The “economic civilization” of most of Africa (with the exception of the “river civilization” of the Nile Valley) took shape over thousands of years and by the time the region was colonized in the second half of the 19th century. changed very little. The basis of the economy was still slash-and-burn agriculture with hoe tillage.

Recall that this is the earliest type of farming, followed by plow farming (which, by the way, is not very widespread even at the end of the 20th century, which is hindered by the reasonable desire of local peasants to preserve thin fertile layer soil; a plow plowing to a fairly large depth will do more harm than good).

Farming more high level(outside the Nile Valley) was distributed only in Northeast Africa (on the territory of modern Ethiopia), in West Africa and Madagascar.

Animal husbandry (mainly cattle breeding) was auxiliary in the economy of the African peoples, and it became the main thing only in certain areas of the mainland - south of the Zambezi River, among the nomadic peoples of North Africa.

Africa has long been known to Europeans, but it was not of great interest to them. Precious reserves were not discovered here, and it was difficult to penetrate deep into the mainland. Up to late XVIII in. Europeans knew only the outlines of the banks and mouths of the rivers, where trading strongholds were created and from where slaves were taken to America. The role of Africa was reflected in the geographical names that the whites gave to individual sections of the African coast: Coast Ivory, Gold Coast, Slave Coast.

Until the 80s. 19th century more than 3/4 of the territory of Africa was occupied by various political entities, including even large and strong states (Mali, Zimbabwe, etc.). European colonies were only on the coast. And suddenly, within only two decades, all of Africa was divided among the European powers. This happened at a time when almost all of America had already achieved political independence. Why did Europe suddenly have an interest in the African continent?

The main reasons are the following

1. By this time, the mainland had already been quite well explored by various expeditions and Christian missionaries. American war correspondent G. Stanley in the mid-70s. 19th century crossed the African continent with the expedition from east to west, leaving behind destroyed settlements. Addressing the British, G. Stanley wrote: “South of the mouth of the Congo River, forty million naked people are waiting to be dressed by the weaving factories of Manchester and equipped with tools by the workshops of Birmingham.”

2. By the end of the XIX century. quinine was discovered as a remedy for malaria. Europeans were able to penetrate into the depths of malarial territories.

3. In Europe, by this time, industry began to develop rapidly, the economy was on the rise, European countries stood on their feet. It was a period of relative political calm in Europe - there were no major wars. The colonial powers showed amazing "solidarity", and at the Berlin Conference in the mid-80s. England, France, Portugal, Belgium and Germany divided the territory of Africa among themselves. The borders in Africa were "cut" without taking into account the geographical and ethnic characteristics of the territory. At present, 2/5 of African state borders run along parallels and meridians, 1/3 - along other straight lines and arcs, and only 1/4 - along natural boundaries, approximately coinciding with ethnic boundaries.

By the beginning of the XX century. all of Africa was divided among the European metropolises.

The struggle of the African peoples against the invaders was complicated by internal tribal conflicts, in addition, it was difficult to resist the Europeans armed with perfect rifled firearms, invented by that time, with spears and arrows.

The period of active colonization of Africa began. Unlike America or Australia, there was no massive European immigration here. Throughout the African continent in the XVIII century. there was only one compact group of immigrants - the Dutch (Boers), numbering only 16 thousand people ("Boers" from the Dutch and German words "bauer", which means "peasant"). And even now, at the end of the 20th century, in Africa, the descendants of Europeans and children from mixed marriages make up only 1% of the population (This includes 3 million Boers, the same number of mulattos in South Africa and one and a half million immigrants from Great Britain).

Africa has the lowest level of socio-economic development compared to other regions of the world. For all major indicators of economic development and social sphere the region occupies the position of a world outsider.

Most pressing problems humanity is most relevant for Africa. Not all of Africa scores so low, but a few more fortunate countries are only "islands of relative prosperity" in the midst of poverty and acute problems.

Maybe Africa's problems are due to complex natural conditions, long period colonial rule?

Undoubtedly, these factors played a negative role, but others also acted along with them.

Africa belongs to the developing world, which in the 60s and 70s. showed high rates of economic, and in some areas and social development. In the 80s and 90s. problems have sharply worsened, the pace of economic growth(production began to fall), which gave reason to conclude: "The developing world has stopped developing."

However, there is a point of view that involves the allocation of two close, but at the same time heterogeneous concepts: "development" and "modernization". Development in this case refers to changes in the socio-economic sphere caused by internal causes that lead to the strengthening traditional system without destroying it. Did the process of development proceed in Africa, its traditional economy? Of course yes.

In contrast to development, modernization is a set of changes in the socio-economic (and political) sphere caused by modern requirements outside world. In the case of Africa, this means expanding external contacts and its inclusion in world system; i.e. Africa must learn to "play by the rules of the world". Will not Africa be destroyed by this inclusion in the modern world civilization?

One-sided, traditional development leads to autarky (isolation) and lagging behind the world leaders. Rapid modernization is accompanied by a painful breaking of the existing socio-economic structure. The optimal combination is a reasonable combination of development and modernization, and most importantly - a gradual, phased transformation, without catastrophic consequences and taking into account local specifics. Modernization has an objective character, and one cannot do without it.

Colonization of Africa

On the eve of European colonization, the peoples of Tropical and South Africa were on various stages development. Some had a primitive system, others had a class society. It can also be said that in Tropical Africa, a fairly developed, specifically Negro statehood did not take shape, even comparable to the states of the Incas and Maya. How can this be explained? There are several reasons, namely: an unfavorable climate, poor soils, primitive agricultural technology, a low level of labor culture, the fragmentation of a small population, as well as the dominance of primitive tribal traditions and early religious cults. In the end, highly developed civilizations: Christian and Muslim differed from African in more developed cultural and religious traditions, that is, a more advanced level of consciousness than Africans. At the same time, remnants of pre-class relations persisted even among the most developed peoples. The decomposition of tribal relations was most often manifested in the exploitation by the heads of large patriarchal families of ordinary community members, as well as in the concentration of land and livestock in the hands of the tribal elite.

In different centuries, both in the Middle Ages and in the New Age, various state formations arose on the territory of Africa: Ethiopia (Aksum), in which the Christian Monophysite Church dominated; a kind of confederation called Oyo arose on the Guinean coast; then Dahomey; in the lower reaches of the Congo at the end of the 15th century. such state formations as the Congo, Loango and Makoko appeared; in Angola between 1400 and 1500. there was a short-lived and semi-legendary political association - Monomotapa. However, all these proto-states were fragile. Europeans who appeared on the coast of Africa in the XVII-XVIII centuries. launched a large-scale slave trade. Then they tried to create their own settlements, outposts and colonies here.

In southern Africa, at the Cape of Good Hope, the site of the Dutch East India Company-Kapstadt (Cape Colony) was established. Over time, more and more settlers from Holland began to settle in Kapstadt, who waged a stubborn struggle with local tribes, Bushmen and Hottentots. AT early XIX in. The Cape colony was captured by Great Britain, after which the Dutch-Boers moved to the north, subsequently founding the republics of Transvaal and Orange. European Boer colonists increasingly developed southern Africa, engaging in the slave trade and forcing the black population to work in gold and diamond mines. In the English zone of colonization, the Zulu tribal community led by Chuck in the first third of the 19th century. managed to consolidate and subjugate a number of Bantu tribes. But the clash of the Zulus, first with the Boers, and then with the British, led to the defeat of the Zulu state.

Africa in the 19th century became the main springboard for European colonization. By the end of this century, almost the entire African continent (with the exception of Ethiopia) was divided between Great Britain, France, Spain, Portugal, Germany, Belgium. Moreover, the first place in terms of the number of colonies and the native population belonged to Great Britain, the second to France (mainly to the north and south of the Sahara), the third to Germany, the fourth to Portugal and the fifth to Belgium. But small Belgium got a huge territory (about 30 times larger than the territory of Belgium itself), the richest in its natural reserves - the Congo.

The European colonialists, having done away with the primary proto-state formations of African leaders and kings, brought here the forms of a developed bourgeois economy with advanced technology and transport infrastructure. The local population, experiencing a cultural "shock" from meeting with a fabulously developed civilization at that time, gradually joined in modern life. In Africa, as well as in other colonies, the fact of belonging to one or another metropolis immediately manifested itself. So, if the British colonies (Zambia, Gold Coast, South Africa, Uganda, Southern Rhodesia, etc.) were under the control of an economically developed, bourgeois and democratic England and began to develop more rapidly, then the population of Angola, Mozambique, Guinea (Bissau) belonging to the more backward Portugal, more slowly.

Far from always, colonial conquests were economically justified, sometimes the struggle for colonies in Africa looked like a kind of political sport - by all means bypass the opponent and not let yourself be bypassed. Secularized European thought during this period abandoned the idea of ​​​​spreading the “true religion” -Christianity, but on the other hand she saw the civilizing role of Europe in the backward colonies in the spread of modern science and education. In addition, in Europe it became even indecent not to have colonies. This can explain the emergence of the Belgian Congo, German and Italian colonies, from which there was little use.

Germany was the last to rush to Africa, nevertheless managed to take possession of Namibia, Cameroon, Togo and East Africa. In 1885, at the initiative of German Chancellor Bismarck, the Berlin Conference was convened, in which 13 European countries took part. The conference established the rules for the acquisition of still independent lands in Africa, in other words, the remaining lands still unoccupied were divided. By the end of the 19th century, only Liberia and Ethiopia retained political independence in Africa. Moreover, Christian Ethiopia successfully repelled the attack of Italy in 1896 and even defeated Italian troops in the Battle of Adua.

The division of Africa also gave rise to such a variety of monopolistic associations as privileged companies. The largest of these companies was the British South Africa Company, established in 1889 by S. Rhodes and having its own army. The Royal Niger Company operated in West Africa, and the British East Africa Company operated in East Africa. Similar companies were created in Germany, France, Belgium. These monopolistic companies were a kind of state within a state and turned the African colonies with their population and resources into a sphere of complete subordination to themselves. The richest African colony was South Africa, which belonged to Britain and the Boer colonists from the Transvaal and Orange republics, since gold and diamonds were found there. This led the British and European-born Boers to start the bloody Anglo-Boer War of 1899-1902, in which the British won. The diamond-rich republics of Transvaal and Orange became British colonies. Subsequently, in 1910, the richest British colony, South Africa, formed the British dominion, the Union of South Africa.

A series of circumstances accelerated the expansion of Europeans and the colonization of Africa, and also led to the rapid division of the continent.

Africa at the beginning of the 19th century

At the beginning of the 19th century, the interior of Africa was not yet widely known, although trade routes had already passed through the entire continent for centuries. With the onset of colonization and the spread of Islam, things quickly changed. Port cities like Mombasa have acquired great importance. This was facilitated by trade in goods and, above all, slaves, due to which the number of contacts with the rest of the world increased dramatically.

At first, Europeans were present only on the coast of Africa. Driven by curiosity, the search for raw materials, and sometimes a missionary spirit, they soon began to organize expeditions into the interior of the continent. Europe's interest in Africa began to grow, and the maps compiled by the discoverers served as the basis for accelerated colonization, which was not long in coming.

Outlines of the African continent

At the beginning 19th century Europe's attitude towards colonialism has undergone significant changes. Initially, the Europeans were content with their African trading posts and small colonies. However, when new competitive states began to be created and the economic relations, between them there was competition for the possession of the best territories. As soon as one state began to claim any territory, others immediately reacted to it. First of all, this applies to France, which created a powerful colonial empire with strongholds in West and Equatorial Africa. Algiers, conquered in 1830, became the first French colony, and Tunisia, in 1881, was the last.

The unification of Germany during the reign of Bismarck led to the creation of another state that sought to have colonial possessions. Under the pressure of Germany's colonial ambitions, the existing colonial powers in Africa were forced to intensify their expansion. So Britain annexed to its possessions the territories of West Africa, on the coast of which only a few forts belonging to it were located until now. AT late XIX century Nigeria, Ghana, Sierra Leone and Gambia became British colonies. The annexation of the country began to be seen not only as an economic necessity, but also as an act of patriotism.

At the end of the 19th century, Belgium and Germany initiated a process that became known as the “race for Africa”. Since Germany's claims were directed to southeast and east Africa, the governments of other countries immediately felt slighted. Bismarck convened a conference on the Congo in Berlin, where the question of the division of spheres of influence in Africa was resolved. King Leopold's claims to the Belgian Congo were satisfied, which caused fear in France, which resulted in the annexation of a part of the Congo, which became known as the French Congo. This, in turn, set off a chain reaction in which each government rushed to pursue its interests.

On the Nile, the French organized a confrontation with the British, who wanted to occupy the territories claimed by France. It's a big one international conflict was settled only after the French agreed to retreat.

Boer Wars

The conflict of interests of European countries escalated into the Boer Wars in Africa, which lasted from 1899 to 1902. AT South Africa were opened large deposits gold and diamonds. These lands were inhabited by the descendants of the Dutch colonists, "Afrikaans" or "Boers" ("free citizens"). When the British took away their colonies from the Dutch during the Napoleonic Wars, the Boers created their own states: the Transvaal and the Orange Republic. Now gold prospectors flocked to this region from everywhere and speculation began. The British government feared that the Boers would unite with the Germans and control the routes to the east. The tension grew. In October 1899, the Boers defeated the British troops who were concentrating on their frontier. However, they lost the next war. After that, they waged a guerrilla war for two more years, but suffered a final defeat from the British army.

Colonization of Africa

Territorial claims of European powers to African lands in 1913

Belgium UK

Germany Spain

Italy Portugal

France Independent countries

The early colonization of Africa by European powers began in the 15th and 16th centuries, when, after the Reconquista, the Spaniards and Portuguese turned their eyes to Africa. Already at the end of the 15th century, the Portuguese actually controlled the western coast of Africa and in the 16th century launched an active slave trade. Following them, almost all Western European powers rush to Africa: the Dutch, the French, and the British.

Arab trade with Zanzibar gradually led to the colonization of East Africa; Morocco's attempts to seize the Sahel failed.

In the second half of the 19th century, especially after 1885, the process of African colonization acquired such a scale that it was called the "race for Africa"; practically the entire continent (except for Ethiopia and Liberia, which remained independent) by 1900 was divided between a number of European powers: Great Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, Italy, Spain and Portugal retained and somewhat expanded their old colonies.

During the First World War, Germany lost (mostly already in 1914) its African colonies, which after the war came under the administration of other colonial powers under League of Nations mandates.

Decolonization of Africa

After the Second World War, the process of decolonization of Africa quickly began. Year of Africa - year of liberation largest number colonies - was declared 1960. This year, 13 states gained independence.

Due to the fact that the borders of African states during the "race for Africa" ​​were drawn artificially, without taking into account the resettlement of various peoples and tribes, as well as the fact that the traditional African society was not ready for democracy, in many African countries, after gaining independence, civil wars. Dictators came to power in many countries. The resulting regimes are characterized by disregard for human rights, bureaucracy, totalitarianism, which in turn leads to economic crisis and growing poverty.

Geography of Africa

Relief For the most part - flat, in the north-west are the Atlas Mountains, in the Sahara - the highlands of Ahaggar and Tibesti. In the east - the Ethiopian highlands, to the south of it - the volcano Kilimanjaro (5895 m) - the highest point on the mainland. To the south are the Cape and Dragon Mountains. The lowest point (157 meters below sea level) is located in Djibouti, this is the Assal salt lake.

Minerals

Africa is known primarily for its richest deposits of diamonds (South Africa, Zimbabwe) and gold (South Africa, Ghana, Republic of the Congo). There are oil fields in Algeria; bauxite is mined in Guinea and Ghana. The resources of phosphorites, as well as manganese, iron and lead-zinc ores are concentrated in the zone of the northern coast of Africa.

Inland waters

Africa is home to the second longest river in the world, the Nile, which flows from south to north. Other major rivers are the Niger in the west, the Congo in central Africa, and the Zambezi, Limpopo and Orange rivers in the south.

The largest lake is Victoria. Other large lakes are Nyasa and Tanganyika, located in lithospheric faults. They are elongated from north to south.

Climate

The center of Africa and the coastal regions of the Gulf of Guinea belong to the equatorial zone, there is abundant rainfall throughout the year and there is no change of seasons. To the north and south of the equatorial belt are subequatorial belts. Here, humid equatorial air masses dominate in summer (rainy season), and in winter - dry air of tropical trade winds (dry season). To the north and south of the subequatorial belts are the northern and southern tropical belts. They are characterized by high temperatures with low rainfall, which leads to the formation of deserts.

In the north is the Sahara desert, the largest on Earth, in the south - the Kalahari desert. The northern and southern extremities of the mainland are included in the corresponding subtropical belts.