers.

The stability of the dialect is differentiated among different age groups of the population. Typically, the older generation remains a faithful territorial dialect, while the youngest generation is the advantage of the carrier of regional Koines. In the context of the existence of standardized literary languages, the ratio of the social base of the literary language and the dialect is a very complex picture, since the defining social base factors are not only differentiation of residents of the city and the village, but also age and educational qualifications.

Numerous work performed in recent decades on the material of different languages \u200b\u200bhas shown approximately the same type of social stratification of literary and non-leaturated forms in those countries where the territorial dialect retains significant rates of differences from the literary language and where the role of the language standard is relatively limited.

There is also very significant, even in modern conditions in different countries of peculiar bilinguals, when those who own a literary language and uses it in the official spheres of communication uses a dialect in everyday life, as was observed in Italy, Germany, in Arab countries. Social stratification Thereby expanded with stratification on the sectors of communication. The use of a literary language in everyday life is perceived in some parts of Norway as well-known affecting. This phenomenon is characteristic not only for modern language relations: everywhere where the functional system of the literary language was limited to book styles, the dialect turned out to be the most common means of oral communication, competing initially not with oral-spoken styles of the literary language, which then did not exist, but with every way -Remoty Koine, the latter are drawn up at a certain stage of the development of society and are associated by the advantage with the growth of urban culture. Apparently, typologically oral-conversational styles of the literary language are developing at a later historical stage than everybody-conversational Koines; Those social sections that have used a literary language in public areas such as state administration, religion, fiction, in everyday life either, either a dialect, which in these conditions possessed the situation of a regional limited, but socially universally common means of communication, or regional coin.

V. Since a literary language, in whatever historical species, he has always performed, is always the only processed form of the existence of a language opposed to untreated forms, the specifics of the literary language, as noted above, is related to certain selection and relative regulation. Neither the territorial dialect, nor intermediate between the territorial dialect and literary language, such selection and regulation are not peculiar. It should be emphasized that the presence of selection and relative regulation does not mean the existence of standardization and codification of strict standards. Therefore, it is impossible to unconditionally accept the assertion expressed by A. V. Isachenko (see p. 505) that the literary language is contrasted with other forms of language existence as the normalized language type is non-normed. Objections causes both the form of this statement and its content. The norm, although not conscious and not received codification, but makes it possible to unhindered communication, characteristic of both a dialect, as a result of this, it is unlikely that it is unlikely to make contrasting the normalized type of tongue with non-normalized type. Nonormality, a certain puzzle characterizes the different interweensects about which see below). On the other hand, if under the normalized type, understand the presence of a consistent codification of conscious norms, i.e. the presence of normalization processes, then these processes are developing only in certain historical conditions, most often in the national era, although exceptions are also possible (cf. system of standards presented In the grammar of Panini), and characterize only a certain variety of literary language (see below). The selection and related relative regulation of the language are preceded by normalization processes. Selection and regulation are expressed in stylistic standards, so specific for the epic language, in the use of certain lexical reservoirs, which is also characteristic of the language of epic poetry among different peoples. These processes are very intense in the language of the Knight's poetry of Western Europe, where the original layer of class vocabulary is drawn up. Common for the language of knightly poetry is and the desire to avoid consuming household vocabulary and spoken revolutions. In fact, the same trends are designated in the ancient literary languages \u200b\u200bof China and Japan, in Arab countries, in the Uzbek written literary language; Strict selection and regulation detects an ancient-German literary language (monuments C V c. n. er), reaching a high degree of processed. One of the manifestations of this selection is the inclusion of a certain reservoir of the borrowed book vocabulary.

Selection and relative regulation are characterized, however, not only the vocabulary of the literary language. Prevalence during certain periods of history of many literary languages \u200b\u200bof book-written styles is one of the incentives for the implementation of selection and regulation in syntax and phonetic and spelling systems. The syntactic inorganization characteristic of spontaneous speech is overcome in literary languages \u200b\u200bby gradually design organized syntactic whole. Models of book-written and conversational syntactic structures coexist in the language system: this primarily refers to the design of a complex syntactic whole, but may concern other structures. The literary language is not only a creative factor in the creation of new syntactic models associated with the book-written style system, but also takes their selection from the existing syntax inventory and thereby relative regulation.

Unlike the era of existence in the literary language, a strict consistent codification, in the donational period it prevails in it, despite the selection, the possibility of relatively wide variability (see chap. "Norm").

In a donal period, selection and relative regulation are clearly traced in cases where the literary language unites the features of several dialect areas, which is particularly clear in the history of the Netherlands XIII - XV centuries, where there was a change in leading regional version of the literary language: in XIII - XIV centuries . In connection with the economic and political flourishing of Flanders, its Western and Eastern regions become the center of development of the literary language. The West Flemish version of the literary language is replaced in this regard in the XIV century. East Flemish option, characterized by a significantly greater leveling of local characteristics. In the XV century, when a leading political, economic and cultural role begins to play a Brabant with centers in Brussels and Antwerp, a new version of the regional literary language has been developing, which combined the tradition of the older Flemish literary language and the generalized features of the local dialect, reaching a well-known unification. A similar combination of different regional traditions of the literary language is implemented only as a result of selection and more or less conscious regulation, although not received codification. Partially and the development of literary languages \u200b\u200bis carried out in connection with the change in the principle of selection. Describing the processes of development of the Russian literary language, R. I. Avanesov wrote, in particular, about the phonetic system: "The phonetic system of the literary language develops by discarding some options for one or another link and replace them with other options," but this process is due to a certain selection due to the process due to What far from all new phonetic phenomena characterizing the development of a dialect is reflected in the literary language.

Due to the fact that the selection and regulation are the most important distinguishable signs of literary languages, some scientists have made a provision that the literary language, unlike the "common language" (about the concept of "national language", see further), internal development is not peculiar At all levels of its system. For example, the development of phonetic and morphological subsystems is carried out, according to this concept, outside the "literary language". "Internal laws of development," wrote R. I. Avanesov, - inherent in the literary language primarily in such areas as the enrichment of the dictionary, in particular, word formation, syntax, semantics. " In this regard, he comes to the overall conclusion that not internal development, but the selection and regulation is characterized primarily a literary language. Such a generalized statement needs some critical comments.

Undoubtedly, as repeatedly noted in this work, it is precisely the selection and relative regulation are the most common, one can say, typological signs of literary languages. But it is hardly necessary to oppose their internal laws of development. Therefore, in general, the fair remark of R. I. Avanesov, that in applied to the phonetic system in the literary language, the selection is dominated, but not organic development, requires known reservations. Indeed, in cases where the change in the phonetic system is carried out, it would seem, regardless of the colloquial zoom, the situation does not preserve strength. For example, the accentological system of the German language has undergone significant changes due to the inclusion of foreign language vocabulary of predominantly book origin, i.e., vocabulary operating initially only in the literary language. If in relation to the ancient periods of history, the technical type of German can be characterized as having an emphasis, enshrined behind the first syllable, the appearance of productive lexical groups with an emphasis at the end of the word, for example, the verbs on -ieren (SPAZIEREN), formed by the French verb model, makes such a characteristic inaccurate. However, it is indisputable that in the application to the units of other language levels, including the morphological subsystem, specific structural features of the literary language appear more. In particular, in German, the design of a special form bud. BP. With Werden, as well as the second bud. BP, Condigenis Paradigms and Infinitive Perfect Perfect. And suffering. Pledges took place mainly in the literary language. In Finnish language, some forms of liability (passive with the verb) are drawn up, apparently under the influence of the Swedish language and are associated advantage of the book-written tradition.

Normalizations and codification - distinctive features mainly national literary languages \u200b\u200b- are prepared in previous periods of less severe, less consistent, less informed selection and regulation coexistent with broad variability. The permissibility of the options coexists with the norm and in the national period of history of languages, but in the donal period the very concept of the norm was wider, allowing another range of varying.

Vi. The ratio of the literary language and dialect - the degree of their proximity and discrepancies is crossed with the ratio of the literary language and conversational forms of communication. Obviously, the maximum is the discrepancy between old written-literary languages \u200b\u200b(in cases where they continue to function along with developing new literary languages) and dialects, as it took, in particular, in China, Japan, Arab countries, etc. However, in other historical conditions, in those countries where there is a significant dialectability and relatively stable position of the dialect, discrepancies between individual dialects and literary languages \u200b\u200bcan be quite significant. So, in Norway, one of the options of the Bokmel literary language (see below) differs from the dialect not only in the phonetic system, but also in other aspects of the language system: the comparison of the North-Norwegian Rana Merlet dialect on the Wound-Fjord - Riksmel or Bokmel detects For example, the following features: MN. h. noun types of haest "Horse" has an end in a dialect -A, in Bokmel -er; in BP. verb "coming" in a dialect - Gaem, in Bokmel - Komer; Place. "I" in dialect - EG, in Bokmel - JE; Vhib. Place. "Who", "that" in the dialect - Kem, Ke, in Bokmel - VEM, KEM, etc. .

In determining the degree of discrepancy of the literary language and the dialect, it is necessary to bear in mind that the fact that a number of construction elements characterizes exclusively a literary language. This applies not only to certain layers of vocabulary, including its foreign language reservoir, political and scientific terminology, etc., but also to build elements of morphology and syntax (see p. 522).

The literary language in some cases is the archaic of the dialect. Thus, in the Russian literary language, a system of three clans in the entire name paradigm, in the dialectically painted speech of the CP, is resistant. R. It is crowded with female forms. R. (Wed. My beautiful dress). In the German literary language, the form is preserved. Clause, whereas in dialects, it has long become non-consumable, etc. But at the same time, the dialect often retains the elements disappeared in the literary language.

The fact that different territorial dialects of the same language detect different degrees of proximity to the literary language: in Italy, Tuscany dialects were closer to the general literary language than dialects of other areas, which is associated with the processes of formation of the Italian literary language; In France, the era of the formation of the unity of the literary language is closest to it, there was a Frankie dialect, which served as the basis for the formation of a literary language; In China, the northern dialect is allocated in this regard, etc.

In this connection, the proximity of territorial dialects to those regional variants of literary languages \u200b\u200b(most advantage of the feudal era) are also noted, which are associated with the linguistic features of certain dialectic territories. In applied to the Russian language, the literary and written traditions of Kiev, Novgorod, Ryazan, Pskov, Moscow were distinguished. G. O. Vinokur Therefore, it even pointed out that "the language of the ancient Russian writing, whatever the stylistic signs he was distinguished, this is in principle a dialectic language." Disagreeable with this wording, since in principle it is the stylistic signs, a combination of Staroslavlyansky and Russian language elements led to the proper character of the language of the Old Russian monuments, we note, however, of course, the nature of these options for the written language to the characteristic features of the corresponding dialect regions.

With the question of the ratio of the system signs of the literary language and the dialect, the problem of the dialect base of national literary languages \u200b\u200bis closely connected. Without stopping here on this issue, since it is considered in more detail in other sections, we only note that, as the material from the history of different languages \u200b\u200bshows, the process of forming a single literary language of the national period is so complicated, such a pattern of this process, compared to the life of the territorial dialect and So diverse the form of a combination in this process of the characteristics of spokenage of a certain territory (and not just a dialect) and the characteristics of different intersecting books of the book language, which in the history of literary languages \u200b\u200bwith a long written tradition is rarely the unified language of the literary language is the codification of the system of dialective signs of one of the locality . This was noted in studies on the material of different languages, many authors, the most consistently this point of view developed on the material of the Russian language F. P. Filin. P. A. Budagov in this regard allocates two ways to develop a literary language on the basis of a dialect: either one of the dialects (often the metropolitan or metropolitan in the future) turns into a foundation language, or the literary language absorbs elements of different dialects, exposing them to a certain processing And interpret to the new system. As examples of the first path, France, Spain, as well as England and the Netherlands, are given as examples of the second path - Italy, Slovakia. However, under the conditions of the selection of the dialect base and the interaction of various written-literary traditions, English and Netherlands literary languages \u200b\u200bare hardly suitable illustrations for the first way, since it was exactly the "absorption of the literary language of the elements of different dialects", which were subjected to processing and interpret the new system. . Doubt causes the question of which to what extent urban coins (Paris, London, Moscow, Tashkent, Tokyo, etc.) can be considered as territorial dialects in their own sense of the word. In any case, in the application of Moscow, London, Tashkent, their inter-dealectic character seems very likely. Apparently, in most cases, the system of systemic signs of territorial dialects, but urban coins, which largely or lesser extent, played the formation of unified standards of literary languages.

Introduction

Modern Russian is one of the richest languages \u200b\u200bof the world. His greatness is created by a huge vocabulary, the broad meaningfulness of words, the wealth of synonyms, inexhaustible capabilities of word formation, the numerous of the wordform, the characteristics of sounds, the mobility of the emphasis, clear and slender syntax, a variety of stylistic resources. The concepts of Russian National Language and Literary Russian language should be distinguished. National language - the language of the Russian people - covers all spheres speech activity people, regardless of education, upbringing, place of residence, profession; It includes dialects, special vocabulary, jargon, that is, the Russian national language is heterogeneous: there are special varieties of language in its composition.

Literary language and dialects

Literary language (standard) is a normalized language, which has the rules, comply with all members of society. Speaking (dialect) is the smallest territorial type of language on which residents of several districts say. The association of the dialects is called adder.

A respectful attitude to the literary language is understandable and justified: thereby realizing its cultural value and social significance. And the reasons for the dismissive attitude towards dialects go to the Soviet past. At the time of collectivization, all parties to rustic life have been updated, replaced, as a result, the traditional and tongue culture of the peasantry equally suffered.

The literary language constantly affects the dialects, and they gradually destroy. But everything is interconnected, in turn there are a standard tongue, and even partially poured into its composition. For example, the word "Bublik" was borrowed from South Russian govors. "If the literary language had taken away from dialects, from the" soil ", then he, like antea, would lose his whole strength and would like to be a dead language, which is now Latin language ..." (L.V. Stherba)

Hiking age is different: Some are very ancient, others are nobles. Dialects of primary education - dialects, which were distributed in the territories of early settlement of East Slavic tribes in the time frame from the VI and until the end of the XVI century, that is, where the Russian nation's language was developed - in the center of the European part of Russia. In spaces that were populated later than the XVI century, where people moved away from everywhere, the dialects of secondary education were formed. Because of the mixing of the people, there was a synthesis of dialect. A vivid example of this is the dialects of the Middle and Lower Volga region, Kuban, the Urals, Siberia, for whom central adverbs are "maternal".