(1908-1954) - Soviet statesman and military leader, Colonel General,...
Introduction ……………………………………………………………………….
1. Style. General characteristics of functional speech styles …………
2. Official business style of speech ……………………………………….
3. Scientific style ………………………………………………………………
4. Journalistic ………………………………………………………..
5. Artistic ………………………………………………………….
6. Conversational …………………………………………………………………
Conclusion ………………………………………………………………….
Appendix …………………………………………………………………
List of used literature ………………………………………..
INTRODUCTION
§one. General understanding of styles
The Russian language is a broad, comprehensive concept. Laws and scientific works, novels and poems, newspaper articles and court records are written in this language. The Russian language has inexhaustible possibilities for expressing thoughts, developing various topics, and creating works of any genre. However, it is necessary to use language resources skillfully, taking into account the speech situation, the goals and content of the statement, its targeting. How different, for example, in style are a private letter and a memorandum addressed to the boss! The same information receives a different language expression.
What is style?
The word style comes from the Latin language (stilus), where it meant a pointed stick for writing. At present, the word style, in short, means the manner of writing. In linguistics, there are more detailed definitions of the term.
1) Style - a kind of language, fixed in a given society by tradition for one of the most common areas of social life and partially different from other varieties of the same language in all basic parameters - vocabulary, grammar, phonetics.
2) Style - a generally accepted manner, the usual way of performing any particular type of speech acts: oratory, newspaper article, scientific lecture, judicial speech, everyday dialogue.
3) Style - an individual manner, the way in which a given speech act or literary and artistic work is performed.
§3. Functional styles of speech (general characteristics)
Our speech in an official setting (lecturing, speaking at a scientific conference or at a business meeting) differs from that used in an informal setting (talk at the festive table, friendly conversation, dialogue with relatives).
Depending on the goals and objectives that are set and solved in the process of communication, language means are selected. As a result, varieties of a single literary language are created, called functional styles .
Functional styles are understood as historically established and socially fixed systems of speech means used in a particular area of communication or professional activity.
In the modern Russian literary language, there are bookstores functional styles:
scientific,
formal business,
publicist,
Literary and artistic
which appear primarily in written language, and
· colloquial , which is characterized mainly by the oral form of speech.
Each of the five styles has a number of specific speech characteristics.
In the field of scientific activity (when writing scientific articles, term papers and theses, monographs and dissertations), it is customary to use scientific style, the main properties of which are the clarity and logic of presentation, as well as the lack of expression of emotions.
Formal business style serves to convey information in the field of management. The official business style is used in statements, powers of attorney, business letters, orders and laws. For him, even more than for the scientific style, clarity and unemotional presentation are important. Another important property of the official business style is standardity. People who draw up statements, orders or laws are obliged to follow tradition and write as they wrote before them, as is customary.
Another bookish style of literary language - journalistic. It is used in cases where it is necessary not only to convey information, but also to influence the thoughts or feelings of people in a certain way, to interest them or to convince them of something. Journalistic style is the style of informational or analytical broadcasts on television and radio, the style of newspapers, the style of speaking at meetings. Unlike the scientific and official-business style, the journalistic style is characterized by expressiveness and emotionality.
As opposed to all book styles, as mentioned above, conversational style. This is a style that is used in informal everyday, everyday communication between people in an unprepared oral speech. Therefore, its characteristic features are incompleteness of expression and emotionality.
In a special way correlates with all listed styles style fiction. Since literature reflects all spheres of human life, it can use the means of any styles of the literary language, and if necessary, not only them, but also dialects, jargons and vernacular. The main function of the language of fiction is aesthetic.
The main feature of the style of artistic speech is the search for the specifics of the artistic text, the creative self-expression of the artist of the word.
§4. Genres of functional speech styles
Functional styles of speech are realized in various genres.
1. Scientific: textbooks on the specialty, monograph, scientific article, abstract, abstract, synopsis, theses, term paper, lecture, diploma work.
2. Official business: documents, business letters, reports, orders, orders, contracts, decrees, business conversations.
3.journalistic: parliamentary speech, reports, interview, essay, feuilleton, discussion speech, informational note.
4. Art Key words: novel, short story, short story, short story, essay, poem, poem, ballad.
5.Colloquial: conversations in the family, showdown, discussion of plans, friendly communication, anecdote.
TOPIC 2. OFFICIAL-BUSINESS STYLE OF SPEECH
§one. Official business style of speech (general characteristics)
Official business style is a style that serves the legal and administrative-public spheres of activity. It is used when writing documents, business papers and letters in government agencies, courts, as well as in various types of business oral communication.
Among book styles, the formal business style stands out for its relative stability and isolation. Over time, it naturally undergoes some changes, but many of its features: historically established genres, specific vocabulary, morphology, syntactic turns - give it a generally conservative character.
The official business style is characterized by dryness, the absence of emotionally colored words, conciseness, compactness of presentation.
In official papers, the set of language tools used is predetermined. The most striking feature of the official business style is the language stamps, or the so-called clichés (French. clich). A document is not expected to show the individuality of its author, on the contrary, the more clichéd a document is, the more convenient it is to use.
Formal business style- this is the style of documents of different genres: international treaties, state acts, legal laws, regulations, charters, instructions, official correspondence, business papers, etc. But, despite the differences in content and variety of genres, the official business style as a whole is characterized by common and most important features. These include:
1) accuracy, excluding the possibility of other interpretations;
2) locale.
These features find their expression a) in the selection of language means (lexical, morphological and syntactic); b) in the preparation of business documents.
Consider the features of the vocabulary, morphology and syntax of the official business style.
§2. Linguistic signs of an official business style of speech
Lexical features of the official business style of speech
The lexical (dictionary) system of the official business style, in addition to common book and neutral words, includes:
1) language stamps (stationery, cliches) : raise a question, based on the decision, incoming-outgoing documents, impose control over the execution, after the expiration of the deadline.
2) professional terminology : arrears, alibis, black cash, shadow business;
3) archaisms : I hereby certify this document.
In the official business style, the use of polysemantic words, as well as words in figurative meanings, is unacceptable, and synonyms are used extremely rarely and, as a rule, belong to the same style: supply = supply = collateral, solvency = creditworthiness, depreciation = depreciation, appropriation = subsidization and etc.
Official business speech reflects not individual, but social experience, as a result of which its vocabulary is extremely generalized. In an official document, preference is given to generic terms, for example: arrive (instead of arrive, arrive, arrive etc.), vehicle (instead of bus, plane, Zhiguli etc.), locality (instead of village, town, village etc.), etc.
Morphological features of the official business style of speech
The morphological features of this style include the repeated (frequency) use of certain parts of speech (and their types). Among them are the following:
1) nouns - names of people on the basis of the action ( taxpayer, tenant, witness);
2) nouns denoting positions and titles in the masculine form ( Sergeant Petrova, Inspector Ivanova);
3) verbal nouns with a particle not- (deprivation, non-compliance, non-recognition);
Style is the main element of speech. In fact, this is the “clothing” of the text, its design. And people's clothes say a lot.
A man in a formal suit is probably a business worker, and a guy in sneakers and stretched sweatpants either went out for bread, or is still an athlete.
So, according to the stylistic “clothing” of the text, one can understand in what area it “works” - it functions.
Workshop "Tasty text"
For those who want to write brightly, figuratively, stylishly. Come if your texts have such problems:
… boring to read;
… the texts are like an information guide;
… there is a narrative, but no emotion
... the text is impersonal and gray, it has no brightness, but there are a lot of repetitions and clericalism.
Speaking scientifically, style is a system of various linguistic means and the ways in which they are organized, which has developed over the entire historical period of language development. The use of each of the established systems is typical for a strictly defined sphere of human communication: for example, the scientific sphere, official business, the sphere of mass media, fiction, or the sphere of communication in everyday life or the Internet.
By the way, pay attention: in some sources, text styles are called speech styles. Both phrases are one and the same.
Types of text (speech) styles
The Russian language has historically developed four functional styles. Later, the style of fiction emerged from the journalistic style.
Thus, five styles of speech are currently distinguished:
How to distinguish one style from another? For example, a men's business suit is a combination of trousers, shirt, tie, jacket and shoes. And style is also a combination of certain "objects" - elements: words, sentences (syntactic constructions) and text structure.
Characteristics of speech styles
So, how to identify the scientific style by "clothes"?
Rich expressive-emotional vocabulary. Metaphors and comparisons at every turn. "Tint" words - slang, abusive, outdated. Sentence constructions that are easy to understand (“Darkness”). Bright author's position.
How to recognize?
First of all, it is a style for everyday live communication between people. In writing, it is used when the author wants to establish closer, personal contact with his readers. In the colloquial style, personal notes on the blog, selling texts, notes from social networks, etc. are often written. It is characterized by lively speech, pronounced expression, colloquial and colloquial words and phrases, colorfulness, high subjectivity and evaluativeness, repetitions, incomplete sentences . Sometimes obscene language is also used.
Thus, when working on a text, it is important to combine stylistic elements. Otherwise, you run the risk of being left without a reader, and the manuscript is closed in the table. Why? Are you going to get a job in the office in torn jeans and an elongated T-shirt? It seems not.
So you shouldn't write in a scientific style. However, in an artistic style, you can use elements of each - scientific, colloquial, journalistic ... The main thing is to understand why you are doing this, for what purpose, what effect you want to achieve.
Therefore, in order not to look stupid, find out the features of different styles, their elements and learn how to work with them.
And do not forget - they are greeted by clothes. And not only people, but also texts.
Stylistics(the word "style" comes from the name of the needle, or stylet with which the ancient Greeks wrote on waxed tablets) is a branch of the science of language that studies the styles of the literary language (functional styles of speech), the patterns of language functioning in different areas of use, the features of the use of language means in depending on the situation, content and goals of the statement, the scope and conditions of communication. Stylistics introduces the stylistic system of the literary language at all its levels and the stylistic organization of correct (in compliance with the norms of the literary language), accurate, logical and expressive speech.
Stylistics teaches the conscious and expedient use of the laws of language and the use of linguistic means in speech.
There are two directions in linguistic stylistics: language stylistics and speech stylistics (functional stylistics). The stylistics of the language explores the stylistic structure of the language, describes the stylistic means of vocabulary, phraseology and grammar.
Functional stylistics studies, first of all, different types of speech, their conditionality by different goals of the utterance. M. N. Kozhina gives the following definition: “Functional stylistics is a linguistic science that studies the features and patterns of the functioning of the language in various types of speech corresponding to certain areas of human activity and communication, as well as the speech structure of the resulting functional styles and “norms "selection and combination of language means in them".
At its core, style should be consistently functional. It should reveal the connection of different types of speech with the subject, the purpose of the statement, with the conditions of communication, the addressee of the speech, the attitude of the author to the subject of the speech. The most important category of style is functional styles- varieties of literary speech (literary language), serving various aspects of social life. Styles are different ways of using language in communication.
Each style of speech is characterized both by the originality of the selection of language means, and by their unique combination with each other.
Thus, five styles of the Russian literary language are distinguished:
Colloquial;
Official business;
Scientific;
journalistic;
Art.
Colloquial speech serves for direct communication, when we share our thoughts or feelings with others, exchange information on everyday issues. It often uses colloquial and colloquial vocabulary. The conversational style is characterized by emotionality, figurativeness, concreteness, and simplicity of speech.
In colloquial speech, the emotionality of the utterance, unlike artistic speech, is not the result of creative work, artistic skill. It is a living reaction to events, to the actions of people around.
Easy communication causes greater freedom in the choice of emotional words and expressions: colloquial words are used more widely (stupid, rotosey, talking shop, giggle, cackle), vernacular (neigh, deadhead, awful, stupid), slang words (ancestors - parents ).
In colloquial speech, words with evaluation suffixes are often used, especially diminutive ones: candle, candle (neutral candle), window, window (neutral window), etc.
The conversational style is characterized by simple sentences, a dialogic form of speech, and appeals. The content of colloquial speech, sounding in direct communication, is replenished by the situation of speech. Therefore, incomplete sentences are inherent in the colloquial style: only that which complements the interlocutor's replicas of new information that develops the topic of speech finds expression in them.
An example of colloquial speech: A month before leaving Moscow, we had no money - it was dad who was preparing for fishing... And so the fishing began. My father sat down on the shore, laid out all his household, lowered the cage into the water, threw in his fishing rods - there was no fish.
scientific style is the style of scientific communication. His genres are scientific article, educational literature.
The scientific style of speech is characterized by the use of terms and abstract words; emotional colloquial vocabulary, phraseological units, etc. are completely excluded; widespread use of verbal nouns, participles and participles, the predominance of the genitive and nominative case of the name, verb forms of the present tense of the 3rd person, etc .; the use of complex sentences, including multicomponent ones, etc.
The main purpose of a scientific text is to describe phenomena, objects, name them and explain. General features of the scientific style vocabulary are: the use of words in their direct meaning; lack of figurative means (epithets, metaphors, artistic comparisons, hyperbole, etc.)? wide use of abstract vocabulary and terms. For example: The most important economic and biological characteristics of varieties are: resistance to growing conditions (climate, soil, pests and diseases), durability, transportability and storage time. (G. Fetisov)
Formal business style used for communication, informing in an official setting (the sphere of legislation, office work, administrative and legal activities). Within the framework of this style, various documents are drawn up: laws, orders, resolutions, characteristics, protocols, receipts, certificates.
In the official business style there is no place for the manifestation of the author's individuality, therefore its main style feature is formality and accuracy. The business style is characterized by special vocabulary (decree, protocol, resolution, etc.) and stable combinations (make a decision, consider invalid, should be indicated, should be kept in mind, etc.).
An example of a formal business style of speech:
SYSTEM MENU
The system menu is called by the button located in the upper left corner of the window. The commands in this menu are standardized for all applications in the Windows environment. The system menu is available in every document window. It can be called even if the window is minimized to an icon by clicking on the icon once with the mouse button. There is also a way to open the system menu through the keyboard - using the key combination.
System menu commands are selected using the mouse, cursor keys, or by typing underlined letters in the command name along with . (V. Pasko)
Journalistic style- this is the style of newspapers, magazines, literary-critical books and articles, speeches on social and political topics in any audience in direct contact with the addressees of the speech, as well as speeches on radio, television, etc.
The main task is to influence the listener or reader in order to encourage him (them) to act, think, etc. The main topics are socio-political and moral-ethical problems.
In speeches on socio-political topics, there is a lot of specific vocabulary and phraseological units: society, debates, parliament, tough measures, social explosion, stand guard, etc.
In order to influence the listener or reader in journalism, words and expressions are widely used that have positive-evaluative (valiant, wonderful, etc.) and negative-evaluative coloring (false philanthropy, thugs, yellow press, and etc.).
The journalistic style is freer in the choice of language means than the scientific and business style. Proverbs, popular expressions, phraseological units, artistic and visual means (comparisons, metaphors, etc.), colloquial vocabulary are appropriate in journalism; interrogative (often rhetorical questions) and exclamatory sentences, appeals and other techniques are widely used.
An example of a journalistic style of speech:
Needless to say, Russia is rich in natural resources, mineral reserves - everyone knows about it. But its real wealth is people, their intelligence, knowledge and experience. Outside of Russia, they have long understood what the truly inexhaustible source of our wealth is. As before, many young scientists are trying to go to the West. And the reason for this is not always money. Often there is no necessary equipment in laboratories, conditions for work. How to fix the situation? First of all, you need to learn how to correctly evaluate knowledge - the way it is done in all developed countries (according to V. A. Makarov)
Artistic speech- the speech of fiction (prose and poetry). Artistic speech, influencing the imagination and feelings of readers, conveys the thoughts and feelings of the author, uses all the richness of vocabulary, the possibilities of different styles, is characterized by figurativeness, emotionality.
The emotionality of artistic speech differs significantly from the emotionality of colloquial everyday and journalistic styles, primarily in that it performs an aesthetic function.
Elements of other styles easily penetrate into artistic speech, if they are necessary for the realization of certain goals and objectives, therefore it is distinguished by its diversity, stylistic diversity. So, to recreate a historical era, writers use historicisms (or archaisms), to describe the life of people in any locality - dialectisms, etc.
An example of artistic speech:
“Everything that you will meet on Nevsky Prospekt, everything is full of decency: men in long frock coats, with their hands in their pockets, ladies in hats. Here you will find unique sideburns, passed with unusual and amazing art under a tie, velvet, satin, black sideburns, like sable or coal, but, alas, belonging to only one foreign collegium ...
Here you will meet a wonderful mustache, no pen, no brush depicted; the mustache, to which the better half of life is devoted, is the subject of long vigils during the day and night, the mustache, on which the most delicious perfumes and aromas have poured out ... Thousands of varieties of hats, dresses, scarves - colorful, light, ... - will blind at least whom on Nevsky Prospekt. (N. Gogol)
Functional styles of the Russian language. Brief characteristics, features
- Content.
- Introduction. 3
- Bases of classification of functional styles. 3
- On the speech system of functional styles. 4
- Differentiation of functional styles. 5
- Brief characteristics and features of functional styles 6
- Formal business style 6
- Scientific style 7
- Journalistic style 8
- Fiction style 8
- Conversational style 9
- Table of differential features of functional styles 11
Introduction
Functional style is a historically developed and socially conscious variety of the literary language (its subsystem), functioning in a certain area of human activity and communication, created by the peculiarities of the use of language means in this area and their specific organization.
The concept of style (or syllable) as a special quality of speech originated in ancient poetics and rhetoric (Greek stylos ¾ a stick pointed at one end, which was used to write on wax tablets; the other end of the stick had the shape of a spatula ¾ they leveled the wax, erasing what was written). The ancients said: “Turn the stylus!”, which literally meant ‘erase what is written’, and figuratively ¾ ‘work on the syllable, think over what is written’. With the development of the science of language, the ideas of scientists about what style is have changed. Contradictory opinions on this issue are expressed by modern scientists. However, the common thing is the recognition of the functional nature of styles, their connection with a certain sphere of speech communication and types of human activity, the understanding of style as a historically established and socially conscious set of methods of using, selecting and combining language units.
Bases of classification of functional styles.
The classification of styles is based on extralinguistic factors: the scope of the language, the topics determined by it and the goals of communication. The spheres of application of the language correlate with the types of human activity corresponding to the forms of social consciousness (science, law, politics, art). Traditional and socially significant areas of activity are: scientific, business (administrative legal), socio-political, artistic. Accordingly, they also distinguish styles of official speech (bookish): scientific, official business, journalistic, literary and artistic (artistic). They are opposed to the style of informal speech ¾ colloquial everyday (colloquial), the extralinguistic basis of which is the sphere of domestic relations and communication (everyday life as an area of people's relations outside their direct production and socio-political activities).
The spheres of application of the language largely influence the subject and content of the statement. Each of them has its own current topics. For example, in the scientific sphere, first of all, the problems of scientific knowledge of the world are discussed, in the sphere of everyday relations - everyday issues. However, the same topic can be discussed in different areas, but the goals are not the same, as a result of which the statements differ in content. More V.G. Belinsky noted: “The philosopher speaks in syllogisms, the poet in images, pictures; but both say the same thing ... One proves, the other shows, and both convince, only one ¾ by logical arguments, the other ¾ by pictures.
Often, the classification of functional styles is associated with the functions of the language, understood as certain goals of communication. So, the classification of styles is known on the basis of three functions of the language: communication, message and impact. The functions of communication are most consistent with the conversational style, messages ¾ scientific and official business, impact ¾ journalistic and literary and artistic. However, with such a classification, there is no differentiating basis that makes it possible to distinguish between scientific and officially business, journalistic and literary and artistic styles. The functions of the language characterize it as a whole and are inherent to one degree or another in any style. In speech reality, these functions intersect and interact with each other; a particular utterance usually performs not one, but several functions. Therefore, the functions of the language in the classification of styles can only be considered in combination with other factors.
The scope of the language, the subject and goals of the statement determine the essential features of the style, its main style-forming features. For a scientific style, ¾ is a generalized abstract nature of presentation and emphasized logic; for an officially businesslike ¾, it prescribes the obligatory nature of speech and accuracy that does not allow for discrepancies; for colloquial ¾, ease, spontaneity and unpreparedness of communication, etc.
Style-forming factors determine the peculiarities of the functioning of language means in a particular style, their specific organization.
On the speech system of functional styles.
In each style, it is possible to distinguish stylistically colored language units that are used only or mainly in this area (this applies primarily to units of the lexical level): in colloquial style ¾ colloquial and colloquial vocabulary and phraseology, in scientific ¾ scientific terminology and stable phrases of a terminological nature, in journalistic ¾ socio-political vocabulary. However, style should not be understood only as a combination of stylistically marked means, as a result of the summation of units of one stylistic coloring in the process of functioning of the language. The same linguistic means (especially units of phonetic, morphological and syntactic levels) can be used in different fields of activity, uniting all styles into a single language system. In the process of functioning, in accordance with the communicative task, there is a selection of language means and their peculiar organization, due to which these units are interconnected in terms of functional meaning. As a result, a style is created with a diverse composition of language means, but unified in terms of semantically functional coloring and meaning, and a functionally stylistic consistency inherent in this style is formed. The extralinguistic basis, specific for this or that sphere of application of the language, determines the general stylistic coloring of speech, which forms a peculiar quality of speech, perceived as a style.
Depending on the goals and objectives of communication, content and speech situation in a functional style, certain language units are activated in a certain semantic meaning. So, for example, terms can be used in any style, but most often they are found in scientific and official business, organically enter only into the systems of these styles, being their obligatory natural link. They are not included in the systems of colloquial and literary and artistic styles, their use here is largely accidental (it is due to the topic of the conversation or the tasks of artistic representation of the scientific or business sphere). With this use, the terms most often lose their accuracy, they are actually determinologized.
Each style creates its own intra-style system, all units of the literary language serve as material for this, but some have a greater degree of productivity, others ¾ less. The functional style, as it were, produces its own redistribution of linguistic means: from the general literary language, it selects, first of all, what corresponds to its internal needs and tasks. Thus, the unity of style is created not only and even not so much by stylistically marked units, but by the ratio of language means common to all styles, the nature of their selection and combination, and the laws of functioning of language units in a given area of communication.
In specific texts, there may be certain deviations from the average norm, from the typical features of the organization of linguistic material in one or another functional style. They are usually due to the fact that some additional (or additional) is added to the main task of communication, i.e. the extralinguistic basis becomes more complicated. For example, there is a need not only to inform about a scientific discovery, but also to talk about it in a popular form. In this case, the text will use elements borrowed from fiction and journalism (figurative comparisons, rhetorical questions, question-answer moves, etc.), colloquial intonations and syntactic constructions, etc. But all these elements must obey a single goal, due to which a common functional stylistic coloring is achieved.
Differentiation of functional styles.
Functional styles, as the largest varieties of the literary language (macrostyles), undergo further intra-style differentiation. In each style, substyles (microstyles) are distinguished, which in turn are subdivided into even more particular varieties. It should be noted that the differentiation of functional styles lacks a single basis, since it is based on additional (in relation to the main) factors specific to each style.
In the official business style, depending on the purpose of the texts, legislative, diplomatic and clerical (administrative clerical) sub-styles are distinguished. The first includes the language of legislative documents related to the activities of state bodies, the second ¾ the language of diplomatic documents related to the field of international relations. The clerical style includes, on the one hand, official correspondence between institutions and organizations, and on the other, ¾ private business papers.
Varieties of scientific style are determined by the specifics of various types of scientific communication (nature of the addressee, purpose). It has formed its own scientific, scientific educational and popular scientific sub-styles.
Features of journalistic style are determined by the specifics of the media. Depending on this, it is possible to single out newspaper journalistic, radio, television journalistic and oratorical sub-styles.
The stylistic differentiation of artistic style primarily corresponds to three types of literature: lyrics (poetic substyle), epic (prose) and drama (dramatic).
In the colloquial style, varieties are distinguished due to the communication environment ¾ official (colloquial official substyle) and informal (colloquial household substyle).
Any substyle, as well as style, is realized in the totality of certain types of texts. For example, in the newspaper journalistic substyle, these are such types of texts as newsreel, reportage, interview, essay, feuilleton, article; in the actual scientific ¾ monograph, abstract, report, theses, etc.; in educational scientific ¾ textbook, study guide, diploma or term paper, etc., in clerical underlay ¾ application, announcement, act, power of attorney, receipt, characteristic, etc. Each of these types of texts can be called a genre. A genre in linguistics is understood as "a kind, a kind of speech, determined by the given conditions of the situation and the purpose of use."
The specificity of genres, as well as style as a whole, is determined by extralinguistic factors and is created by the peculiarities of the functioning of linguistic means in specific communication conditions. For example, chronicle information differs significantly from an essay, interview, reportage not only in its structure and composition, but also in the nature of the use of language means.
Each text, based on its content, composition, specifics of the selection and organization of linguistic means in it, can be attributed to a certain style, sub-style and genre. For example, even such a short statement as I ask you to grant me another vacation contains signs of an official business style, administrative clerical style, and a statement genre. But each text is individual to some extent, it reflects the individual stylistic features of the author, since the choice of language means from a number of possible ones is carried out by the speaker (or writer), taking into account the characteristics of a particular genre. Rich opportunities to show individuality are provided by different genres of literary and artistic style, most of the genres of journalism. As for chronicle information, the genre of which requires the complete elimination of the author's "I", it is devoid of individual stylistic features, just like many genres of official business style that do not allow variation.
Thus, the functional style differentiation of speech is not reduced to five main styles, it is a rather complex picture. Each style is subdivided into sub-styles, in which, in turn, more particular varieties are distinguished, up to the manifestation of the individual characteristics of the author. In addition, it should be borne in mind that in linguistic reality there are no sharp boundaries between functional and stylistic varieties, there are many transitional phenomena. So, in parallel with the wide development of technology, the introduction of scientific achievements into production, genres appeared that combine the features of scientific and official business styles (patents, instructive texts explaining how to handle technology, etc.). A newspaper article on a scientific topic combines the features of scientific and journalistic styles, a review of ¾ scientific and business, etc. “Styles, being in close interaction, can partially mix and penetrate one into the other. In individual use, the boundaries of styles can shift even more sharply, and one style can be used in the function of another to achieve one goal or another. However, most often one of the styles acts as the main one, and elements of other styles appear against its background. Any specific utterance is carried out in accordance with the basic functional and stylistic norms of a particular style, which makes it possible to determine whether the utterance belongs to this style, despite the fact that it may contain features that are not typical for this style as a whole.
Brief characteristics and features of functional styles.
Formal business style
In a number of book styles, the official business style is outlined most clearly. It serves legal and administrative activities when communicating in government institutions, in court, in business and diplomatic negotiations: business speech provides the scope of official business relations and functions in the field of law and politics. Officially, business style is implemented in the texts of laws, decrees, orders, instructions, contracts, agreements, orders, acts, in business correspondence of institutions, as well as in legal certificates, etc. Despite the fact that this style undergoes major changes under the influence of socio-historical shifts in society, it stands out among other functional varieties of the language for its stability, traditionalism, isolation and standardization.
The authors of the textbook “Culture of Russian Speech” note: “Business style ¾ is a set of language means, the function of which is to serve the sphere of official business relations, i.e. relations arising between state bodies, between organizations or within them, between organizations and individuals in the course of their production, economic, legal activities. And further: “The breadth of this sphere makes it possible to distinguish at least three sub-styles (varieties) of business style: 1) actually officially business (clerical); 2) legal (language of laws and decrees); 3) diplomatic".
Standardization of business speech (primarily the language of mass standard documentation) is one of the most noticeable features of the official business style. The standardization process is developing mainly in two directions: a) the widespread use of ready-made, already established verbal formulas, stencils, stamps (for example, standard syntactic models with denominative prepositions in order, in connection with, in accordance with, etc., which is quite naturally, since it greatly simplifies and facilitates the process of compiling typical texts of business papers), b) in the frequent repetition of the same words, forms, turns, constructions, in striving for the uniformity of ways of expressing thoughts in the same situations, in refusing to use the expressive means of the language .
Other features of the official business style (except for standardization) are accuracy, imperativeness, objectivity and documentation, specificity, formality, conciseness.
scientific style
This functionally stylistic variety of the literary language serves various branches of science (exact, natural, humanitarian, etc.), the field of technology and production and is implemented in monographs, scientific articles, dissertations, abstracts, theses, scientific reports, lectures, educational and scientific and technical literature, messages on scientific topics, etc.
Here it is necessary to note a number of essential functions that this stylistic variety performs: 1) reflection of reality and storage of knowledge (epistemic function); 2) obtaining new knowledge (cognitive functions); 3) transfer of special information (communicative function).
The main form of implementation of the scientific style is written speech, although with the increasing role of science in society, the expansion of scientific contacts, the development of mass media, the role of oral communication increases. Realized in various genres and forms of presentation, the scientific style is characterized by a number of common extra and intralinguistic features that allow us to speak of a single functional style that is subject to intra-style differentiation.
The main communicative task of communication in the scientific field is the expression of scientific concepts and conclusions. Thinking in this field of activity is of a generalized, abstracted (distracted from private, non-essential features), logical character. This is the reason for such specific features of the scientific style as abstraction, generalization, emphasized logical presentation.
These extra-linguistic features unite all linguistic means that form the scientific style into a system and determine secondary, more particular, style features: semantic accuracy (unambiguous expression of thought), informative richness, objectivity of presentation, ugliness, hidden emotionality.
The dominant factor in the organization of linguistic means and scientific style is their generalized abstract nature at the lexical and grammatical levels of the language system. Generalization and abstractness give scientific speech a single functional stylistic coloring.
The scientific style is characterized by the widespread use of abstract vocabulary, clearly prevailing over the concrete: evaporation, freezing, pressure, thinking, reflection, radiation, weightlessness, acidity, changeability, etc.
Journalistic style
The journalistic (socially journalistic) style is associated with the socio-political sphere of communication. This style is implemented in newspaper and magazine articles on political and other socially significant topics, in oratory speeches at rallies and meetings, on radio, television, etc.
Some researchers consider the journalistic style to be fundamentally heterogeneous, according to others (their absolute majority), a specific stylistic unity and integrity can be traced already in this heterogeneity itself. Common features of style with varying degrees of activity are manifested in separate sub-styles: newspaper journalistic, radio, television journalistic and oratorical. However, the boundaries of these substyles are not sharply delineated, often blurred.
One of the important features of the journalistic style is the combination within its framework of the two functions of language ¾ of the function of the message (informative) and the function of influence (impacting, or expressive). The speaker uses this style when he needs not only to convey some kind of information (message), but also to make a certain impact on the addressee (often massive). Moreover, the author, conveying the facts, expresses his attitude towards them. This is the reason for the bright emotionally expressive coloring of the journalistic style, which is not characteristic of either scientific or official business speech. The journalistic style as a whole is subject to one constructive principle - the alternation of "expression and standards" (V.G. Kostomarov).
Depending on the genre, either expression or standard comes first. If the main purpose of the reported information is to arouse a certain attitude towards it, then expression comes to the fore (most often this is observed in pamphlets, feuilletons and other genres). In the genres of a newspaper article, newsreel, etc., striving for maximum information content, standards prevail.
Standards due to various reasons (unmotivated inclusion in communication zones, prolonged frequent use, etc.) can turn into speech stamps.
Fiction style
The question of the language of fiction and its place in the system of functional styles is solved ambiguously. The following are given as arguments against singling out the style of fiction: 1) the language of fiction is not included in the concept of literary language; 2) it is multi-styled, not closed, does not have specific signs that would be inherent in the language of fiction as a whole; 3) the language of fiction has a special, aesthetic function, which is expressed in a very specific use of linguistic means.
Of course, the language of fiction and literary language are not identical concepts. The relationship between them is quite complex. In the language of fiction, the best qualities of the literary language are most fully and vividly reflected; this is its model, which is equal to in the selection and use of language means. At the same time, the language of fiction in many cases goes beyond the limits of the literary language into the area of the language of the national, nationwide, using all its stylistic resources, from the “lowest” to the “highest”. It can include linguistic features and even whole fragments of various functional styles (scientific, official business, journalistic, colloquial). However, this is not a "mixture" of styles, since the use of linguistic means in fiction is due to the author's intention and content of the work, i.e. stylistically motivated. Elements of other styles in a work of art are used for an aesthetic function rather than the one they serve in the source style.
One cannot but agree with the opinion of M.N. Kozhina that “bringing artistic speech beyond the limits of functional styles impoverishes our understanding of the functions of the language. If we deduce artistic speech from among the functional styles, but consider that the literary language exists in a variety of functions, ¾ and this cannot be denied, ¾ then it turns out that the aesthetic function is not one of the functions of the language. The use of language in the aesthetic sphere is one of the highest achievements of the literary language, and because of this, neither the literary language ceases to be such when it enters a work of art, nor the language of fiction ceases to be a manifestation of the literary language.
The language of fiction, despite the stylistic heterogeneity, despite the fact that the author's individuality is clearly manifested in it, still differs in a number of specific features that make it possible to distinguish artistic speech from any other style.
The features of the language of fiction as a whole are determined by several factors. It is characterized by broad metaphor, figurativeness of language units of almost all levels, the use of synonyms of all types, ambiguity, different stylistic layers of vocabulary. "All means, including neutral ones, are called upon to serve here as an expression of the system of images, the artist's poetic thought." In the artistic style (compared to other functional styles) there are laws of perception of the word. The meaning of a word is largely determined by the author's goal setting, genre and compositional features of the work of art, of which this word is an element: firstly, in the context of a given literary work, it can acquire artistic ambiguity that is not recorded in dictionaries, and secondly, it retains its connection with ideological and aesthetic system of this work and is assessed by us as beautiful or ugly, sublime or base, tragic or comic.
Conversational style
The colloquial style, as one of the varieties of the literary language, serves the sphere of easy communication of people in everyday life, in the family, as well as the sphere of informal relations at work, in institutions, etc.
The main form of implementation of the colloquial style is oral speech, although it can also be manifested in writing (informal friendly letters, notes on everyday topics, diary entries, replicas of characters in plays, in certain genres of fiction and journalistic literature). In such cases, the features of the oral form of speech are fixed.
The main extra-linguistic features that determine the formation of a conversational style are: ease (which is possible only with informal relations between speakers and in the absence of an attitude towards a message that has an official character), immediacy and unpreparedness of communication. Both the sender of speech and its recipient are directly involved in the conversation, often changing roles, the relationship between them is established in the act of speech itself. Such speech cannot be preliminarily considered; the direct participation of the addresser and the addressee determines its predominantly dialogic character, although a monologue is also possible.
A conversational monologue is a form of informal story about any events, about something seen, read or heard, and is addressed to a specific listener (listeners) with whom the speaker must establish contact. The listener naturally reacts to the story by expressing agreement, disagreement, surprise, indignation, and so on. or asking the speaker about something. Therefore, the monologue in colloquial speech is not as clearly opposed to the dialogue as in writing.
A characteristic feature of colloquial speech is emotionality, expressiveness, evaluative reaction. So, the question was written! instead of No, they didn't, emotionally expressive responses usually follow, such as Where did they write it! or Straight ¾ wrote!; Where did they write it!; So they wrote!; It's easy to say ¾ wrote! etc.
An important role in colloquial speech is played by the atmosphere of speech communication, the situation, as well as non-verbal means of communication (gestures, facial expressions, the nature of the relationship of the interlocutors, etc.).
The extralinguistic features of the conversational style are associated with its most common linguistic features, such as standardization, stereotypical use of language means, their incomplete structure at the syntactic, phonetic and morphological levels, discontinuity and inconsistency of speech from a logical point of view, weakening of syntactic links between parts of the statement or their lack of formality. , sentence breaks with various insertions, repetitions of words and sentences, the widespread use of linguistic means with a pronounced emotionally expressive coloring, the activity of language units of a specific meaning and the passivity of units with an abstract generalized meaning.
Conversational speech has its own norms, which in many cases do not coincide with the norms of book speech, fixed in dictionaries, reference books, grammars (codified). The norms of colloquial speech, in contrast to the book ones, are established by usage (custom) and are not consciously supported by anyone. However, native speakers feel them and any unmotivated deviation from them is perceived as a mistake.
Table of Differential Features of Functional Styles
Styles Colloquial BOOK
Formal Business Scientific Publicistic Literary Fiction
Sphere of communication Household Administrative legal Scientific Socio-political Artistic
Main functions Communication Message Message Informative and expressive Aesthetic
Substyles Colloquial everyday, colloquial official Legislative, diplomatic, clerical Prosely scientific, scientifically educational, popular scientific Newspaper journalistic, radio television journalistic, oratorical Prose, drama, poetic
Main genre varieties Casual casual conversations, dialogues, private letters, notes Various business documents, resolutions, laws, decrees, etc. Scientific papers, reports, lectures, textbooks, reference manuals, popular science talks, etc. Newspaper and magazine articles, essays, speeches on socio-political topics; leaflets, proclamations, etc. Prose, poetic and dramatic works
Style-forming features Ease, spontaneity and unpreparedness; emotionality, expressiveness, evaluative reaction; specificity of the content Imperative (prescriptive, obligatory nature of speech); accuracy without discrepancies; consistency, formality, impassivity, impersonal nature of speech Generalized abstract nature of presentation, emphasized logic; semantic accuracy, informative saturation, objectivity of presentation, ugliness Alternation of expression and standard Artistic figurative concretization; emotionality, expressiveness, individualization
General language features Standard, stereotypical use of language units; incompletely structured formality, discontinuity and inconsistency of speech Standard, striving for stylistic homogeneity of the text, orderly nature of the use of linguistic means Generalized abstract nature of lexical and grammatical means; stylistic homogeneity, orderly nature of the use of linguistic means Combination of expression and standard Subordination of the use of linguistic means of figurative thought, aesthetic function, to the artistic intention of the writer
Lexical features Colloquial and colloquial vocabulary, the activity of words of a specific meaning and the passivity of words with an abstract generalized meaning; productivity of words with suffixes of subjective evaluation, vocabulary with emotionally expressive coloring Professional terms, words with official business coloring, use of words in a nominative sense, use of archaisms, complex abbreviated words, lack of vocabulary with emotionally expressive marking Scientific terminology, general scientific and book vocabulary, a clear predominance of abstract vocabulary over the concrete, the use of common words in the nominative sense, the lack of emotionally expressive vocabulary Socially journalistic vocabulary, the use of words in a figurative sense with a specific journalistic coloring, the use of expressively colored vocabulary and speech standards Rejection of template words and expressions, the widespread use of vocabulary in a figurative sense, intentional clash of vocabulary of different styles, the use of vocabulary with a two-dimensional stylistic coloring
The nature of stable combinations Colloquial and colloquial phrases (PU); stable speech standards Combinations of a terminological nature, speech clichés, attributively nominal phrases Combinations of a terminological nature, speech clichés Publicistic phraseology, speech standards of colloquial and bookish phraseological units
Morphological features Grammatical forms with colloquial and vernacular coloring, the predominance of a verb over a noun, the use of single and multiple verbs, the passivity of verbal nouns, participles and participles, the frequency of pronouns, etc. The predominance of the name over the pronoun, the use of verbal nouns in (e)nie and with the prefix of non-nominative prepositions, etc. The obvious predominance of the name over the verb, the frequency of nouns with the meaning of the attribute, action, state, the frequency of the genitive case forms, the use of the singular in the meaning of the plural , verb forms in a timeless sense, etc. The frequency of the use of genitive forms, function words, forms of the present and past tenses of verbs, the use of the singular in the meaning of the plural, participles in -omy, etc. The use of forms in which the category of concreteness is manifested, the frequency of verbs; indefinitely personal forms of verbs, neuter nouns, plural forms of abstract and real nouns, etc. are not characteristic.
Syntactic features Ellipticity, the predominance of simple sentences, the activity of interrogative and exclamatory structures, the weakening of syntactic links, the unformedness of sentences, breaks in inserts; repetitions; discontinuity and inconsistency of speech, the use of inversion, the special role of intonation Complexity of syntax (constructions with a chain of sentences that have relative completeness and independence, nominative sentences with enumeration); the predominance of declarative sentences, the use of passive constructions, constructions with denominative prepositions and verbal nouns, the use of complex sentences with a clearly expressed logical connection The predominance of simple widespread and complex sentences; widespread use of passive, vaguely personal, impersonal constructions; introductory, plug-in, clarifying constructions, participial and adverbial phrases, etc. The prevalence of expressive syntactic constructions, the frequency of constructions with isolated members, parcellation, segmentation, inversion, etc. The use of the entire arsenal of syntactic means available in the language, the widespread use of stylistic figures
Main types of speech are description , narration and reasoning .
Description- this is a type of speech, with the help of which any phenomenon of reality is depicted by listing its permanent or simultaneously present signs or actions (the content of the description can be conveyed on one frame of the camera).
In the description, most of all, words denoting qualities, properties of objects (nouns, adjectives, adverbs) are used.
Verbs are more often used in the form of the imperfect form of the past tense, and for special clarity, figurativeness of the description - in the form of the present tense. Synonyms are widely used - definitions (agreed and inconsistent) and nominal sentences.
For instance:
The sky was clear, clear, pale blue. Light white clouds, lit from one side with a pink glow, floated lazily in transparent silence. The East was red and flaming, shimmering in other places with mother-of-pearl and silver. From behind the horizon, like giant spread fingers, stretched up across the sky golden stripes from the rays of the sun that had not yet risen. (A. I. Kuprin)
The description helps to see the subject, to present it in the mind.
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Narration- this is a type of speech, with the help of which it is told about any events in their temporal sequence; successive actions or events are reported (the content of the narration can be conveyed only on a few frames of the camera).
In narrative texts, a special role belongs to verbs, especially in the form of the past tense of the imperfective form ( came, saw, developed etc.).
For instance:
And suddenly... something inexplicable, almost supernatural, happened. The Great Dane suddenly fell on its back, and some invisible force pulled it off the sidewalk. Following this, the same invisible force tightly gripped the astonished Jack's throat... Jack propped himself up with his front legs and shook his head violently. But an invisible "something" squeezed his neck so that the brown pointer lost consciousness. (A. I. Kuprin)
Narrative helps to visualize the actions, movements of people and phenomena in time and space.
reasoning- this is a type of speech, with the help of which any position, thought is proved or explained; it talks about the causes and consequences of events and phenomena, assessments and feelings (about what cannot be photographed).
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In reasoning texts, a special role belongs to introductory words indicating the connection of thoughts, the sequence of presentation ( firstly, secondly, so, therefore, therefore, on the one hand, on the other hand), as well as subordinating conjunctions with the meaning of cause, effect, concession ( in order to, in order to, because, although, in spite of the fact that etc.)
For instance:
If the writer, while working, does not see behind the words what he writes about, then the reader will not see anything behind them.
But if the writer sees well what he writes about, then the simplest and sometimes even erased words acquire novelty, act on the reader with striking force and evoke in him those thoughts, feelings and states that the writer wanted to convey to him. G. Paustovsky)
The boundaries between description, narration and reasoning are rather arbitrary. At the same time, any one type of speech is not always presented in the text. Much more often there are cases of their combination in various versions: description and narration; description and reasoning; description, narration and reasoning; description with elements of reasoning; narrative with elements of reasoning, etc.
Speech styles
Style- this is a historically established system of linguistic means and methods of their organization, which is used in a certain area of human communication (public life): the field of science, official business relations, propaganda and mass activities, verbal and artistic creativity, the field of everyday communication.
Each functional style is characterized by:
a) scope of application;
b) main functions;
c) leading style features;
d) language features;
e) specific forms (genres).
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scientific style
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scientific style is divided into three sub-styles: actually scientific , scientific and educational and popular science .
Each of these sub-styles has its own characteristics. In scientific, educational and popular science sub-styles, it is allowed to use some (separate) linguistic means characteristic of colloquial speech and journalism, including means of linguistic expressiveness (metaphors, comparisons, rhetorical questions, rhetorical exclamations, parcels and some others).
All types of speech can be presented in scientific style texts: description, narration and reasoning (most often: reasoning-proof and reasoning-explanation).
Formal business style
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Two types of speech are usually presented in formal business style texts: description and narration.
Journalistic style
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Journalistic style is divided into two sub-styles: journalistic and artistic-journalistic.
Actually journalistic style characterized by the topicality of the topic, the use of socio-political vocabulary and terminology ( deputy, power, patriot, parliament, conservatism), specific journalistic vocabulary and phraseology ( reporting, peacemaking, corridors of power, conflict resolution), the frequency of the use of borrowed words that name new economic, political, everyday, scientific and technical phenomena ( distributor, investment, inauguration, killer, croupier, rating and etc.).
The artistic and journalistic sub-style, in its linguistic features, approaches the style of fiction and is characterized by a combination of the functions of influence and persuasion with an aesthetic function, as well as the widespread use of figurative and expressive means of language, including tropes and figures.
In texts journalistic style all types of speech can occur: description, narration and reasoning.
For artistic and journalistic substyle reasoning-thinking is especially characteristic.
Art style
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In artistic style texts, as well as in journalism, all types of speech are widely used: description, narration and reasoning. Reasoning in works of art appears in the form of reasoning-reflection and is one of the most important means of revealing the inner state of the hero, the psychological characteristics of the character.
Conversational style
| Scope (Where?) | Household (informal setting) |
| Functions (why?) | Direct everyday communication; |
| Main style features | Ease, simplicity of speech, concreteness, emotionality, imagery |
| Basic language tools | Colloquial, including emotional-evaluative and expressive, vocabulary and phraseology ( potato, book, daughter, baby, long, plop, the cat cried, headlong); incomplete sentences; the use of expressive syntactic constructions characteristic of colloquial speech (interrogative and exclamatory sentences, sentence words, including interjectional ones, sentences with parcellation ( Will you come tomorrow? Be silent! Sleep would! - Are you in the cinema? - Not. Here's another! Ouch! Oh you!); |
| Genres | Friendly conversation, private conversation, everyday story, dispute, notes, private letters |
