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Peter I the Great (1672 - 1725) - an outstanding statesman, Moscow Tsar, All-Russian Emperor. Under Peter I, noble land tenure was strengthened, a bureaucratic bureaucracy with a pronounced class character was formed ("Table of Ranks," "Decree on Land Tenure," etc.). At the same time, a number of measures are being taken in the interests of the nascent bourgeoisie: the organization of commercial and industrial enterprises, the construction of factories and plants.
Peter I is trying to put science and school at the service of the practical needs of the army, navy, industry, trade, government controlled... Among the stream of decrees of Tsar Peter I, there were many related to education.
During the first quarter of the 18th century. a whole network of primary schools was created. First of all, these are digital schools, originally intended for noble, clerk, clerk and clerk children of 10-15 years old. By the end of the first quarter of the 18th century. 42 such schools were opened, mainly in provincial towns... “The great sovereign pointed out: in all provinces of nobility and clerical rank, clerk and clerk children from 10 to 15 years old, oprich of odnodvorts, to teach figures and some part of geometry, and for this teaching to send students of mathematics schools several people to the province to the bishops and to the noble monasteries, and in the bishops' houses and monasteries, to give them schools, and during that teaching to those teachers to give fodder 3 altyns, 2 money per day, from the provincial income, which were set aside by the nominal e.i.v. 1 decree; and from those disciples they have nothing at all for themselves; but how their students will learn that science perfectly: both at that time give them testified letters behind their own hand, and during that leave from those students for that teaching they have a ruble per person for themselves; and without such attested letters, they should not be married and not given crown memorials. "
But already in 1727 their number was reduced to 27. The Admiralty was in charge of them, and only clerks 'and clerks' children studied. Diocesan schools for the children of the clergy have become widespread, the beginning of which was laid back in the 17th century. According to the Spiritual Regulations, such schools have become obligatory in dioceses for the preparation of "a better and serviceable priesthood." By the end of the reign of Peter I, the number of such schools had reached 46. Finally, garrison schools for soldiers' children also occupied a prominent place among primary schools.
Special schools, which gave young people a profession in the field of industry, acquired particular importance. In 1716, a mining school appeared at the Olonets factories. In 1721, a school was established for future office workers. On the initiative of V.N. Tatishchev at the Ural factories founded schools for the children of artisans and clerks (Utkus and Kungur schools). At the beginning of the 18th century. at Ambassadorial order a school of translators was opened.
A special group of educational institutions consisted of schools preparing highly educated cadres of the clergy. First of all, it is the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy in Moscow, founded in the 17th century. Transferred to the Synod in 1727, it is now more often referred to as "schools", the first of which is Slavic-Latin. In 1727 it had 357 students. The second is Slavic-Russian (143 students), and the third is Hellenic-Greek (41 students). Last school under Stefan Yavorsky it was strangled and barely survived. Another major center of spiritual education was Kiev, where the Kiev-Mohyla Academy operated in Podil, in the Bratsk monastery. In 1727, more than 500 people studied there (Little Russians, Great Russians and "from Poland").
Finally, the most important in the system of Peter's education were technical special schools... The most famous of them is the Navigation School in Moscow. It accepted children from 12 to 17, and later up to 20 years. Preparatory students taught Russian literacy and arithmetic in two classes. Then - geometry, trigonometry with applications in geodesy, astronomy, navigation and navigation. Among the subjects were painting and "rapier". Hundreds of engineers, sailors, hydrographers, topographers, bombardiers, etc. have graduated from the Navigation School. Soon, similar schools were opened in Revel, Narva and Novgorod.
"Great sovereign, king and Grand Duke Peter Alekseevich, the autocrat of all Great and Small and White Russia ... indicated by his own great sovereign by command ... to be mathematical and navigational, that is, cunningly nautical sciences to study. In the teaching of those sciences, to be born in the English land: mathematical - to Andrey Danilov's son Farhvarson, navigational - to Stepan Gvyn, and the knight Gryz; and to be in charge of those sciences for everyone in supplying management in the Armory to boyar Fyodor Alekseevich Golovin and his comrades, and it is up to those sciences to teach voluntarily those who want, others more and more with compulsion; and to feed the poor with daily fodder according to arithmetic or geometry: if anyone finds it somewhat skillful, five altyns a day; and to others for a hryvnia and less, having examined some of the art of teaching; and for those sciences to determine the courtyard in Kadashev a workshop of the chamber, called a large linen, and send a decree of his great sovereign to the workshop to clean up that courtyard to the bed-bedman Gavrila Ivanovich Golovin, and, taking that courtyard and seeing all the necessities necessary in it, build from the proceeds from Armory. "
In 1715. By the decree of the tsar, the Naval Academy was founded in St. Petersburg. Its staff (305 students) was staffed from the students of the Navigation school, as well as from the Novgorod and Narva navigation schools. Mainly children from noble families from 10 to 18 years old studied there. Among the special items were navigation, fortification, artillery, musketry, etc. The main thing is that shipbuilding was taught here. As in the Navigation School, at the Maritime Academy, for the first time, the main teachers were foreign professors. Magnitsky, the author of the famous textbook "Arithmetic", worked for a long time at the Navigation School. The authors of a number of textbooks were also V. Kupriyanov (“ New way arithmetic "), G. Skornyakov-Pisarev (" Static science or mechanics "). But, of course, the bulk of the textbooks were either translations or the result of the work of foreign teachers.
In 1701 in Moscow on the new Cannon Yard it was ordered to "build wooden schools". It was the Artillery School, which immediately recruited 180 students. In 1712, an Engineering School began to operate in Moscow, and in St. Petersburg in 1719, respectively, an Engineering Company, where graduates were accepted Engineering school... Finally, in 1707, a Medical School was opened in Moscow (behind Yauza against the German settlement).
In addition to textbooks, books on natural science and technology began to be published. These are works on astronomy, hydroelectric construction, medicine, fortification, artillery, navigation, shipbuilding, architecture. Books on humanitarian knowledge have also appeared. The reform of the civil type was of great importance in the enlightenment. Word-maker Mikhail Efremov created the first samples of civilian letters. Their final choice (as well as Arabic numerals) was made in 1710 by Peter I. Such a radical reform promoted a more massive consumption of printed books. Books on history ("Synopsis" by I. Gisel, "Introduction to European history" by S. Puffendorf, "Theatron" by Stratemil, etc.), translations antique authors(Joseph Flavius, Julius Caesar, Aesop, Ovid, etc.) were printed in a circulation of not 200-500 copies, but many times more. Of great importance was the publication of the print newspaper Vedomosti, the circulation of which in the first years ranged from 100 to 2500 copies. The main printing house of the country was the Moscow Printing House.
Science in the time of Peter the Great developed primarily by the needs of practice. The depletion of fur resources developed in the 17th century. parts of Siberia (the sable was practically knocked out) forced the Russian people to look for new lands, new fur and fish stocks. At the same time, the search for new paths to distant eastern countries... So, already from the 17th century. Russian explorers were approaching Kamchatka. At the end of the century, they were Morozno Staritsyn and Vladimir Atlasov, who collected huge stuff and in the summer of 1699 he built the Nizhne-Kamchatsky prison. In 1716. the first sea expedition was undertaken to Kamchatka. In 1711 the Kuriles were explored and a drawing of the entire Kuril ridge was drawn up. In 1711, the first information about the land beyond the strait was obtained from the Chukchi of Anadyr (the first information about America). In 1719. I. Evreinov and F. Luzhin's expeditions were instructed to find out "whether America has converged with Asia." In 1720-1724. D. Messerschmidt's expedition reached Lena and Transbaikalia. In 1714, preparations began for the expedition of A. Bekovich-Cherkassky to Khiva and Bukhara to find ways to India. In 1718. F. Benevenni went through the Caucasus and Persia to Bukhara, and in 1725 - Guriev delivered materials about Khiva, Bukhara and the old bed of the Amu Darya. In 1722-1724. Ivan Unkovsky with the Cossacks described the land along the river. Or and the lake. Issyk-Kul. The study of lands near the river was begun. Terek, etc.
The result of many expeditions was the compilation geographic maps(for example, "Big Drawing" of Siberia by S. Remizov). In the 1920s, there was a huge amount of work on the preparation of the "Atlas of the All-Russian Empire" by I.K. Kirilov. Soymonov and Verdun made a map of the Caspian Sea, etc.
Geological prospecting reached unprecedented proportions in the Peter the Great period. For 1700-1711 121 ore deposits were discovered in European Russia. Among them there are many deposits of iron, copper, silver, coal, sulfur, oil, etc.
Great strides were made in the development of practical mechanics. This is an original arms factory designed by M.V. Sidorov, Yakov Batishchev's machine for processing rifle barrels and a machine for forging barrel boards. This is the invention of the outstanding Russian mechanic Andrey Nartov of turning, lathe-copying, gear-cutting and screw-cutting machines, as well as the creation of a self-propelled caliper. Despite the fact that these were outstanding inventions, the general technical level Western countries was, of course, higher than in Russia.
Russia can be proud of another outstanding master hydroelectric engineer - I.I. Serdyukov. In 1702, the construction of the Vyshnevolotsk system of canals began. The new waterway opened in 1709 revealed many flaws. Serdyukov, on the other hand, carried out a radical reconstruction of the waterway, and by the middle of the century the system began to handle up to 12 million poods of cargo.
Huge work has been done to create and collect scientific collections in mineralogy, metallurgy, botany, biology, etc. An astronomical observatory was organized. Attempts were made to organize linguistic and ethnographic expeditions. The Peter's decree of 1720 on the collection of ancient manuscripts, chronographs, chroniclers and books of power in monasteries is widely known. In 1716, a copy of the Radziwill (Konigsberg) Chronicle was made, and historical works began to be created (works on the history of F. Polikarpov, "Discourse on the Causes of the War of Sweden" by P. Shafirov, "The Book of Mars", etc.).
The most ambitious achievement of the reforms of Peter I was the creation of the Academy of Sciences. The great reformer expressed his idea of it in 1718. On January 28, 1724, the Senate announced the project about the Academy, which was approved by the tsar after being corrected.
In the initial version, the Academy as an organization was syncretic (it is a research community, a university, and a gymnasium). The Academy had three departments: mathematical, physical and "humanior" ( humanities). The first members of the Academy (and there were 12 of them together with the secretary) were supposed to oversee the entire new literature in the specialty, make "inventions" and make reports and "advice". Along with Russian scientists and people capable of science, foreigners were invited to the Academy, in some cases very prominent scientists (mathematician I. German, physiologist and mathematician D. Bernoulli, mathematician N. Bernoulli, astronomer and geographer I. Delisle, etc.).
A library and a museum (Kunstkamera), created in 1714, were added to the Academy.
In 1755, on the initiative of M.V. Lomonosov, Moscow University was opened, which played an outstanding role in the development of education in Russia.
Since the beginning of its foundation, Moscow University has been intensively developing pedagogical, didactic and methodological problems. Already in the 50s of the XVIII century. at the conference of professors, it was decided to start drawing up a "general teaching method", which "should be introduced in the gymnasium." Special meetings of university scholars were devoted to questions of teaching methods. One of the results of the development of these problems was didactic manual for teachers "Method of teaching", first published in 1771 in Russian, Latin, German and French. Key ideas of this manual were close to the "Regulations for Moscow gymnasiums", compiled by MV Lomonosov. At the same time, the "Method of teaching" reflected the many years of experience of the university gymnasium and boarding school. The main ideas of the "Method of Learning" were developed in numerous pedagogical works of N.N. Popovsky, A.A. Barsov, A.A. Prokopovich-Antonsky, H. A. Chebotarev and other domestic scientists half of XVIII century, were used and developed by active members of the commission of public schools F.I. Yankovich, M.E. early 19th century
History of pedagogy in Russia XVIII v. is divided into two periods: the first and second half of the century. The first period is characterized by reforms in the field of education and upbringing, there is a tendency for the development of the education system according to the common European type. The estate society is being replaced by a civil society, which made education more accessible to the broad masses of the population. The political and economic systems are undergoing significant changes, and therefore there is an urgent need for educated people. A person is more and more perceived as a separate person.
During the late 17th - early 18th centuries. there is a turn towards school and modern pedagogy. Public Schools give knowledge on modern sciences, while they differ in their own specialization. One of the schools created by Peter I was called the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences. Her curriculum included arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry, navigation, astronomy, and mathematical geography. The discipline was strict, for example. Escaping from school relied on the death penalty... In 1715, on the basis of the senior classes of the navigation school in St. Petersburg, the Naval Academy was organized, which is a military educational institution. Engineering and artillery schools were opened in Moscow in 1712, and a surgical school in 1707, and in 1721 mining schools were created at Siberian factories. Advanced school with enhanced study foreign languages(Greek, Latin, Italian, French, German, Swedish) was opened in 1705, led by Pastor Ernst Gluck. However, by 1716 the only school with advanced education was the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy.
In 1714, a decree was issued obliging the children of the nobility, clerks and clerks to elementary education. To fulfill these obligations, elementary mathematical schools were created - digital schools. Schools of this type met with active resistance from the parents of potential students, who preferred the bishop's schools. By 1744, digital schools had ceased to exist. Bishops' schools were distinguished by the combination of religious and secular education. The activities of such schools were determined by the "Spiritual Regulations". In addition, the Regulation prescribes the opening of various educational institutions for the clergy, such as academies with seminaries. The students had to live in them permanently and at first there was no way out.
In Russia at the beginning of the 18th century. training was carried out in Russian. The Russian alphabet was improved, comparative analysis Slavic, Greek and Latin languages. New textbooks were created on various school subjects in Russian. pedagogical development of this period are the reforms of Peter I in the field of education, associated with an increase in the role of the state not only in teaching, but also in education. Popular discontent with these reforms was brutally suppressed. In the course of Peter's reforms, educational institutions of a new type were created. One of them was the Academy of Sciences, which became an important scientific and educational center of the state. The academy included a university and a gymnasium. An educational institution was opened closed type- cadet corps. In 1759, during the reign of Empress Elizabeth, an elite educational institution, the Corps of Pages in St. Petersburg, was created. The state sought to raise the level of education of the nobility, which ultimately led to the awareness of the bulk of the upper class of the need for education. Active figures in this direction were Fyodor Saltykov, who developed a plan for creating academies in each province, Vasily Nikitich Tatishchev, who opened several mining schools, Feofan Prokopovich, an ardent supporter of secular education according to the European model, Ivan Tikhonovich Pososhkov, a supporter of classical education and, at the same time, Petrine reforms. The figures of the Russian Enlightenment can also be attributed to the German scientist and philosopher G.V. Leibniz, who developed his own project of school reform, characterized by a practical orientation of education. Of particular importance in the development of Russian education and pedagogy in general is the Russian scientist encyclopedist Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov (1711–1765). He was the first to give lectures to students in Russian, insisting on the scientific nature of teaching. He adhered to the positions of conscious, visual, consistent and systematic learning. MV Lomonosov was one of the initiators of the creation of Moscow University and determined its intellectual basis, as well as the direction of development. The second half of the 18th century is distinguished by an increased interest in education. This was largely determined by the reign of Catherine II, a European educated person. During this period, there are heated debates and discussions on pedagogical topics, there are many essays with discussions on the topics of education and training. In general, there is a prevailing inclination towards the importance of public education, entering the path of European education while preserving Russian traditions.
The Slavic-Greek-Latin academy, which offers classical education, and, therefore, is irrelevant in the conditions of the period under review, is losing its prestige. Moscow University in its activities largely relied on the needs of the nobility in Western European education and familiarization with the cultural achievements of Europe. The craving of the elite of society for culture and art undermines the mechanism of systematic scientific education at Moscow and St. Petersburg universities. The number of students dropped sharply, professors lost interest in teaching. To revive the university and establish pedagogical process foreign and domestic scientists were invited there. They created and translated into Russian teaching aids, textbooks in many subjects. During this period, the harmonious development of the personality becomes important, which includes physical, intellectual and moral education and improvement. In 1766, a charter was issued that modernized the training program for the cadet corps, now it was divided into three parts: sciences that guide the knowledge of subjects necessary civil rank; useful or artistic sciences; sciences "leading to the knowledge of other arts."
Many noble families sent their children to study in private schools, the higher nobility preferred to raise their children at home with the involvement of tutors-tutors. At the beginning of her reign, Catherine was keenly interested in the pedagogical achievements of various states, pursued an active policy of developing and expanding education in Russia. In 1763, Ivan Ivanovich Betsky (1704-1795) became her chief adviser on education. Betsky created many pedagogical works and contributed to the opening of many educational institutions for boys and girls, including the first female educational institution of secondary education - the Smolny Institute. The institute's curriculum differed from that for boys by additional courses in home economics and politics. There have been numerous attempts to develop lower-class education in rural and urban areas. However, due to lack of funds, they were not crowned with success. general level education in Russia, published in 1786 "The Charter of Public Schools Russian Empire". According to this document, small and main public schools began to open in cities. Small schools were schools of elementary basic education, the main ones offered the study of sciences, including pedagogy. Towards the end of her life, Catherine began to care more about state political issues, the victims of such priorities were the outstanding Russian educators Nikolai Ivanovich Novikov (1744-1818) and Alexander Nikolaevich Radishchev (1749-1802). For the same reason, many educational institutions have lost their positions.
In the 18th century, in Russian society there was a large number of transformations. The sphere of education in Russia, in the 18th century, also underwent reforms. In the education of the 18th century, a secular school first appeared in Russia. Theories and methods of secular education in Russia were developed, and an attempt was made to create a state education system. The development of education reforms in Russia in the 18th century can be divided into 4 periods.
I period
In the first quarter of the 18th century, the first secular educational schools... These schools provided basic and practical knowledge. Many schools combined educational and professional basics... The Pushkar School and the Medical School were created. A number of mathematical, navigation and craft educational institutions were also created.
II period
In the years 1730-1755, noble educational institutions appeared. Land Corps, Marine, Engineering. The Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens was also created. Along with this, the foundations of public education began to form, of which Mikhail Vasilyevich was a zealot. Diocesan and admiralty schools developed in the provinces. The first general education gymnasiums appeared in Moscow and St. Petersburg.
III period
In 1755 - 1782, educational ideas began to spread in Russian society. The writings of John Locke were translated and published. In his writings, Locke says that the child must be brought up not by intimidation and suppression of the personality, but to look for more progressive teaching methods. The state made an attempt to create a system of educational and educational institutions, which would make it possible to obtain new qualified doctors, artists, artisans and scientists. New schools were opened.
IV period
In 1782 - 1786, at last, was created state system public education. I worked on these issues for a long time, and decided to build Russian public education on the Austrian model. In 1782, the Commission for the Establishment of Schools was created. According to the plans of the commission, schools of two types were created: the main schools with 4 classes in the provinces, and small two-class schools in the counties. Such schools were supposed to provide the people with primary education.
The school reform created the problem of teacher training, which was catastrophically lacking. Soon, the Teachers' Seminary and the Main People's School for the training of teachers were opened. In the 18th century in Russia, education acquired a certain structure, which affected the quality of education.
Realizing the importance of education, the Russian government devoted a lot of time to this issue. Education in 18th century Russia was placed under tight control.
Russia led to the fact that education and culture in the 17th century reached a completely new level. It was only during this period that culture was able to move away from the canons dictated by religion and turn to the more mundane values of human life.
The most important event for the country was the beginning of printing in 1533. The first published book with an imprint was the work "Apostle". It was published by Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets. But, only after almost a hundred years, in 1633, the first primer, compiled by Vasily Burtsev, was published. Further, in 1648 "Grammar" by Miletiy Smotritsky was published. And in 1670, they began to publish a new alphabet.
New educational institutions were opened in the country. So, in 1665, a school was opened to prepare clerks for service in state institutions in the Zaikonospassky monastery, and in 1680 a school was organized at the Printing House. On the initiative of Sylvester Medvedev, the Slavic-Latin School (from 1701 - the Academy) was opened. It was the first institution of higher education in Russia.
The government provided strong support for the spread of literacy among the townspeople. Foreign scientists were invited to the country to teach secular disciplines and monks to teach spiritual sciences.
The culture of Russia in the 17th century also received considerable development. The 17th century is the time of the emergence of new genres in literature: everyday satirical stories ("The Story of Ruff Ershovich"), drama, poetry. The last 2 genres were founded by Simeon Polotsky. He also became the author of the first plays staged at the Russian court theater, which was founded in 1670. The founder of another direction in literature, biographical, was the archpriest Avvakum, the author of the notorious "Life".
The 17th century brought a lot of new things to painting. In the second half of the 17th century, secular portraiture was born, which introduced elements of similarity between images and those of the faces from which the portraits were painted. Its founder, Ushakov, worked at the Kremlin Armory, as well as at the art center. He depicted the most prominent people of the era on the icon "Our Lady of Vladimir".
A new architectural style emerged as a result of the fusion of the Baroque and the traditions of Russian architecture. It was named Naryshkin (Moscow) Baroque. The architecture of that period is characterized by colored decor, multi-tiered, symmetrical compositions. The most striking examples: the Church of the Savior Not Made by Hands in Ubora (1679) and the Intercession in Fili (1693). The 17th century is the time of the construction of the first stone buildings for household use. An example is the Moscow guest houses, the Pogankin chambers (Pskov).
The development of science and new technologies was spurred on by the needs of a rapidly developing state. The Russian masters of that period were characterized by serious knowledge in mathematics, chemistry, physics. Proof of this is the "Charter of military, cannon and other affairs." Anisia Mikhailova. The development of new territories (expeditions of Khabarov, Dezhnev and others) leads to the rapid development of geography.
New time is the formation and development of modern education, in the history of which three critical milestones: XVII - XVIII centuries, late XVIII - late XIX centuries, late XIX century - present. European education of the 17th-18th centuries developed on the basis of ideas and practices that developed during the Renaissance.In the development of the European folk (primary) school, the following trends can be distinguished: movement towards universal education as a need for universal literacy. This is due to a number of factors, including the requirement for every person to read the Bible in Protestant states. Therefore, it is no coincidence that in the Protestant states there was more high level literacy. Learning to read and write in these states often becomes a matter of the family. It should also be said about the concerns of religious organizations for the dissemination and approval of primary education. Thus, in France, the activities of the “Brothers of Christian Schools” were widely known. This society was organized by Jean-Baptiste de La Salle. Education here was in the native language, the school used the most advanced methods, teaching was closely connected with education, there were almost no punishments in the school. Many parents aspired to teach their children in these schools, so the number of classes grew rapidly. By the end of the 18th century. "Brothers" had 441 classes, where more than 130 thousand children studied.
The second trend is the strengthening of the role of the state in the management of the public school and even attempts by some states to organize universal education. The first statutes for general education were adopted in Germany. In 1619, such a charter was adopted by the Weimar principality, and in the middle of the century - by the Gotha. In 1717, a charter was adopted on general education in Prussia, and then, in the 18th century, in a number of German states. In the second half of the 18th century. a similar law is being adopted in Austria.
The third trend is the gradual transition from Latin to national languages.
The fourth trend is the increasing complexity of the content of education in public schools. The traditional subjects of instruction in the folk schools were: reading, writing, counting, singing and religion. But a number of schools at this time tried to expand the scope of these subjects. Also, some statutes assumed a broader content of education in public schools. The charter of the Gothic principality, for example, prescribed that instruction in public schools should consist of reading, writing, drawing, "the study of various useful things, partly natural, partly secular and other things." In these schools, information was also given about a person, natural phenomena, laws of the state, household, etc.
The fifth trend is attempts to create systems of developmental education. This was reflected in the activities of the classes of "brothers of Christian schools", the work of I. Rokhov and others; the opening of the first teachers' seminaries. At the end of the 18th century, the practical and theoretical activity Pestalozzi on the creation of a new folk school.
City, burgher schools... Urban schools existed in many states of Europe, educating urban dwellers. The level of education in these schools was higher than in the national schools. They had a longer - up to 6-8 years - period of study, extended programs. In the 17th century, city schools began to switch to their native, national languages.
Real schools. Real schools arose as a reflection of the need of the urban middle classes for higher education. The first real school was opened by K. Zemler in 1708 in Halle, and was called "Mathematical, mechanical and economic real school." It did not last long and was closed.
The first viable real school was opened by Johann Hecker (1707-1768). In 1747, the "Economic and Mathematical Real School" was established in Berlin, in which the gymnasium program was partly preserved, but the main subjects of study in it were natural science, mathematics (general mathematics, practical arithmetic, theoretical and practical geometry were introduced), as well as new courses (optics, fortification, architecture, cosmography, mechanics, etc.). Practical classes and visits to craft workshops took a large place. In teaching, visualization was widely used, for which rich natural collections and collections of handicraft items were created.
Soon, real schools began to open in different cities and the states of Germany and all of Europe. But until the middle of the XIX century. they actually remained incomplete secondary schools, because they did not give the right to enter universities, at best, to separate departments and special higher schools. Only at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. they got this right.
Secondary schools... Under this name, one can unite various schools in Europe, which provided education sufficient for studying at a university. They were called differently: learned schools, grammar schools (England); lyceums and colleges (France); gymnasiums (Germany), etc. In addition, there were a number of special schools, such as knight academies in Germany or Jesuit colleges in many European countries. To this must be added the widely spread in the XVII - XVIII centuries. homeschooling in European countries.
Let's briefly describe the main directions of development high school Europe.
Classical schools. This is the main type of secondary school in Europe in the 16th-19th centuries. In the 16th century, these schools established classicism with classical Latin and ancient Greek languages, mathematics and a number of other sciences. And this content in most European countries lasted unchanged until the end of the 18th century.
The reform of classical education began at the end of the 18th century. The most significant changes at the beginning of the 19th century were undergone by the German gymnasium, the content of education of which was reformed on the basis of a combination of classical culture and new sciences. In the 19th century, the classical gymnasium in Germany was the best secondary school in Europe.
Jesuit colleges. Their history begins in the second half of the 16th century thanks to the activities of Ignatius Loyola. The modern content of education, and most importantly, the excellent organization made them the best educational institutions Europe until their closure in 1773 due to the prohibition of the Jesuit order. In 1832, the order was organized again, and colleges were reopened, but they no longer had such success and fame in education as they had before.
Knight academies... They began to be created in Germany after the Thirty Years War, before that time their number was small. They became institutions where officials for civil service and commanders for military service were trained. The curriculum of these schools has changed significantly. Although the Latin language has survived, it has lost its meaning as the main subject of the main language. And the main language was French - the language of the court circles and international communication of that time. Less studied Italian and Spanish languages... Scholastic philosophy was excluded, and its place was taken by mathematics and natural sciences, which became the basis new philosophy and irreplaceable in the future practical activities... Introduces history, geography, elements of law, ethics, aesthetics, as well as purely noble sciences necessary for the future court life: getting to know genealogy ruling dynasties, heraldry, etc. Finally, the knightly arts - horse riding, voltizing, fencing, dancing, ball games - entered the life of the academy. The pupils had stables and riding halls at their disposal. Thus, the knightly academy took a major step in creating new school... But the academies themselves did not last long. Already in the 18th century, as the work of gymnasiums improved, they lost their educational value, and in the 19th century they completely ceased to exist. Some of them were already at the end of the 17th - beginning of the 18th century. grew into universities, and many in the 19th century. were transformed into cadet corps with a program of real schools.
In addition, Europe of the XVII-XVIII centuries. knows other attempts to create new schools. One of the most famous experiences is the Port Royal School. The content of education here was classical, but they studied, firstly, in their native French; secondly, according to textbooks written by the teachers of this school (some of them have existed in French schools for more than a century); thirdly, new forms of teaching were developed here, new teaching methods were widely used. And although this school did not last long - opened in the middle of the century, it was already closed in 1661 - its significance, and especially in the matter of elementary education, was very great.
During this period, many private schools were opened, for the most part privileged. In the second half of the 18th century. even experimental schools appear, such as the philanthropists in Germany, the most famous was the philanthropist in Dessau, created by I.B. Basedov.
Similar closed, most often noble, educational institutions opened in Europe, but, as a rule, their age was short-lived, and they ceased to exist as soon as one or another organizer, for one reason or another, refused to lead the school.
Homeschooling was also common in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries. However, with the development of public schools, homeschooling ceases to meet its objectives in the 19th century. ceases to exist.
Thus, the classical school turned out to be the main one in the development of secondary education in Western Europe. By the end of the 18th century. The gymnasium demanded a radical reform, first of all, of the content of education, which was carried out by revising the content of classical subjects and including, first of all, mathematical disciplines.
Higher education. XVII - XVIII centuries - time rapid development higher education in Western Europe. The most important thing in the development of university education is that, firstly, natural sciences are widely included in its content, thus in universities there is a combination of classical, humanitarian culture with natural sciences. Secondly, in the 18th century, the transition to national languages begins, later than other countries, in 1912, the Latin language was abolished in Italy. Third, at the beginning of the 19th century, university autonomy was proclaimed in a number of European states. Fourth, starting from the 17th century. in European states, various kinds of special higher schools and institutes are beginning to be created: military, forestry, agricultural, pedagogical, etc.
In general, from the 18th century. in Western Europe, a modern system of higher education begins to take shape.
Academy of Sciences. The most important sign New time - the creation in European states, starting from the 17th century, academies of sciences, which set the development and dissemination of scientific knowledge Literature, print, theater. The Age of Enlightenment made literature, the press, theater and libraries the most important means of enlightening, educating the people, and sometimes their influence on the people was much greater than the influence of official educational institutions.
Speaking about the upbringing and education of this time, one must also say about the organization of special education and upbringing and vocational education.
Special education... Since the 18th century, special schools began to open in Europe: for the training of the blind, deaf, etc., orphan educational institutions were opened.
Professional education. XVII-XVIII centuries - this is the time of the creation of higher professional education. Since the 19th century, institutions of primary and secondary vocational education have been created in different countries of Europe.
In the development of technologies of this period, one can also observe, on the one hand, a deep continuity with the technologies of the Renaissance. This, first of all, applies to the classroom-lesson form of teaching and many teaching methods. On the other hand, new forms and methods are emerging. Two important factors have determined the development of technology in modern times. First, the advancement in the pedagogy of the Enlightenment as the most important explanatory principle of the education of the idea individual person, which, in turn, required the creation of education systems in general, and learning technologies in particular, aimed at the development of a person, his individuality, his activity, independence and creativity. Secondly, the professional training of the teacher. Since the 18th century. gradually a system of mass teacher training begins to take shape. And this put forward the task of his methodological, technological preparation. Therefore, the problem of technology becomes a special matter. vocational training each teacher, thanks to which the improvement of technology becomes a continuous process. From the same time, the mass creation of teaching methods for individual subjects began.
Briefly the development of technology in the XVII-XVIII centuries. can be presented as follows. Perhaps the most significant changes took place here in elementary school, because thanks to many educators of the 18th century, and especially I.G. Pestalozzi (late XVIII - early XIX V.), a school from an institution where they taught only to read, write, count and sing and gave some religious ideas, began to turn into an educational institution aimed at the development of the child. This became possible because the school began to focus on the development of the child and to develop methods that served this purpose. And from this point of view, the work of I.G. Pestalozzi is of enduring importance for pedagogy.
Certain changes have also taken place in the teaching technologies of secondary schools - primarily at the level of methodological training of a teacher, the emergence of new teaching methods, in particular, practical ones.
V higher education During this period, a radical update of teaching technologies took place: practical training in many specialties became the most important part of training, which led to the creation of new forms and methods of teaching - seminars and laboratory classes, practical classes (especially in medical, technical education).
In general, the technological side of education in the XVII-XVIII centuries. significantly changed and improved - this was facilitated by both socio-cultural conditions, which put forward new requirements for education, and pedagogical factors, first of all, the beginning of mass training of teachers and a change in the content of education, which required new forms and methods of teaching.
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