"The woman is created for a man, not a man for a woman" - such a postulate ...
Traditional training
By definition N.F. Talisina, traditional training is information and reporting, dogmatic and passive. Traditional training is characterized by the fact that the teacher sets out information in the treated, finished form; Pupils perceive and reproduce it.
With traditional learning cognitive actions of students, i.e., techniques (or methods) of their mental activity are usually addressed on the basis of those techniques that are given by the teacher and in the textbook.
It should be noted that traditional training should not be estimated on a scale "Good - bad", for it contains all the main prerequisites and conditions for the development of knowledge, the effective implementation of which is due to a variety of factors, in particular the individual psychological characteristics of students.
Dignitytraditional learning: systematically, relatively small time costs. Disadvantages:the developing function of learning is weak, the activity of the student is reproductive. Nevertheless, this is how training is trained in most cases.
In education, along with traditional training, other directions were formed: problem learning; programmed learning; algorithmic training; educational training; Training based on the theory of phased formation of mental actions; contextual learning; Project training, etc.
Problem learning
Problem learning is based on the receipt of new knowledge by students by solving theoretical and practical problems, problematic tasks in the current problematic situations.
Significant contribution to the development of theory problem learning Deposited foreign and domestic researchers: V. Poc., M.M. Makhmutov, A.M. Matyushkin, T.V. Kudryavtsev, I.Ya. Lerner and others.
One of the first to explore the problem learning began the Polish teacher and psychologist Vintinitis Cow. Standard provisions of the theory of problem learning are set forth by him in the work of the "Basics of Problem Training" (1964; Rus. 868). He is also the author of works on the theory of education organization, including the general, history of the school and psychological and pedagogical theory, as well as on the problems of the pedagogy of the Higher School. Created a well-known "Pedagogical Dictionary" (1975, 1992). With problematic training, the teacher does not report ready-made knowledge, and organizes students for their search: concepts, patterns, theories are familiar with the search, observation, analysis of facts, mental activity, which is the result of knowledge. The process of exercise, training activity is like to scientific search and affects the concepts: a problem, a problem situation, hypothesis, a solution tools, an experiment, a search result.
With the help of problem learning, they tried to solve the task of developing a creative personality. There were goals to form a special style of mental activity, research activity, independence, interest in the process of knowledge, reveal the creative potential of students.
As stressed the famous domestic author of the theory of problem learning A.M. Matyushkin, the intellectual development of the student, its creative abilities is carried out only in conditions overcoming intellectual obstacles, difficulties.Intelligent difficulty appears when a child cannot fulfill the task set in front of it known ways and should find a new way, "open" it. The intellectual activity of the student is associated with a cognitive need. Opening a child performs in conditions of problem situations specifically organized in the learning process.
Problem situation(a concept was introduced by A.M. Matyushkin) - a certain psychological conditiona student arising in the process of performing a task that requires opening (assimilation) of new knowledge. The problem situation characterizes first of all the state of the student, and not the assignment itself.
- 1st view - problem presentation.A teacher, formulating the problem, in detail and reasonably reveals the logic of its solution. Pupils who follow the presentation, there are questions, doubts, objections. So develop criticality of thinking, understanding the problem and alternatives to its solution.
- 2nd view - partially searchor heuristic, method.If the problem task causes great difficulties that schoolchildren cannot overcome themselves, the teacher must, on the one hand, to assist them, on the other hand, to preserve the problemability. It can explain (suggest) the next difficult step in solving the task so that the remaining steps of the students think about themselves, or give a decision plan that children are implemented independently. As a result, the student decides not the whole problem as a whole, and its part, acquires some experience of creative activities, seizes individual elements of research search.
The most effective form of this method is the heuristic conversation. This is a clear system of issues prepared by the teacher so that every question has emerged from the previous ones and most of them were small tasks on the path to solving a common problem.
3rd View - research method.It provides a systematic solution to schoolchildren of problem problems of different types and scale.
Dignityproblem learning: develops thinking abilities of students, interest in teaching, creative forces In the process of overcoming intellectual difficulties. Disadvantages and difficulties of application:it is not always possible to apply due to the nature of the material being studied, explicitly student, teacher qualifications; Requires deep knowledge from teacher in its field and high level of general culture, possession of the technique of the preparation of problem tasks and the art of a problem story, more time to prepare for lessons.
Psychologists and teachers are advised to include the elements of problem problems in learning any type. Recently, focus on the motivating function of problem tasks. Therefore, the problematic tasks and components of the heuristic conversation are included in the lessons in traditional and developing learning.
The traditional technology is, first of all, authoritarian pedagogy requirements, the study is very poorly connected with the inner life of the student, with its diverse requests and needs, there are no conditions for the manifestation of individual abilities, creative manifestations of the individual.
The authoritarianism of the learning process is manifested in: regulators of activities, the compulsion of training procedures ("School rapes a person"), the centralization of control, orientation in the middle student ("School kills talents").
Position of the student: A student - a subordinate object of training influences, a student "must", a student is not yet a full-fledged personality, a confused "Vicky".
Position of the teacher: Teacher - commander, the only initiative person, judge ("always rights"), the eldest (parent) teaches.
Methods of learning knowledge are based on: the message of ready-made knowledge, training in the sample, inductive logic from private to general, mechanical memory, verbal presentation, reproductive reproduction.
As part learning activities Child:
- There is no independent goal setting, the teacher's learning goals are set;
- planning activities are conducted from outside, imposed by a student in spite of his desire;
- The final analysis and evaluation of the activity of the child are not made by him, but by a teacher, other adults.
Under these conditions, the stage of the implementation of training goals turns into labor "from under the stick" with all its negative consequences (the child's alienation from studying, the upbringing of Lena, deception, conformism - "school ulods").
Evaluation of students' activity. The traditional pedagogy has developed criteria for a quantitative five-point assessment of knowledge, skills and skills of students in educational subjects.
Requirements for evaluation: individual character, differentiated approach, systematic control and assessment, comprehensiveness, diversity of forms, unity of requirements, objectivity, motivation, publicity.
However, in the school practice of traditional training, negative aspects of the traditional estimator system are found:
1. Quantitative estimate - a mark - often becomes a means of coercion, the instrument of power of the teacher over a student, psychological and social pressure on the student.
2. The mark, as the result of cognitive activity, is often identified with the person as a whole, sorts students on "good" and "bad".
3. The names "Troechnik", "Dweller" cause a feeling of degradation, humiliation, or lead to indifference, indifference to study. A student in its mediocre or satisfactory estimates first makes conclusion from the inferiority of his knowledge, abilities, and then their personality (I-concept).
The traditional form of training is classy. It is distinguished by:
positive parties: systematic nature of training, ordered, logically correct supply of educational material, organizational clarity, continuous emotional impact of the teacher's personality, optimal resource costs with mass education;
negative sides: template building, monotony, irrational distribution of the lesson time, only initial orientation in the material is ensured in the lesson, and the achievement of high levels is shifted to homework, students are isolated from communicating with each other, lack of independence, passivity or visibility of students' activity, weak speech Activities (average student spelling time 2 minutes per day), weak feedback, alarmed approach, lack of individual learning.
Traditional technologies also include a lecture-seminary and test system (form) of training: First, the educational material is presented to the class lecture method, and then worked out (absorbed, applied) at seminars, practical and laboratory classes, and the results of the assimilation are checked in the form of tests.
Psychological and pedagogical analysis of the lesson
Psychological and pedagogical analysis of the lesson involves the assessment of its type and structure, as well as their psychological feasibility.
Further, which determines the activity of the teacher and the student is the content of the lesson, that is, the nature of the information that schoolchildren must learn. (A teacher may offer material different in terms of its concreteness, generalization and abstractness).
It is very important to understand the psychological features of the educational material, since it largely determines the character of the cognitive activity of the schoolchild. In assessing the quality of educational information, it is necessary to determine its compliance with the age and individual characteristics of schoolchildren. An analysis of the lesson begins with finding out how the teacher formed a concept at a particular level. In the process of learning, not only individual concepts are formed, but also their system, so it is necessary to determine which links between the concepts established the teacher (intremitable, intergovernmental)
Plan of psychological and pedagogical analysis of the lesson.
Psychological purpose of the lesson.
1. The place and significance of this lesson in a promising plan for the development of students. Formulation target.
2. Accounting for the final task of a perspective plan, psychological tasks of studying the section, the nature of the material being studied, the results achieved in the previous work.
3. To what extent methodological techniques, lesson style meet the goal.
Lesson style.
1. To what extent the content and structure of the lesson meet the principles of educational training.
The ratio of memory load and thinking of students.
The ratio of reproducing and creative activity of students.
The ratio of learning knowledge in the finished and independent search.
Teacher's pedagogical clock.
Psychological climate in class.
2. Features of the self-organization of the teacher.
Preparation for lesson.
Working care at the beginning of the lesson and in the process of its implementation.
Organization of cognitive activity of students.
1. Providing conditions for productive work of thinking and student imagination.
Achieving meaningfulness, integrity of perception by students of the material being studied.
What installations were used and in what form. (suggestion, beliefs).
How the focus and stability of students' attention was achieved.
2. Organization of activity of thinking and imagination of students in the process of forming new knowledge and skills.
What techniques stimulated activity, independence of thinking of students.
What psychological patterns were taken into account in the formation of ideas, concepts that generalizing images.
What types of creative works were used in the lesson and as a teacher led the creative imagination of students.
3. Fastening the results of work.
Formation of skills using exercises.
Training to transfer previously learned skills to new working conditions.
Organizations of students.
1. Analysis of the level of mental development, attitude to the teachings and peculiarities of self-organization of individual students.
2. How does the teacher combines frontal work in the class with individual forms of training sessions.
Accounting for age-related characteristics of students.
8.1. Traditional training: Essence, dignity and disadvantages
- 8.1.2. Advantages and disadvantages of traditional learning
- 8.1.3. The main contradictions of traditional learning
8.1.1. Essence of traditional learning
In pedagogy, it is customary to allocate three main types of learning: the traditional (or explanatory-illustrative), problematic and programmed.
Today, the most common is a traditional learning option (see Animation). The foundations of this type of training were laid almost four centuries ago, more Ya.A. Komensky ("Great Didactics") ( Komensei Ya.A., 1955).
The term "traditional learning" implies, above all, a cool-urban organization of training that pretended in the XVII century. on principles didactics Formulated by Ya.I. Komensky, and still being the prevailing in the schools of the world (Fig. 2).
- Distinctive features of traditional cool-term technology are as follows:
- students of approximately one age and the level of preparation make up a class that mainly maintains a permanent composition for the entire period of school learning;
- the class works on a single annual plan and program according to the schedule. As a result, children should come to school at the same time of the year and in advance the hours of the day;
- the main unit of classes is a lesson;
- the lesson is usually devoted to one training subject, the topic, by virtue of the class students work on the same material;
- the work of students in the lesson is managing a teacher: he evaluates the results of studies on its subject, the level of training of each student separately and at the end of the school year decides on the transfer of students to the following class;
- teaching books (textbooks) are used mainly for homework. School year, school day, schedule of lessons, educational holidays, change, or, more precisely, breaks between lessons - attributes cool-Urgent System (See the library).
(http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/l-uchen.html; see the laboratory of the psychology of the teaching of PI RAO).
8.1.2. Advantages and disadvantages of traditional learning
The undoubted advantage of traditional learning is the opportunity for a short time Transfer a large amount of information. With such training, students assimilate knowledge in the finished form without disclosing ways to proof their truth. In addition, it implies assimilation and reproduction of knowledge and their use in similar situations (Fig. 3). Among the essential drawbacks of this type of learning, it is possible to refer to a greater degree in memory, and not thinking (Atkinson R., 1980; abstract). This training is also a little contribute to the development of creative abilities, independence, activity. The most typical tasks are the following: insert, allocated, undergoing, remember, reproduces, decide on example, etc. The educational and informative process is more reproductive (reproducing) in nature, as a result of which students have a reproductive style of cognitive activity. Therefore, it is often called a "school of memory". As practice shows, the amount of information reports exceeds the ability to assimilate it (the contradiction between the meaningful and procedural components of the learning process). In addition, there is no possibility to adapt the pace of learning to various individual-psychological characteristics of students (a contradiction between the front training and the individual nature of the learning of knowledge) (see Animation). Some features of the formation and development of teaching motivation are also to be noted with such a type of learning. 8.1.3. The main contradictions of traditional learning
A.A. Verbicky ( Verbicksky A.A., 1991) Allocated the following contradictions of traditional learning (Hrest. 8.1): 1. The contradiction between the influence of the content of training activities (consequently, the trainee itself) into the past, the "Founding of Science" defined in the iconic systems, and the orientation of the subject of the future, the content of vocational and practical activities and the whole culture . The future acts for a student in the form abstract , not motivating his prospects for the use of knowledge, so the doctrine does not have a personal meaning for him. Turning into the past, fundamentally known, "cutout" from the space-time context (the past is the present - the future) deprives the student opportunity for a collision with an unknown, with problem situation - Situation of thinking.
2. The duality of educational information - it acts as part of the culture and at the same time only as a means of developing, the development of the personality. The resolution of this contradiction lies in the way of overcoming the "abstract method of school" and modeling in the educational process of such real living conditions and activities that would allow the learning "return" to the culture of enriched intellectually, spiritually and practically and thereby cause the development of the culture itself.
3. The contradiction between the integrity of the culture and its mastering by the subject through the many subject areas - educational disciplines as representatives of sciences. This tradition is fixed by the division of school teachers (on subject teachers) and the highlight of the university. As a result, instead of a holistic picture of the world, the student gets fragments " broken mirror", Which he himself is not able to.
4. The contradiction between the method of existence of culture as a process and its representation in training in the form of static iconic systems. Training appears both the technology of transferring the finished, alienated from the dynamics of the development of the culture of educational material, eliminated from the context of both the upcoming self-life and activities and the current needs of the personality itself. As a result, not only an individual, but also culture is out of development processes.
5. Contradiction between public Form The existence of culture and individual form of its assignment to students. In traditional pedagogy, it is not permitted because the student does not combine its efforts with others for the production of a joint product - knowledge. Being next to others in the group of students, everyone "dies alone." Moreover, for the assistance of another student is punished (by the censure of "prompts"), which encourages its individualistic behavior.
Principle of individualization
, understood as isolation of students in individual forms of work and on individual programs, especially in computer version, eliminates the possibility of education of creative individuality, which are becoming known, not through Robinsonad, but through the "other person" in the process of dialogical communication and interaction, where a person does not simply perform subject actions, but acts (CNT I.E., 1990; abstract).
It is the act (and not an individual subject action) should be considered as a unit of activity of the studying.
Deed
- This is a socially determined and morally normalized effect, which has both a subject and sociocultural component, involving the response of another person, accounting for this response and correction of its own behavior. Such interchanges of acts actions implies the subordination of subjects of communication with certain moral principles and standards of relations between people, mutual accounting of their positions, interests and moral values. This condition overcomes the gap between learning and education, removed problem ratios learning and education . After all, whatever a person would do, whatever subject, technological action does, he always - "comes", since it enters the fabric of culture and public relations.
Many of the above problems are successfully solved in the problem type of learning.
Modern traditional learning (MOT)
The revolution of Komensky in education.
Over the centuries, pedagogy developed, changed in accordance with the historical changes and aspirations of new generations, but, as in every science, there is a work in it, which determined its development for the century, is the "Great Didactika" Yana Amos Komensky. You can say otherwise: it is in the "Great Didactics" pedagogy aware of himself as the theory of training and education, becomes science in the current sense of the word. Suffice it to say that the existing system of education and training, and above all the school in its modern form, humanity is obliged to Komensky. He proclaims and develops the principle of a uniform education system - the initial, medium, higher, where every new stage continues to be preceding. The idea of \u200b\u200ba secondary school in his native language, one for all, without the difference in gender, classes, origin, property situation, is nominated and substantiated by Komensky. In reflection, what to teach, he turns to nature, to
the material world surrounding a person and calls for him. He expels scholasticism, for "man lives not for the teachings, but for activity." He creates the doctrine of school as a workshop of learning and moral education.
It establishes the concepts: academic year, training quarter, school day ,. classroom.
Komensky first nominates and explains in detail the new principles of learning, based on consciousness and the activity of students, leads children in a wide
the world from a familiar to an unfamiliar, from simple to difficult to-easily, with the help of visibility, systematically fixing new knowledge of exercises. This is Komensei introduced the currently urgent training system in school now, determined the role and place of the teacher, its work methods depending on age
children, concentric training course. Didactic views of Yal. Komensky:
1. The principle of the nature of education. "The teacher of the young man ... is an assistant nature, and not her lord"; "Let everything flow freely, away violence."
2. The principle of encyclopedic real education. "Learn is always needed for a real and future life." In addition to 7 free arts - the study of physics.
3. The principle of human abilities. "Nothing should be forced to learn to the memory, except that it is well understood by reason."
4. The principle of reality (first the thing, then the word), "... not from books, but from the earth, oaks and beeches"; "Nothing should be taught, relying only for one authority, but learning everything with evidence based on feelings and mind."
5. Accessibility. "Learn everything is brief, understandable, thoroughly"; "Let it be a golden rule: everything that only can be represented for perception with feelings: visible - to perceive with vision, hearing - hearing, smells - smell ... an affordable touch - by touching."
6. Visuality is the basis of sensual experience (a sensualist, ingeniously substantiated, but gave him a self-sufficient value).
7. Consciousness, systematic, sequence, strength, strength. He subordinates the formation of a great task of educating a person.
Moral education
Virtue: wisdom, moderation, courage and justice. In addition to these major virtues, Komensky advises to develop modesty in children, l obedience, benevolence, tidiness, accuracy, politeness, hardworking.
Means of moral education:
1. An example of parents, teachers, comrades.
2. Insertions, conversations.
3. Exercise in moral behavior (in particular, courage).
4. Fighting with promotion, laziness, undisciplining.
The whole value of the discipline, but not walking, and good examples, gentle words. Against bodily punishment for bad successes in teaching, but for - if the student made blasphemy, etc.
Also include followers of "traditional system" apologists! Ya.A. Komensesky - I.G. Pestozzi, I.F. Herbarrt and F.A. Dysterweg.
Nature-like Pestozzci
Pestalozzi Johann Henry(1746-1827) - the Great Swiss teacher, the successor and follower of ideas I, a. Komensky. Pestalozzi closely connected mental education with moral education and advanced
requirements for educational training. Progressive delivery of the issue of bilateral training:
it: 1) contributes to the accumulation of knowledge; 2) Develops mental abilities.
Pestalozzi considered the elementary means of learning the number, form, word and radically changed the content of the formation of the modern elementary school, introducing reading, letter, arithmetic with geometry launches, drawing, singing, gymnastics.
He developed a methodology for primary learning based on the principles of nature-sustainability:
clarity, sequences and gradualness, as well as accounting psychological features Children of different ages.
Cognition begins with sensual observation and rises by processing ideas to ideas that are in the consciousness of a person as forming forces, although they are obvious. The purpose and essence of education is to develop all the natural strengths and human abilities.
Natural appearance should first be carried out in maternal education, and then continue at school.
Easy learning herbard.
Herbart Johann Friedrich(1776-1841) - Great German teacher.
For the first time in history, he gave a slender system of science in his own way - pedagogy, erecting this building on a philosophical basis and substantiate every position on psychology.
Herbart develops the doctrine of the "ideas" of the soul (read the "elementary components of the individual").
All mental functions: emotions, will, thinking and where there are modified views.
The training scheme follows from the understanding of the mental process as a process.
It consists of 4 steps:, clarity - a clear message of the child of new knowledge (the creation of an Association is a combination of these knowledge with already existing; system - formulation of conclusions and generalizations from the knowledge gained;
method - Application of the knowledge gained (operating with representations).
The universal stroke of herbart training was further turned into his followers in the algorithm of a classic lesson: a summary - a generalization - exercise.
Herbart gave a lot useful Soviets For the learning process that retain their value to date, for example, learning by heart. He suggested various methods and techniques of teaching individual training subjects "gave the theory of curriculum.
The great value of Herbart attached to the discipline, the rules of behavior, learning children to obedience.
"Education should see his task in giving and deprive."
In the upbringing, a large role was assigned to religion.
Developing learning Disterweg
Dysterweg Friedrich Adolf Wilhelm (1790-1866) - the largest German teacup-democrat.
Developing the principles of a cool-term system, DiSterureg developed the didactics of educational training.
Like Pestalotzi, he saw the main task of learning in the development of thinking, attention, memory, but at the same time rightly indicated that the development of these abilities of children is inextricably linked with the assimilation of the material itself. Educational items and training methods He appreciated only depending on Togo,
as far as they stimulate the mental activity of students. In accordance with this, it divided the educational items to "rational" and "historical", opposed to the reporting method developed, scientific.
3.1. Classical traditional classroom training technology
The term "traditional learning" implies primarily the urban training in the XVII century on the principles of didactics, formulated by Ya.A. Komensky, and still prevailing in schools in the world. In the "Russian pedagogical encyclopedia" it is determined like this:
A class-grade training system is the organization of the educational process in which students are grouped into separate classes in accordance with age and in it knowledge. The main form of training is a lesson. The content of training in the classroom is determined by curricula and programs.
The lesson is conducted by a solid schedule compiled on the basis of the curriculum. Classrooms, training rooms, workshops, educational and experimental sites are served as a lesson.
Organizational signs of traditional class-urgent technology are:
At the same time - students of approximately one age (± 1
year) compile class (20-40 people), which mainly maintains a permanent composition for the entire period of school education;
Subject principle - all the content of learning is divided into items; Inside the subject, the material is crushed on topics;
The time algorithm of activity - the class works on a single temporary algorithm of the organization: academic year, school day, class schedule, educational holidays, breaks between lessons (change);
Lesson: The main unit of the learning process (activity) of children is a lesson - a logically completed spatial-temporal structure;
The teacher is an adult, educated specialist who leads the work of students in the lesson, assesses the results of studying of each student in its subject and at the end of the school year decides on the transfer of students to the following class;
Tutorial, program - documents defining doses and the total amount of information to be studied.
Classification Parameters
Level and nature of application: Community Education, Communities, Communities, Communities.
The philosophical basis of traditional learning as a system is pragmatic, due to the requirements and status of society; In a particular institution, the philosophical basis determines the content of training; According to methods, it represents a coercion that is antihuman.
Methodological approaches: cultural and historical, knowledge, group, situational.
Leading development factors: Sociogenic + biogenic.
Scientific concept of mastering experience: Associative-reflex with support, on Suggestion (sample, example).
Orientation on personal spheres and structures - information, zun.
Type of socio-pedagogical activity: Educational, didactic.
Type of management of the educational process: traditional class-blue + TSO.
Organizational forms: class-grade, academic.
Prevailing means: verbal.
Approach to the child and the nature of educational interactions: authoritative.
Prevailing methods: Explanatory-illustrative, reproductive, coercion.
Target orientations
Objectives of learning in technology - a moving category, comprising a variety of conditions
those or other components.
In the Soviet pedagogy, the goal of learning was formulated as follows:
To the formation of a knowledge system, mastering the basics of science;
Formation of the foundations of scientific worldview;
Comprehensive and harmonious development of each student;
Education of ideologically convinced fighters (for communism), for the bright future of all mankind;
Education of conscious and highly educated people capable of both physical and mental work.
Thus, in its nature, the goal is to broadcast a student of certain cultural samples, the formation of a person with the specified properties.
In the modern mass Russian school, the task is somewhat modified - the ideology is excluded, the slogan of comprehensive harmonic development was lifted, there were changes in moral education, but the translational pa-adigma of the purpose of the goal in the form of a set of planned qualities (standard standards) remained the same.
A mass school with traditional technology remains a "school of knowledge," retains the primacy of personality awareness over its culture, the predominance of the rational and logical side of knowledge over sensual-emotional.
Conceptual provisions
Translation paradigm. Training is a targeted process.
transmission (broadcasts) of knowledge, skills and skills, social experience of the older generation - the younger. The composition of this holistic process includes targets, content, methods and means.
The form of training is group (when one teacher transmits information to the group of students). Three "Whale" organizational form: class, lesson, subject.
Principles of learning. The learning process is based on the principles derived from reasoning and conceptual experience that I formulated Ya.A. Komensky back in the XVII century:
The principle of scientific relations (false knowledge cannot be, can only be incomplete);
The principle of nature appearance (learning is determined by the development, not forced);
The principle of sequence and systematicity (consistent linear logic of the process, from private to common);
The principle of accessibility (from the known to the unknown, from the lung to the difficult, absorption of the finished zong);
The principle of strength (repetition is the mother of the teachings);
The principle of consciousness and activity (know the task supplied by the teacher and be active in the execution of commands);
The principle of clarity (attracting various senses to perception);
The principle of communication of theory with practice (a certain part of the educational process is given to use
knowledge);
Inspective accounting of age and individual characteristics.
Features of content and organization
Positive parties: systematic training; ordered, logically correct flow of educational material; organizational clarity; constant emotional impact of the teacher's personality; Optimal resource costs with mass learning.
Technocratism. The content of education in the traditional mass school has emerged in the years of Soviet power (it was determined by the objectives of the industrialization of the country, the pursuit of the level of technically developed capitalist countries, the common role of scientific and technological progress) and the seed of the day is technocratic. Knowledge addresses mainly to the rational, and not an emotional self-maintenance, not to its spirituality, morality. 75% of the school curriculum is aimed at the development of the left hemisphere, only 3% are given to the aesthetic items, and completely little attention is paid to spiritual and moral education.
Monophilia. Traditional technology remains uniform, unimagatative, despite the declaration on freedom of choice and variability. Learning content planning is centrally.
Basis educational plans Based on uniform standards for the country. Educational disciplines (Basics of Sciences) define "corridors", within which (and only inside) is granted to move the child ("Tunnel education").
Priority training over education. Training has an overwhelming priority before upbringing. Educational and educational activities are weakly visiting. Club forms of work occupy 3% of academic school in the amount of financing.
In educational work, pedagogy of events flourishes. The goals of the upbringing are undefined, contradictory, vague.
Methodical features
Traditional learning technology is primarily an authoritarian pedagogy requirements, the doctrine is very poorly connected with the inner life of the student, with the diverse requests and needs of his personality, there are no conditions for the manifestation of individual interests and creative abilities.
T. Akbashev); centralization of control in the hands of the teacher; Orientation at the Middle Student (the school "kills", urged talents - and P. Volkov).
Subject-object relationship:
The teacher is a subject of the educational process, the commander, the only initiative person, the judge, "always rights", the style "Split arrows."
Pupils are only objects, defective others (school raises obedient,
"Vinetikov").
Positions of the teacher and student in traditional learning:
- Teacher teaches, and students learn;
- the teacher knows everything, and the students do not know anything (or only something);
- the teacher thinks and shows students how to think;
- The teacher says, and students listen and do not doubt his words;
- the teacher supports discipline, and students are disciplined;
- the teacher chooses and justifies his choice, and students agree;
- the teacher acts, and students have the illusion of actions through the actions of the teacher;
- the teacher chooses the content of the curriculum, and students accept it;
- Methods of learning knowledge are based on:
- the message of ready-made knowledge (no independence);
- training in sample;
- inductive logic: from private to common;
- mechanical memory;
- story, conversation, verbal presentation of information (verbalism, abstract);
- polling methods - reproductive reproduction (reproductive);
- external evaluation of results (behaviorism).
The main form of the educational process is a lesson. It is thinking as a systematic, algorithmically consistently organized process in which it is not possible to follow the interest or question, to deploy the emerging spontaneous action, to act a problem.
The birth of a new knowledge is predetermined by the program. Events, existential, choice, creativity - all these phenomena are out of the lesson.
The training activity cycle of the student. The learning process as activity is characterized by the lack of independence, the weak motivation of the schoolchild labor. In the cycle of educational activities of the child:
- There is no independent goal setting, the teacher's learning goals are set;
- planning activities are conducted from outside, imposed by a student in spite of his desire;
- The final analysis and evaluation of the activity of the child are not produced by him, teacher, other adults.
The most lesson is allowed "quiet" (inactive) inaction of the student, or "idleness at the desk" (V.A. Sukhomlinsky).
Under these conditions, the stage of the implementation of training goals (work on educational mat-rial) turns into labor "from under the stick" with all its negative consequences (the alienation of the child from study, the upbringing of laziness, deception, conformism (School "Upsoms" Personality - T. Akbashev).
Evaluation of students' activity. In the pedagogy of traditional training, the criteria for a quantitative five-point assessment of knowledge, skills are developed! and students' skills on educational subjects, requirements for the assessment process: individual character, differentiated approach, systematic control and assessment, comprehensiveness, diversity of forms, unity of requirements, objectivity, motivation, publicity.
However, in the school practice of traditional training, the negative aspects of the traditional estimation system are found.
Negativism. The assessment suffers negativism: rates of estimates are based on the calculation of the shortcomings.
Medium for coercion. Quantitative assessment - a mark - often becomes a means of coercion, the instrument of power, psychological and social pressure of the teacher to the student.
Label. The mark as the result of cognitive activity is often identifiable with a person as a whole, divides students on the "good" me "bad".
The names "Troechnik", "Dweller" cause a sense of degradation, humiliation or lead to indifference, indifferent to study. A student in its mediocre or satisfactory estimates first makes conclusion about the usefulness of his knowledge, abilities, and then of their personality (negative I-concept).
Tragedy. Especially there is a dispute problem. It is a negative, non-reversible, untranslative assessment, the foundation of the October and discraining, i.e. In many ways, decides the fate of the schoolchild and, in general, is a great social problem. Conflict. The current deuce causes negative emotions, gives rise to a psychological conflict of the student with himself, with a teacher, subject, school.
So, in modern assessment, the technology has the following positive and negative sides:
Forerunities, varieties, followers
The lecture-seminary-taught system (form) of training, wide-used in higher educational institutions, also relates to traditional technologies: First, the learning material is presented to the class (group) with a lecture method, and then worked out (absorbed, enshrines, repeated applied) on the seminar, Practical and laboratory classes and in self-standing work and the results of the study are checked in the form of credits (exams) ..
Lecture (from Lat. 1Iflo - reading) is the transfer of a large amount of systematized information in the oral form of a sufficiently large audience (group).
The lecture arose and developed as a typical university form of training organization, but gradually began to be used in other types of education, to popularize scientific knowledge, advocacy. For a long time, the lecture is introduced into the learning process of senior schoolchildren.
The lecture makes it possible to economically, systematically express the educational material. It is indispensable to familiarize themselves the audience. the newest achievements Science, as well as introducing into science, studying its categories. Lecture is a school of scientific thinking. Depending on its place and role in the organization of the educational process, such main varieties of lectures can be distinguished as:
Introductory (installation) - initial study of students with the main scientific and theoretical provisions of this subject, section, topics; Orientation in information sources, instructions for independent work and practical, recommendations, allocation of the most important and difficult parts of the material.
Classic (traditional) is a sequential presentation of the material in the logic of this science, carried out mainly by verbal means in the form of a monologue of the teacher.
Problem (motivational) lectures - initiate interest among students, create an incentive for all further activities. Problematization occurs due to both the forms and lectures;
contradiction real life Model through their expression in theoretical concepts.
Generalizing (integrating, review) - represent science (section) in the system and development as a logical integer; Give out a further theoretical analysis outside the initial understanding.
The lack of a traditional lecture as a form of training is the passivity of the audience. A modern unconventional lecture is based on the principle problematic lecturer not only sets out the material, but also puts the tasks, encounters opinions, includes an audience in a scientific search.
Practical occupation is a form of training conducted under
leadership of the teacher and serving for detail, analysis, expansion, deepening, consolidation, application (or performing diverse practical work, exercises) and monitoring learning obtained at lectures. In practical classes there is an opportunity
combine a variety of student activities: Frontal, group, paramis, individual. This creates conditions for differentiation and individualization of work with individual students, to work out and consolidate a variety of skills and skills.
Workshop is a system of combined meaningfully and methodically practical training or on a separate scientific matter, the assimilation of which is associated with mastering a group of skills and skills,
either by a holistic academic course. Workshop is a link between the theory studied and practice. Examples: Workshop on solving problems of increased difficulty, laboratory workshop.
The seminar (from Lat. Zagpagsht - seedler) was originally a form of discussion of scientific problems of scientists in a particular area of \u200b\u200bknowledge. From the scope of scientific activity, the seminar gradually entered the educational process and gained widespread. The main purpose of the seminars is an independent acquisition of Zun.
In the practice of educational institutions, three types of seminars are used: a) frontal, b) seminar with prepared reports and c) mixed, or combined. The frontier seminar involves the work of all its participants over this topic and questions. The second type of seminar provides for work around several reports. With this form, the main attention is paid to the preparation of reports and co-allegations in the in-depth areas, the remaining participants in the seminar are studying the main sources on the main issue. The third type of seminar combines combined
work forms, i.e. Part of the issues are developing all the participants of the seminar, and reports and messages are being prepared on others.
The preparation of students to the seminar includes familiarization with the plan, the distribution of tasks between them and the provision of the necessary individual aid.
The role of the teacher is to prevent deviations from the main tasks of the seminar, emphasize the attention of students to the main thing in the content of the classes, if necessary, to nominate problematic issues, to face opinions, different points of view, bringing a greater number of participants to the discussion.
Laboratory works. The purpose of laboratory classes is a practical development of schoolchildren (students) of scientific and theoretical provisions of the studied
subject, mastering the technique of experimentation in the relevant industry of science, instrumentalization of the knowledge gained, i.e. The transformation into a means to solve educational and research, and then real experimental and practical tasks, in other words - the establishment of the communication of theory with practice.
One of the advantages of laboratory classes in comparison with other types â„¢ audited academic work is that they integrate theoretical knowledge and practical skills and skills of students (students) in a single process of educational activity.
The contact of the theory and experience carried out in the educational laboratory, activates the cognitive activities of schoolchildren (students), gives a specific nature studied in the lessons (lectures) and in the process of independent work theoretical, material, contributes to the solid learning learning information.
Depending on the didactic purpose laboratory works May take a different place in the educational process. Didactic objectives can be:
experienced verification of studied-patterns (example: verification of laws);
mastering methods for measuring different quantities (determination of resistance of conductors); study of the connection between the values, events, phenomena and the establishment of patterns;
the instill of the ability to use sources of information, orcrees, measuring instruments (dynamometer graduation);
study of the device and the principle of operation of devices and technical devices (studying the computer), etc.;
mastering students (students) by the techniques of the automation of research and the newest methods Processing experimental data.
Laboratory work may precede lectures (story) teacher or! put after students familiarize themselves with educational material. In the first! Case laboratory work has a research, or heuristic, character.
Frontal laboratory work (front experiment) is carried out when students do not have deep and durable knowledge on the material studied and sufficient experience in conducting an experiment associated with it. Therefore, it is important for success here to eliminate all the possibility of opposing students from the main issue and scattering their attention on the parties.
3.2. Technology of a classic and modern lesson
Everything that happens is truly like
That he saw the world when he was younger,
Al Maarsch
Lesson - the main form of training in traditional technology.
The lesson is a dynamic and variable form of organization of the process of targeted interaction (activities and communications) of a certain composition of teachers (teachers) and students, including content, forms, methods and learning tools and systematically used
(in the same periods of time) to solve the problems of education, development and education in the learning process.
The lesson is a complex psychological and pedagogical process that has its technology - on the scale and nature of the application of the transmission, and for these conditions (academic subject, section, theme) is locally modular. The remaining classification parameters of the lesson technology coincide with the parameters of traditional technology (see clause 3.1).
V.K. Dyachenko, a lesson as a form of a teacher's learning work organization with a certain group of students (class) is a combination of three organizational forms of training: group, individual and steam room.
From a formal point of view, a lesson is a kind of fixed area of \u200b\u200bspace and time, in which are solved tasksAnd the teacher and students perform quite hard roles defined by the technology scenario. For the classic (old) lesson model in the framework of the traditional
class and subject technology are characteristic:
1. The same time settled for all students without exception to fulfill the common learning task.
2. The presence of one for all learning tasks.
3. Availability for all of the same method for performing a specific learning task.
4. The constant composition of students during the lesson.
5. The place is fixed for each student for academic work, defined by the teacher.
6. Fixed landing for all students.
7. Sustainable ranking of students according to abilities.
8. Each lesson has an intermediate state between the previous and subsequent lesson. Selective, fragmented control over student activities. The subject of regulated control in the lesson is ZON.
11 Assurance of a mandatory homework.
12 The presence of a stable dependence of the elements of the structure of the lesson.
13 Dominance of two types of social interaction: Forced submission and independent existence.
14. Using three organizational forms of training: individually
indirect, steam room and group.
15.Positions are toughly fixed on subjects.
16. Neighbor an allocation of participants responsibility.
17.Clightness.
18. The entire teaching content is only a teacher.
19. The teacher interacts not with individual students, but with a class as a single object.
Objectives and lesson tasks
A modern approach to setting the purpose of the lesson is that the general pedagogical task
"Differential" by three more specific: learning (didactic), educational and developing. They, in turn, are divided into a number of tasks.
The solution of didactic tasks leads to the achievement of the didactic goal. For example, a didactic goal is to learn a new concept, to work out the skills and skills of its use. This is a difficult goal, it is achieved in solving three main didactic tasks: a) the actualization of previous knowledge, skills and skills; b) the formation of a new concept and methods of action with it; c) applying concepts to special cases (formation of skills).
Each of these didactic tasks in turn consists of a number of educational (tasks for students), which are even more specific.
The task may be the same, and the ways to solve it (funds) are different. Therefore, there is a variation of the results, more or less coincidence of the intended purpose and the actual result.
Conceptual approaches (requirements) to the modern lesson
The principles of traditional learning apply to the lesson. It reflects all the disadvantages: coercion, formalization, rudinity, lack of independence, idleness of students in class, etc. But it was the lesson that is the active zone of traditional learning, where these principles are subjected to modernization, where many innovative approaches originate. The concept of a modern lesson includes the following requirements:
ï€ The integrity of the lesson: it represents an autonomous, logically completed testicular material development unit (ZON).
ï€ Setting the tasks of learning, education and development, their relationship is unity.
ï€ Personal Approach - High Positive Level interpersonal relationship Teachers and students.
ï€ Intraight differentiation and individualization of learning.
ï€ Creation and maintenance of a high level of cognitive interest (motivation, problematization), independent mental activity of students, Success situations.
ï€ The use of arsenal of various methods, means and methodical techniques (games, enraged, competitiveness).
ï€ Formation of methods of mental actions (court) students.
ï€ Contribution to the formation and development of the student qualities of a schoolchildren and, first of all, self-governing mechanisms of personality (sum), contributing to conscious learning motivation.
ï€ Flexible informal control system.
ï€ expedient and optimally economical spending time lesson
ï€ a combination of difficulty and accessibility in training, work in the ZBR.
ï€ Communication of the theory with practice.
ï€ System of lessons. Each lesson is a peculiar step of promoting a student to the complete absorption of a larger didactic unit.
Typology of lessons
The study of the essence and structure of the lesson leads to the conclusion that the lesson is a complex pedagogical object. Like all sorts of complex objects, the lessons of the moth are divided into types on features.
This explains the existence of numerous lessons. The theory and practice of learning traditional the following classifications of lessons:
Under the main didactic goal;
By the main method (form) of their conduct.
When classifying on a precipitator didactic purposes, such lessons are distinguished:
Introductory lesson;
A lesson for the study of a new material (primary familiarization from the material, the formation of concepts, the establishment of laws in practice);
Lesson consolidation of studied (repetition and generalization);
Lesson application of knowledge and skills;
Verification lesson and correction of knowledge and skills;
Mixed, or combined, lesson.
The classification by the main method (form) is subdivided into their lessons:
In the form of a conversation;
In the form of a lecture;
In the form of an excursion;
In the form of a film;
Independent work of students;
Laboratory and practical work;
Combinations of various forms of classes;
Non-traditional.
Features of the structure
The usual lesson (it is combined) is one of the pillars of traditional authoritarian pedagogy, subjected to brutal criticism and nevertheless continuing to remain the main form of training at school. The lesson is a multidimensional structure.
The horizontal structure of the combined lesson is determined by several major functional aspects:
Didactic aspect: the content of educational material;
Educational aspect: raising effects (for consciousness, emotions, effective, practical sphere);
Developing aspect: Independent mental activity of students;
Methodical aspect: implementation of one or another method, a given technology;
Psychological aspect: Psychological health of children, discipline in class, etc.
In each period (and in each this moment) This or that aspect is realized to different degrees and form a temporary sequence (vertical structure) of the lesson.
Temporary (vertical) lesson structure
The didactic substructure of the combined lesson consists of 4 stages - steps: 1) the actualization of the reference zone and the zones of the nearest development;
2) the formation of new ZON, the court; 3) consolidation; 4) Homework. Hence the lesson type got the name of the four-step.
The Methodological Substructure is adjusted for the didactic and including the organization of the beginning of the lesson, checking the homework, problematization ("setting goals, tasks); introduction of new information;
demonstration of the visual series; exercises, solving problems; Control, correction, generalization.
Psychological substructure is represented by mental processes - the establishment of communicative contact; reproduction (known); perception (new); awareness, understanding;
assignment, correction; Application.
Today in school learning the volume of scientific information is huge, and the teaching time is limited, so one of the most relevant requirements becomes the optimal (primarily in terms of time costs) content and methods of training. This requirement refers to each lesson.
A lesson is a process that goes in time and in space.
The rational structure of the lesson provides:
- comprehensive planning of learning, education and development tasks;
- allocation in the content of the lesson and theme of the main, substantial;
- definition of the expedient sequence and dosage of the material and the time of repetition, the study of the new, consolidation, homework;
- the choice of the most rational methods, techniques and learning tools;
- Differentiated and individual approach to students;
- Creation of the necessary learning and material training conditions.
Rationalization of the lesson time. It is that the lion's share of time
(20-30 minutes) should be dedicated to the study of a new material ("learn in the lesson"). In order for the previously unknown material well breathed, it is determined in the nearest development zone, complementing the old one, who is remembered (updated) before explanation. Hence the name of the first part
- "Actualization" of reference knowledge, skills and skills, and not a narrow "survey".
In modern conditions, a flexible lesson structure is used, providing for a set and interaction the most important elements and their goals at different levels and in a wide variety
combinations, which leads to innovative lesson types.
The control function in the lesson is not an end in itself: it turns into a constant rational bond "Pupil -Ukitel". Finally, the consolidation goes in the forms of creative use of knowledge.
The basic structure of the modern combination lesson is presented in Figure 19.
Teaching methods in class
The effectiveness of learning information is largely determined by changing methods (Fig. 20).
The lesson is such a diverse phenomenon, within which there may be elements of a wide variety of technologies, methods, techniques. And "nosh mouth" - almost in all modern technologies A lesson is used as a form of organization of the educational process.
Psychological aspects of the lesson
Designing the development of students within the study of a specific educational subject and a specific lesson.
The ratio of load on the memory of students and their thinking. - the ratio of positive incentive, prompting students to activities (comments that cause positive feelings in connection with the installation, encouraging interest, volitional efforts to overcome difficulties, etc.) and
negative incentive, coercion (reminder of the mark, sharp comments, notation, so-called.). Poor teacher well-being at the beginning of the lesson and in the course of the lesson.
Pedagogical tact (manifestation cases).
Psychological climate at the lesson (maintaining the atmosphere of joyful sincere communication, business contact, etc.).
Management of cognitive activity of students (attention - the door through which everything is being learned from the outside world).
Organizations (discipline) of students.
Accounting age and individual characteristics of students.
Hygienic mode in class.
Emotionality of the presentation of the material (intonation can carry information to a collection).
Optimal tempo and rhythm lesson.
Changing the activities of students, the best combination various methods and learning techniques, including physical and psychological discharge
Types of lesson analysis
a) at the goal:
- analysis of the lesson purposes;
- analysis of the structure and organization of the lesson;
- analysis of the technique of a lesson;
- brief (appreciable) analysis;
- structural (phased) analysis;
- system analysis;
- full analysis;
- structural and temporary analysis;
- Combined analysis;
- psychological analysis;
- didactic analysis;
- aspects analysis;
- comprehensive analysis;
- b) according to the technique used:
- expert;
Test;
- polling;
- documentary;
- B) on the subject of analysis:
- administrative;
- self-analysis;
- mutuallyanalysis;
Student;
- Parental.
- lesson in small rural school
- The small rural school is the only way to preserve, the revival of the Russian village, agriculture.
The main organizational feature of the rural school is a small number of students in school and, accordingly in the classroom.
Features goals
Perform tasks (standards) of training, despite the low level of culture of rural children.
Learn, to educate, increase the culture of students, their general development, no matter how many children would be at the teacher.
Features of the position of students in rural school
For small school characteristic:
Lack of competitiveness in the lessons and in general in studies of the students of the same class, limited
the number of landmarks for comparing and evaluating their real success in educational activities;
A limited circle of communication of children, which prevents the development of communication skills,
ability to respond quickly to events in the new situation;
Psychological insecurity of the child, the constant pressure of teachers to the student, expecting a student that he will definitely ask;
Limited opportunities for the selection of objects, classes, teachers, types of leisure activities, communication, etc.;
Monotony of the situation, contacts, interaction forms.
Features of the educational process
Features individual approach. Little class can make an individual approach to students. The teacher has all the inability to establish, to which psychophysiological group according to the degree of equilibrium of nervous processes of initiation and braking belongs to the student; To study the peculiarities of its development, the level of knowledge, skills and skills, character traits, inclinations, interests. On this basis, the teacher may not be! The main directions of work with it: to choose the techniques of development and training, more relevant to the peculiarities of perception, memory, psyche; Education receptions positive traits Personality and eliminating disadvantages.
However, despite the conditions of almost individual training, less for the organization of the lesson, students are quickly tired, disconnected from the learning activities of the cause - an increased intensity of communication, an increase in the number of acts of interaction: the teacher often refers to the student, and the student often responds. Teachers control almost every student's action. Pupils that are in the field of view of the teacher do not have the opportunity to distract, weaken attention, they constantly expect a call, staying in a state of readiness for the answer; No visual contact with the teacher is not interrupted.
The closure of relations, the narrow circle of communication requires a lesson to enrich the inclusion of various methods and means of learning using the benefits of a small classes, for example, a predominance of a group of educational activities or individual, including independent; Partial or complete teacher's failure from the plan, when he sees that someone from the disciple does not understand the educational material.
One of the conditions successful work Teachers - change the style of communication from official to trust for one or a series of lessons. The achievement of trust relationships help all sorts of changes in the spatial location "Teacher - Student", depending on the solution of different pedagogical problems.
The combination of classes is advisable to organize "lesson-testing", with training exercises aimed at consolidating and deepening knowledge, organizing classes for the development of common cooperative skills in the lessons of development of speech, Russian and native languages, mathematics.
In the VIII-1x classes, another version of the organization of training sessions is possible - the connection of several lessons into a single block. A small program of the program or a relatively complete part of the large section is planned so the first lesson teacher sets out the main questions of the topic or its part, and on the following students work all the educational material, specifying the lavender, the main one.
Such a block shape of the organization of training sessions is sent to strengthen the cognitive independence of students, a decrease in simultaneously hyperteks and hyper control of students from the teacher.
A variety of means and teaching methods: a change in the place of attraction to the lesson of agricultural specialists, cultural centers, librarians, physicians, integration of educational and extracurricular activities.
Forerunities, varieties, followers
Non-traditional types of lesson;
Integrated lessons based on interdisciplinary relationships: combined two-, three- and four-perched, lesson immersion, excursion, hike, travel;
Lessons in the form of competitions and games: contests, tournaments, relay (linguistic battle), Duel,
business or role-playing games, crosswords, quiz, auctions;
Creativity lessons: research, invention, Eureka, analysis of primary sources, search, project, comment, brain attack, interview, report, review, CTD;
Lessons based on an unconventional organization of educational material: wisdom, love, revelation (confession), presentation, "Double begins to act";
Lessons with imitation of public forms of communication: press conference, auction, benefit, rally, regulated discussion, dispute, battle, panorama, television, telemat, report, "Living newspaper", oral magazine;
Lessons using fantasy: a fairy tale, surprise, a gift from the wizard, the topic of aliens, open thoughts;
Lessons based on imitation of activities of institutions and organizations: court, consequence, debate in parliament, Circus, Patent Office, Scientist Council, elections;
Lessons imitating social and cultural events: correspondence tour of the past, travel, literary walk, living room, interview, report, performance, cinema;
The transfer of traditional forms of extracurricular work to the lesson of traditional forms of extracurricular work, KVN, "The investigation is conducting experts", "What? Where? When? "," Error ", matinee, performance, concert, drainage, dispute," gatherings "," Club of experts "and others.
3.3. Ways of improving traditional technology
From the very occurrence of a cool-term system, attempts to improve it,
improve. J.-H. Rousseau, I.G. Pestozzi, F. Herbam-d. Dewey, R. Owen, P. Ferrero, P. Gudman, N.V. Pirogov, N.V. Lobachevsu »1-NK. Krupskaya, A.V. Lunacharsky, pf Lesgal, P.F. Kantereyev, A.P. Pinkeev, p.p. Blonsky, Art. Shatsky and many others contributed to improving the content and methods of school education.
The modern school went far from the models of the last century, both in essence and
For funds and methods of learning. There were many new educational technologies that improve optimizing, rationalizing individual aspects, but all of them did not affect the basic principles and the organizational class-urgent structure.
These technologies will be called upgrade. Their number is constantly growing, they became the result of the innovative activities of teachers and scientists.
Today, the most applicable in the Russian school modernization of traditional learning, which consist in humanization and democratization of the educational process. The ideas of any humane-democratic pedagogical thinking apply to the content of education, and on the relationship of the participants in the pedagogical process. A pedagogy of cooperation, innovative social and pedagogical movement of teachers-innovators was born on this basis, author's schools were formed.
Reserves of the traditional organization of the educational process are used in modernizations based on the intensification and intensification of children's activities. These are game technologies, technology of problem, project, communicative learning. Especially high level intensification of educational activities of children reaches in Technologies V.F. Shatalova, E.I. Passov, I.P. Volkov and other private technology. The level increases at the expense of organizational innovations: the forms of presenting material, reference abstract, compacted control, etc.
A separate line of modernization is represented by technologies that change and improving the management of the pedagogical process, and cognitive activity of students. These are programmed learning technologies, group and collective learning methods, the organization of a nonlinear structure of classes, etc.
A part of the innovations is aimed at didactic reconstruction and a change in the existing content of education:
changes in its qualitative composition - curriculum, programs, textbooks, educational and methodical accompaniment;
reconstruction of the didactic structure based on the ideas of generalization and integration of knowledge;
the ideas of the acquisition of information in the enlarged didactic units, in various blocks and modules, etc.
A group of technologies based on the application of new modern information funds is closest to the replacement (cancellation) of the main attributes of traditional technology - class and lesson.
In a number of technologies, modernization is in strengthening the socio-educational functions of the school. This is especially manifested in educational technologies.
Alternative technologies that suggest a change in any deep, fundamental bases, principles, education paradigms are distinguished the highest degree of modernization.
In modern pedagogy, alternative technologies are called that, which refuse to any conceptual founding of the traditional pedagogical process (social, philosophical, psychological) -Evalu-based principal.
So, one of the essential characteristics of traditional learning is authoritarianity, the subordinate position of the child in relation to school and pedagogy. An alternative to this property is free education (L. Tolstoy, M. Montessori, A. Nyl, etc.). They proclaim as the basic concept of mastering cultural experience providing a child of an independent, free choice of activities in the education process.
Another dilemma of traditional pedagogy acts developing technologies based on the subjectivity of the child's position in the educational process and the priority of the objectives of the formation of thinking methods (Court).
The most important side of the traditional education technology - group,; Frontal - classical organization of the educational process. An alternative to such an organization represents some forms of differentiation and individualization (see ch. 6), activities of various age groups, various
forms of extracurricular work, as well as those that are generally abandoned from a class-paper system.
Today, these and other alternative ideas become one of the sources of the new, the birth of the XXI century formation paradigm, the purpose of which will be a free self-dedicating and self-improvement creative man. "
In our book, the logic of presentation of the material is based on the classification of educational technologies in the direction of the modernization of the traditional learning system.
Modernization and alternation of various aspects of traditional cool-term technology are presented in Table 2.
Most of the technologies specified in the table are described in this manual; Located in more detail in the recommended pedagogical literature.
table 2
Modernization and alternation of various aspects of traditional grade-urgent technology
Aspects and attributes of traditional
harmonized technology
Modernization and alternatives
1. Objectives of education
Training - Knowledge Priority - Zun
Technologies of educational training:
development Priority, Court, Sum, SEN, SDP
Education - landmark for the dominant
ideology (today in Russia - priority
man market)
Formation of the convoy of Utopia: Education of a comprehensive and harmoniously developed person Priority of universal values \u200b\u200b(truth, good, beauty)
Education of freedom, humanism, democratism (gum
refinery educational systems - I.P. Ivanov, V.A. Karakov) Education of faith, spirituality.
Confessional OU education of a self-improvement person (G.K. Selevko), authorized (N.N. Halazhai)
Technocratic humanitarian profiles, integration with cultural logical institutions.
Standardized, single educational space (program,
tutorials).
Professional and unaccompicious education (A.M. Lobok)
Profileization, optional
Technologies of advanced and compensating learning
Tunnel (channel, limited program frames)
Different: School-complexes (M.P. Shchetinin, N.P. Guzik, E.A. Yamburg) The system of additional education.
Structure - CommodityTitrixss-Kai Project Training (E. Parkherst) Waldorf School (R. Stepper)
Mother's integrity Enlargement of didactic units (P.M. Erdnnev)
"Ecology and dialectic" (L.V. Tarasov) "Dialogue of Cultures"
(V.S. Bibler, Xu. Kurganov) Modular technology (P.I. Tretyakov, I.B. Seshevsky, M.A. Choshanov)
Class (room, double landing) Single landing (V.F. Shatalov), Controls (N.P. Dubinin, V.F. Basal), Eashable poses (D. B. Elkonin - V.V. Davydov)
Logic of science and her teaching -inductive
Deductive logic (developing. Assembly D.B. Elkopip - V.V. Davydova)
Coercion, authoritarian subject-object technology of free education (A. Neil, M. Mestessori, R. Steiner, S. Franj, L.N. Tolstoy) School Park (M. Balaban) Subject-subject technology based on personal orientation of the pedagogical process :
Pedagogy of cooperation (S.L. Solovychik) Humanno-Personal Technology Sh.A. Amonashvili *
Natural technologies (A.M. Kushpir)
Passive methods of ready-made knowledge
Pedagogical technologies based on the revitalization and intensification of students' activity: Gaming technologies Problem learning (D. Dewey, M.I.Makhmutov) Technology of project training (D. Dewey, E. Park-Hearst) Technology of communicative training (EI Passs)
Technology of intensification of training based on circuit and iconic models of educational material (V.F. Shatalov)
Reproductive dogmatic methods of educational training (problematicization, modeling, training tasks, productivity; L.V. Zamkov, D.B. Elkonip, V.V. Davydov, A.A. Breed
Creative methods (I.P. Volkov, GS. Altshuller, I.P. Ivanov)
Self-Development Technology (A.A. Ukhtomsky - G.K. Selevko)
Technology of productive education (I. Bohm, J. Schneider)
Inductive-deductive (V.V. Davydov)
Ways of improving traditional technology
4. Organization of the educational process
Class - homogeneous age group. Cooperative learning. Orientation by
medium "student. Strictly defined learning content in each class.
Technologies of differentiated learning: in terms of abilities (N.P. Guzpk, V.V. Firsov), in interest (I.N. Suntyov). System of consolidated groups of various agents (RVG) Tender learning GSO, a collective way of learning A.G. RNVINA - V.K. Dyachenko.
Individualized learning technologies (I.E. Unts, A.S. Grasitskaya) Individual educational programs. (V.D. Shadrikov)
Integral Technology (V.V. Guzeyev)
Lesson (irrational structure) Immersion technology (M.P. Schetinin) Workshop technology (A.A. Okupiev)
Park Studio (O.M. Leontiev)
Non-traditional forms of lesson. The seminar-taught system of effective lessons technology (A.A.okuyev)
Control:
Opened (weak feedback)
Manual (without technical means)
The main control lever - the final check and evaluation of the zone
Technology of Programmed Training New Information Technologies Technology S.N. Lycikova based on reference schemes when commentated by the control system of phased training in physics (N.N. Paltishev) Reflective training Evaluation by S.A. Amoashvilp rating
system of self-and mutualization (V.F. Shatalov, V.K.Dyachenko)
Teacher - Center, Subject of Training
The leading role of the teacher
New information technology - computer
Internet technologies remote training, external
Independent work self-education Tutor-technology (TM Kovaleva)
Tutorial training without a standard textbook (S. Frepreta)
Training and Methodical Kits (Tutorial + Problem + Reading Book + Workbook + Handbook + ...)
Training with an excess instruction textbooks
Time schedule (solid schedule, training quarters, half a year,
Association of age class in RVG blocks
Free Visiting Trimesters Waldorf School
Jena-Plan School
5. Principles of learning
Systematic and sequences Project method (D. Dewey) Immersion (M.P. Shchetemipip) Productive education
Accessibility Learning at a high level of difficulty, in the ZBR (RO technologies) ahead of training SI. Lysenkova
Visuality. The leading role of theoretical thinking (Technology RO D. B. Elkonin - V.V. Davydova)
Consciousness reflexion, self-government, self-improvement (self-development technology A.A. Ukhtomsky - G.K. Selevko)
- Distinctive features of traditional cool-term technology are as follows:
- students of approximately one age and the level of preparation make up a class that mainly maintains a permanent composition for the entire period of school learning;
- the class works on a single annual plan and program according to the schedule. As a result, children should come to school at the same time of the year and in advance the hours of the day;
- the main unit of classes is a lesson;
- the lesson is usually devoted to one training subject, the topic, by virtue of the class students work on the same material;
- the work of students in the lesson is managing a teacher: he evaluates the results of studies on its subject, the level of training of each student separately and at the end of the school year decides on the transfer of students to the following class;
- teaching books (textbooks) are used mainly for homework. School year, school day, schedule of lessons, training holidays, change, or, more precisely, breaks between lessons - Attributes Class-urgent system - organization of training activities in educational institutionIn which the training is carried out frontally in classes with a constant composition of students on the schedule for a certain period of time, and the main form of classes is a lesson. ");" onmouseout \u003d "nd ();" href \u003d "javascript: void (0);"\u003e cool-Urgent System (See the library).
- The development of ways to activate the mental activity of students led in the second half of the XIX - early XX century. To introduce into the teaching of individual educational methods:
- heuristic (Armstrong);
- experimental heuristic (A.Y. Gerd);
- laboratory and heuristic (F.A. Wintergalter);
- method of laboratory lessons (K.P. Yagodovsky);
- naturally scientific learning (A.P. Pinkeevich), etc.
All of the above methods of B.E. Due to the generality of their essence, they replaced the term "research method." The research method of training that has activated the practical activity of students has become a typical antipode of the traditional method. Its application created at the school atmosphere of passionateness by teaching, delivering students to the joy of independent
Search and discoveries and, most importantly, ensured the development of cognitive independence of children, their creative activity. The use of a research method of learning as universal at the beginning of the 30s. XX century It was recognized in erroneous. It was proposed to build training for the formation of a knowledge system that does not disturb logic (Greek Logike) is a science of evidence and refutation methods; A combination of scientific theories, each of which discusses certain methods of evidence and refutation. The founder of logic is the Aristotle. There are inductive and deductive logic, and in the latter - classical, intuitionist, constructive, modal, etc. All these theories combines the desire for cataloging of such ways of reasoning, which from true comdes-parcels lead to true judgments consequences; Cataloging is usually as a rule, within the framework of logical calculus. Applications of logic in computing mathematics, automatic theory, linguistics, computer science, etc. are also a special role in accelerating scientific and technological progress. ");" onmouseout \u003d "nd ();" href \u003d "javascript: void (0);"\u003e the logic of the subject. However, the massive use of illustrative training, dogmatic memorization did not contribute to the development of school learning. The search for ways to activate the educational process began. A certain influence on the development of the theory of problem learning - 1) One of the types of training based on the use of heuristic methods. Aims to develop heuristic skills in the process of resolving problem situations, which can be both practical and theoretical and cognitive character; 2) A method of active interaction between the subject with a problematic presented content of training, organized by the teacher, during which it is attached to the objective contradictions of scientific knowledge and methods of their permission, learns to think, creatively absorb knowledge. ");" onmouseout \u003d "nd ();" href \u003d "javascript: void (0);"\u003e problem learning During this period, psychologists (S.L. Rubinstein) were rendered (S.L. Rubinstein), which substantiated the dependence of the mental activity of a person from solving problems, and the concept of problem learning, which established in pedagogy based on pragmatic understanding of thinking.
In the American pedagogy began the XX century. Two basic concepts of problem learning are known. J. Dewey offered all types and forms of training to replace the independent teachings of schoolchildren by solving problems, while emphasis was made on their educational and practical form (Dewey J., 1999; abstract). The essence of the second concept lies in the mechanical transfer of the findings of psychology to the learning process. V. Burton () believed that training is "acquiring new reactions or a change of older" and reduced the learning process for simple and complex reactions, without taking into account the impact on the development of the thinking of the student of the environment and the conditions of education.John Dewey
Starting his experiments in one of the Chicago schools in 1895, J. Dewey focused on the development of the active activity of the student. Soon he was convinced that training, based on schoolchildren's interests and associated with their life needs, gives much better results than verbal (verbal, book) training based on memorizing knowledge. The main contribution of J. Dewey to the theory of learning is the concept of "complete act of thinking". According to the philosophical and psychological views of the author, thoughing a person begins when it faces difficulties, overcoming it is important for him.
Properly built training, according to J. Dewey, must be problematic. At the same time, the problems posed before students differ in principle differ from the proposed traditional learning tasks - "imaginary problems" having a low educational and educational value and most often far behind what students are interested in.
Compared with the traditional system, J. Dewey suggested bold innovations, unexpected decisions. The place of "book studies" took the principle of active teaching, the basis of which is his own cognitive activity of the student. The place of an active teacher was taken by an assistant teacher who does not impose student nor content or methods of work, but only helping to overcome difficulties when students themselves turn to it for help. Instead of a common program, indicative programs were introduced for all stable training program, the content of which only in the most general features was determined by the teacher. The place of oral and written words occupied theoretical and practical classes, which carried out independent research work of students.
A school system based on the acquisition and learning of knowledge, he opposed the training "by doing", i.e. This, in which all knowledge was removed from practical amateur and personal experience Child. In schools who worked on the J. Dewey system, there was no permanent program with a consistent system of studied objects, and only the knowledge necessary for the life experience of students was selected. According to the scientist, the student must deal with the types of activities that allowed civilization to enter the modern level. Therefore, attention should be concentrated in constructive classes: teach children to cook food, sew, attach to needlework, etc. Around these utilitarian knowledge and skills concentrates information more general.
J. Dewey adhered to the so-called pedocentric theory and learning techniques. According to her, the role of the teacher in the process of training and education is mainly mainly the leadership of students and the awakening of their curiosity. In the method of J. Dewey, along with labor processes, Great place was occupied by games, improvisation, excursions, artistic amateurness, home economy. Education of the discipline of students, he contrasted the development of their individuality.
In the Labor School of Labor, on Dewey, is the focus of all educational work. Performing a variety of work and acquiring knowledge necessary for labor activity, children are thus preparing for the coming life.
Pedocentrism (from Greek. PAIS, PAIDOS - Child and Lat. Centrum - Center) - Principle of a number of pedagogical systems (J.Zh. Rousseau, Free Education, etc.), requiring training and education without support for curricula and programs, and Only on the basis of direct motivations of the child. ");" onmouseout \u003d "nd ();" href \u003d "javascript: void (0);"\u003e Pedocentric concept J. Dewey had a great influence on the overall nature of the educational work of US schools and some other countries, in particular the Soviet school of the 20s, which found their expression in the so-called integrated programs and in the project method.The greatest impact on the development of the modern concept of problem learning - 1) one of the types of learning based on the use of heuristic methods. Aims to develop heuristic skills in the process of resolving problem situations, which can be both practical and theoretical and cognitive character; 2) A method of active interaction between the subject with a problematic presented content of training, organized by the teacher, during which it is attached to the objective contradictions of scientific knowledge and methods of their permission, learns to think, creatively absorb knowledge. ");" onmouseout \u003d "nd ();" href \u003d "javascript: void (0);"\u003e problem learning The work of the American psychologist (Brunner J., 1977; abstract). It is based on the idea of \u200b\u200bstructuring the educational material and the dominant role of intuitive thinking in the process of assimilating new knowledge as the basis Heuristics - "onmouseout \u003d" nd (); "href \u003d" javascript: void (0); "\u003e heuristic thinking . The majority of Brunner paid the structure of knowledge that should include all the necessary elements of the knowledge system and determine the direction of development of the student.
- Modern American theories of "exercises by solving problems" (W. Alexander, P. Halverson, etc.), unlike the theory of J. Dewey, have their own characteristics:
- there is no excessive underscore value of the "self-expression" of the student and the derivation of the role of the teacher;
- the principle of collective solving problems is approved, in contrast to the extreme individualization, previously observed;
- the method of solving problems in training is given an auxiliary role.
In the 70s and 1980s. XX century The concept of problem learning of the English psychologist E. de Bono was distributed, which focuses on six levels of thinking.
In the development of the theory of problem learning of certain results reached Poland, Bulgaria, Germany and other countries. Thus, Polish teacher (Cows. V., 1968, 1990) examined the conditions for the emergence of problem situations on the material of various training subjects and jointly with C. Kupisevich proved the advantage of learning by solving problems for the development of learning abilities. Problem learning was understood by Polish teachers as one of the methods of learning. Bulgarian teachers (I. Petkov, M. Markov) considered mainly applied issues, focusing on the organization of problem learning in elementary school.- Domestic experience. Theory Problem Training - 1) One of the types of learning based on the use of heuristic methods. Aims to develop heuristic skills in the process of resolving problem situations, which can be both practical and theoretical and cognitive character; 2) A method of active interaction between the subject with a problematic presented content of training, organized by the teacher, during which it is attached to the objective contradictions of scientific knowledge and methods of their permission, learns to think, creatively absorb knowledge. ");" onmouseout \u003d "nd ();" href \u003d "javascript: void (0);"\u003e problem learning The beginning to be intensively developed in the USSR in the 60s. XX century In connection with the search for ways to enhance, stimulate the cognitive activity of students, the development of the independence of the schoolchildren, but it came across certain difficulties:
- in the traditional didactics, the task of "learning to think" was not considered as an independent, in the center of attention of teachers were issues of accumulation of knowledge and development of memory;
- the traditional system of learning methods could not "overcome the elevation in the formation of theoretical thinking in children" (V. V. Davydov);
- the study of the problem of the development of thinking was carried out mainly psychologists, pedagogical theory The development of thinking, the abilities were not designed.
As a result, the domestic mass school did not accumulate the practice of using methods specifically aimed at the development of thinking - the most generalized and indirect form of mental reflection, establishing links and relations between knowledgeable objects. Thinking is the highest stage of human knowledge. Allows you to get knowledge about such objects, properties and relations of real world, which cannot be directly perceived on the sensual stage of knowledge. The forms and laws of thinking are studied by logic, the mechanisms of its flow - psychology and neurophysiology. Cybernetics analyzes thinking due to the tasks of modeling some mental functions. ");" onmouseout \u003d "nd ();" href \u003d "javascript: void (0);"\u003e thinking. Of great importance for the formation of the theory of problem learning was the work of psychologists that concluded that mental development is characterized not only by the volume and quality of learned knowledge, but also the structure of thought processes, the system of logical operations and Mental actions are a variety of human actions performed in the internal plan of consciousness. ");" onmouseout \u003d "nd ();" href \u003d "javascript: void (0);"\u003e mental action which is owned by the student (S.L. Rubinstein, N.A. Menchinskaya, T.V. Kudryavtsev), and discontinued the role of the problem situation in thinking and training (Matyushkin A.M., 1972; abstract).
The experience of applying individual elements of problem learning in the school was studied by M.I. Makhmutov, I.Ya. Lerner, N.G. Dyry, D. V. Vilkeyev (see Hrest. 8.2). The provisions of the theory of activity (S.L. Rubinstein, L.S. Vygotsky, A.N. Leontiev, V.V. Davydov) were initial when developing the theory of problem learning. Problem in learning was considered as one of the laws of mental activity of students. Methods for creating a problem situation are developed - the state of mental difficulty caused in a certain learning situation with objective insufficiency of previously learned students of knowledge and methods of mental and practical activity to solve the emergence of a cognitive task. ");" onmouseout \u003d "nd ();" href \u003d "javascript: void (0);"\u003e problem situations In various training subjects and found criteria for assessing the complexity of problem informative tasks. Gradually spreading, problem learning from the secondary school has penetrated into the middle and higher professional school. Improved methods of problem learning, in which improvisation becomes one of the important components (from Lat. Improvisus - an unexpected, sudden) - an essay of poems, music, etc. at the time of execution; Speech with something not prepared in advance; The work created in this way. ");" onmouseout \u003d "nd ();" href \u003d "javascript: void (0);"\u003e improvisation, especially when solving communicative problems (). A system of learning methods arose, in which the creation of a problem situation teacher and solving problems of students became the main condition for the development of their thinking. In this system, general methods (monologue, indicative, dialogic, heuristic, research, programmed, algorithmic) and binary - rules for the interaction of the teacher and students are distinguished. On the basis of this system of methods, development and some new pedagogical technologies (V.F. Shatalov, P.M. Erdney, G.A. Rudik, etc.).8.2.2. Essence of problem learning
Today, the most promising and relevant socio-economic, as well as psychological conditions is problematic training.
What is the essence of problem learning? It is interpreted as a principle of training, and as a new type of educational process, and as a learning method, and as a new didactic system.
Under problem learning Usually such an organization of training sessions are understood, which involves creating a teacher's problem situations under the leadership of teacher and active independent activities of students to resolve (See Fig. 5).
Problem learning is to create problem situations, in the awareness, adoption and resolution of these situations during the joint activities of students and teachers, with the optimal independence of the first and under the general guidelines for the latter, as well as in mastering students in the process of such activities with generalized knowledge and common principles solutions to problem tasks. The principle of problem brings together a learning process with the processes of knowledge, research, creative thinking (Makhmutov M.I., 1975; abstract).
Problem learning (like any other learning) can contribute to the implementation of the two goals:
First goal - to form students the necessary knowledge system, skills and skills.
Second goal - achieve a high level of development of schoolchildren, the development of self-education ability, self-education.
Both of these tasks can be implemented with great success precisely in the process of problem learning, since the absorption of educational material occurs during the active search activity of students, in the process of solving the system of problem-cognitive tasks.
It is important to note another of the important goals of problem learning - to form a special style thinking is the most generalized and indirect form of mental reflection, establishing links and relations between knowledgeable objects. Thinking is the highest stage of human knowledge. Allows you to get knowledge about such objects, properties and relations of real world, which cannot be directly perceived on the sensual stage of knowledge. The forms and laws of thinking are studied by logic, the mechanisms of its flow - psychology and neurophysiology. Cybernetics analyzes thinking due to the tasks of modeling some mental functions. ");" onmouseout \u003d "nd ();" href \u003d "javascript: void (0);"\u003e mental activity , research activity and independence of students ().
The peculiarity of problem learning is that it seeks to maximize the use of psychology data on the close relationship of learning processes (teachings), knowledge, research and thinking. From this point of view, the teaching process should simulate the process of productive thinking, the central link of which is the possibility of opening, the possibility of creativity (Ponomarev Ya.a., 1999; abstract).
Essence Problem learning - 1) One of the types of learning based on the use of heuristic methods. Aims to develop heuristic skills in the process of resolving problem situations, which can be both practical and theoretical and cognitive character; 2) A method of active interaction between the subject with a problematic presented content of training, organized by the teacher, during which it is attached to the objective contradictions of scientific knowledge and methods of their permission, learns to think, creatively absorb knowledge. ");" onmouseout \u003d "nd ();" href \u003d "javascript: void (0);"\u003e problem learning It comes down to the fact that in the course of training in the root, the nature and structure of the cognitive activity of the student changes, leading to the development of the creative potential of the student's personality. The main and characteristic sign of problem learning is the problem situation is a state of mental difficulty caused in a certain learning situation with an objective deficiency of previously learned knowledge of knowledge and methods of mental and practical activity to solve the emergence of a cognitive task. ");" onmouseout \u003d "nd ();" href \u003d "javascript: void (0);"\u003e problem situation .- The basis of its creation is the following provisions of modern psychology:
- the process of thinking has its source a problem situation;
- problem thinking is carried out primarily as the problem of solving the problem;
- the conditions for the development of thinking is to acquire new knowledge by solving the problem;
- the patterns of thinking and patterns of learning of new knowledge largely coincide.
In troubled training, the teacher creates a problem situation, directs students to its solution, organizes a solution to solve. Thus, the student is placed in the position of the subject of his training and as a result, he is formed by new knowledge, it has new ways of action. The difficulty of managing problem learning is that the emergence of a problem situation is an individual act, therefore, the teacher requires the use of a differentiated and individual approach. If, with traditional training, the teacher sets the theoretical provisions in the finished form, then, with problem learning, he brings schoolchildren to a contradiction and invites them to find a way to decide whether to find a method of decision, faces the contradiction of practical activities, sets out various points of view on the same question (development ..., 1991 ; annotation). Typical tasks of problem learning: to consider the phenomenon from various positions, to compare, generalize, formulate conclusions from the situation, compare the facts to formulate specific questions (for generalization, justification, concretization, the logic of the argument) (Fig. 6).
Consider an example. Students of the 6th grade are not familiar with the concept of the types of verb. All other grammatical signs of the verb (number, time, transition, etc.) they are known. The teacher draws the attention of students on the board, where the verbs are written in two columns in two columns:At the first acquaintance with these verbs, students see inconsistencies between species pairs.
Question. In some grammatical sign, the verbs of the first and second columns differ?
Formulation The problem is awareness of the ability to resolve the difficulties and contradictions that have arisen in this situation, the means of cash and experience. ");" onmouseout \u003d "nd ();" href \u003d "javascript: void (0);"\u003e Problems Specifiate the nature of the difficulties of students arising from a collision with the problem. Attempts to students explain the difference in verbs on the basis of the actualization of previously learned knowledge do not reach the goal. In the future, the relationship between data elements and goals is achieved by analyzing and explaining data, i.e. The actual language (grammatical) material contained in the examples is analyzed. The goal (the concept of the types of verb) is gradually revealed during the solution of the problem.
As a number of studies have shown, between human search activities and his health (physical, mental) there is a close relationship.
People with a weakly developed need to search for less intense life, their search activity is expressed only by specific weighing situations, when it is not possible on the basis of well-developed forms of behavior to satisfy other needs, both biological, for example, the need for safety and in the bread and urgent bread and Social, for example, the need for prestige. If all the main desires are satisfied, you can seem to live relaxed and calmly, without anything particularly striving and, therefore, without exposing the risk of defeat and infringement. Failure to search if the search is not an internal urgent need, is given painlessly and calmly. However, it is implacing imaginary and conditional. It is possible only in perfect conditions of complete comfort. Our dynamic world provides such conditions to anyone - and this is quite natural, because the accumulation in the society of persons with low search activity will inevitably lead to public regression. And in the world where the need for a search for at least for satisfying primary needs, the lack of a desire to search as such makes existence to be painful, for it constantly has to make an effort on himself. The search, without bringing the experience of naturalness and satisfaction, becomes an unpleasant need for people with a low need for a search and, of course, it is much worse than those who have a high need for it. In addition, a person with low activity is worse prepared for clashes with life difficulties and faster refuses to search for exit from sophisticated situations. And although this refusal is subjectively experiencing not so hard, but objectively the body's resistance is still reduced. In one of the countries, the fate of people, in the nature and behavior of which prevailed the feeling of apathy, indifference to life, people with low activity prevailed over a number of years. It turned out that they are on average dying at an earlier age than people are initially active. And they die from the reasons that are not fatal for others. Recall Ilya Oblomov, a person with an extremely low need for a search (since childhood, this need has not developed, because everything was given in the finished form). He was completely satisfied with his life, or rather, his full density from life, and died in a rather young age for an incomprehensible reason.
Permanent lack of search activity leads to the fact that the individual is helpless with any collision with difficulties or even with such situations that are not perceived in other conditions as difficulties. So the low need for the search not only makes life fresh and useless, but does not guarantee health and longevity.8.2.3. Problem situations as a basis for problem learning
- Types of problem situations (see Fig. 7), most often arising in the educational process:
- The problem situation is created when the discrepancy is found between the existing knowledge systems in students and new requirements (between old knowledge and new facts, between knowledge of lower and higher levels, between everyday and scientific knowledge).
- Problem situations arise if it is necessary to have a diverse choice of systems of the existing knowledge of the uniquely necessary system, the use of which only can provide the right solution to the proposed problem task.
- Problem situations arise in front of students when they face new practical conditions for the use of already existing knowledge when the knowledge of the use of knowledge in practice takes place.
- The problem situation occurs if there is a contradiction between theoretically possible by solving the problem and the practical failure or inappropriateness of the elected method, as well as between the practically achieved result of the task and the absence of theoretical justification.
- Problem situations in solving technical tasks occur when between a schematic image and constructive design technical device There is no direct match.
- Problem situations are also created by the fact that there is an objectively laid down in principle schemes a contradiction between the static character of the images themselves and the need to read dynamic processes in them ().
- Rules for creating problem situations. To create a problem situation, you need the following:
- In front of the students, such a practical or theoretical task must be delivered, in the execution of which it should open new knowledge or actions to be assimilated. At the same time, such conditions should be observed:
- the task is based on those knowledge and skills that the student owns;
- the unknown, which needs to be discovered is the general pattern to be assimilated, general way actions or some general terms and Conditions performing action;
- performance of the problem task should cause a student need for a learned knowledge.
- The proposed student problem task must comply with its intellectual possibilities.
- The problem task should be preceded by an explanation of the learning material to be absorbed.
- As problematic tasks, it is: a) educational tasks; b) questions; c) practical tasks, etc.
However, it is impossible to mix the problematic task and the problem situation is a state of mental difficulty caused in a certain learning situation with an objective insufficiency of previously learned students of knowledge and methods of mental and practical activity to solve the emergence of a cognitive task. ");" onmouseout \u003d "nd ();" href \u003d "javascript: void (0);"\u003e problem situation . The problem task in itself is not a problem situation, it can cause a problem situation only under certain conditions. - The same problematic situation may be caused by various types of tasks.
- The problem of the problem should formulate the teacher by specifying the student for the reasons for the failure to comply with the practical training task or the impossibility of explaining them to those or other demonstrated facts () (Hrest. 8.3).
- In front of the students, such a practical or theoretical task must be delivered, in the execution of which it should open new knowledge or actions to be assimilated. At the same time, such conditions should be observed:
8.2.4. Advantages and disadvantages of problem learning
In programmed training, the teaching is carried out as a clearly managed process, since the material studied is divided into small, easily absorbed doses. They consistently presented a student for assimilation. After studying each dose follows the verification of the assimilation. The dose is assimilated - the transition to the next. This is a "step" of learning: presentation, assimilation, check.
Usually, when drawing up training programs, only the need for systematic feedback, from psychological - individualization of the learning process, was taken into account from cybernetic requirements. There were no sequence of implementing a specific model of the learning process. The concept of B. Skinner, based on behavior theory - the direction in the American psychology of the twentieth century, denying consciousness as a subject of scientific research and a rapid psyche for various forms of behavior, understood as a totality of the body's reactions to incentives external environment. ");" onmouseout \u003d "nd ();" href \u003d "javascript: void (0);"\u003e bihewicory theory The exercises, according to which there is no significant difference between human training and the learning of animals. In accordance with the behavior theory, training programs should solve the tasks of obtaining and consolidating the correct reaction. To generate the right reaction, the principle of breaking the process into small steps and the principle of the prompts system is used. When the process is broken down, the programmed complex behavior is dismembered on the simplest elements (steps), each of which the student could accomplish the unmistakable. When you turn on the tip system in the training program, the required reaction is first given in the ready form (maximum degree of tip), then with the passage of individual items (athighted tips), at the end of the training is required self-execution Reactions (tapping). An example is the memorization of the poem: first the quatrains are fully given, then with the passing of one word, two words and a whole line. At the end of memorizing the student, having received four lines of dots instead of a quatrain, should reproduce the poem on their own.
To secure the reaction, the principle of immediate reinforcement is used (using verbal promotion, sample supply, allowing you to make sure that the response is correct, etc.) of each correct step, as well as the principle of repeated reaction reaction.
(http://www.modelschool.ru/index.html model; see the site of the school of tomorrow),
(http://www.kindgarden.ru/what.htm; see the material "What is the school of tomorrow?").8.3.2. Types of training programs
Training programs built on a behavior-based basis are divided into: a) linear, developed by Skinner, and b) Branched programs N. Kwueder.
1. Linear programming systemoriginally developed by the American psychologist B. Skinner at the beginning of the 60s. Xx in. Based on the behavior direction in psychology.- He put forward the following requirements for organizing training:
- When learning, the student must pass through the sequence of carefully selected and placed "steps".
- Training should be built in such a way that the student all the time is "delivering and busy" so that it does not only perceive the learning material, but also operated on them.
- Before moving to the study of the subsequent material, the student must give the previous one well.
- The student needs to help by dividing the material into small portions ("steps" of the program), by tips, motivations, etc.
- Each correct student response must be reinforced using feedback for this, not only for the formation of a certain behavior, but also to maintain interest in learning.
According to this system, the trained pass all the steps of the student program consistently, in the order in which they are given in the program. Jobs in each step are to fill in one or more words pass in the information text. After that, the trainee must verify its solution with the correct, which before that in any way was closed. If the response of the student turned out to be correct, then he must go to the next step; If his answer does not coincide with the right one, then it must complete the task again. Thus, the linear system of programmed learning is based on the principle of training assumed by the error-free execution of tasks. Therefore, the steps of the program and tasks are designed for the weakest student. According to B. Skinner, the student learns, mainly performing tasks, and confirmation of the correctness of the task is to be reinforced to stimulate the further activities of the student (see Animation).
Linear programs are designed for the accuracy of the steps of all students, i.e. Must meet the possibilities of the weakest of them. Because of this, program correction is not provided: all students receive the same sequence of frames (tasks) and must do the same steps, i.e. move on the same line (hence the name of the programs - linear).
2. Branched Programming Training Program. Its founder is the American teacher N. Kraulief. In these programs that have received widespread, except for the main program designed for strong students, additional programs are provided (auxiliary branches), one of which is directed by a student in case of difficulties. Branched programs provide individualization (adaptation) of training not only by the tempo of promotion, but also in terms of difficulty. In addition, these programs discover the best opportunities for the formation of rational species of cognitive activity than linear, limiting cognitive activities in the main perception and memory.
The control tasks in the steps of this system consist of a task or question and a set of multiple replies, including one correct, and the rest are incorrect, containing typical errors. The trainee must select one answer from this set. If he chose the correct answer, it receives reinforcements in the form of confirmation of the correctness of the response and the indication of the transition to the next step of the program. If he chose an erroneous answer, it clarifies the essence of the mistake made, and it receives the indication to return to some of the previous steps of the program or go to a certain subroutine.
In addition to these two main programmed learning systems, many others have been developed, to one degree or another using a linear or branched principle or both of these principles for building a sequence of the training program steps.
The overall lack of programs built on behaviorism (from English. Behaviour, Biheviour - behavior) - direction in the American psychology of the twentieth century., Denied consciousness as a subject of scientific research and a rapid psyche for various forms of behavior understanding as a combination of the body's reactions to the incentives of the external environment. The direction in psychology, the beginning of which was put on the articles of the American psychologist J. Watson "S \u003d" "R \u003d" "XX \u003d" "onmouseout \u003d" nd (); "href \u003d" javascript: void (0); "\u003e bihewician The basis is the impossibility of managing the internal, mental activity of students, the control over which is limited to the registration of the final result (answer). From a cybernetic point of view, these programs are managed by the principle of "black box", which in relation to human training is low productively, since the main goal in training consists in the formation of rational techniques of cognitive activity. This means that not only answers must be monitored, but also the paths leading to them. Practice Programmed training - training according to a previously developed program, which provides for the actions of both students and a teacher (or replacing its training machine). ");" onmouseout \u003d "nd ();" href \u003d "javascript: void (0);"\u003e programmed learning showed the unsuitability of linear and insufficient productivity of branched programs. Further improvements in training programs in the framework of the behavior training model did not lead to a significant improvement in the results.8.3.3. Development of programmed learning in domestic science and practice
In domestic science theoretical basis Programmed learning was actively studied, and also introduced achievements in practice in the 70s. Xx in. One of the leading experts is Professor Moscow University Nina Fedorovna Talyzin ( Talyzina N.F. Management of the process of learning knowledge. - M.: MSU, 1983. ");" onmouseout \u003d "nd ();" href \u003d "javascript: void (0);"\u003e Talyzina N.F., 1969; 1975.). In the domestic version, this type of learning is based on the so-called theory of the phased formation of mental actions - the doctrine of complex multifaceted changes related to the formation of new actions, images and concepts, put forward by P.Ya. Halperin. ");" onmouseout \u003d "nd ();" href \u003d "javascript: void (0);"\u003e theories of phased formation of mental actions and the concepts of P.Ya. Galperin (Galperin P.Ya., 1998; abstract) and theories Cybernetics (from Greek. Kybernetike - Art of Management) - Science of Management, Communication and Recycling Information. ");" onmouseout \u003d "nd ();" href \u003d "javascript: void (0);"\u003e cybernetics . The implementation of programmed learning implies the allocation of specific and logical techniques of thinking on each studied object, indicating the rational methods of cognitive activity as a whole. Only after this it is possible to draw up training programs that are aimed at the formation of these types of cognitive activity, and through them and those knowledge that make up the content of this study subject.8.3.4. Advantages and disadvantages of programmed learning
- Programming learning has a number of advantages: small doses are absorbed easily, the pace of assimilation is chosen by the student, a high result is provided, rational methods of mental actions are developed, the ability to logically think about it. However, it also has a number of disadvantages, for example:
- not fully contributes to the development of independence in training;
- requires large costs time;
- applicable only for algorithmically solvable cognitive tasks;
- provides the acquisition of knowledge laid in the algorithm and does not contribute to the receipt of new ones. At the same time, excessive learning algorithm prevents the formation of productive cognitive activity.
- During the greatest hobbies of programmed training - the 60-70s. Xx in. - A number of programming systems and many different training machines and devices have been developed. But simultaneously appeared critics of programmed learning. E. Laben so summarized all the objections against programmed learning:
- programmed training does not use the positive parties to group training;
- it does not contribute to the development of the student initiative, since the program as if all the time leads his hand;
- with the help of programmed learning, it is possible to train only the simple material at the damner level;
- the theory of learning based on reinforcement is worse than the intellectual gymnastics;
- in contrast to the statements of some American researchers - programmed training is not revolutionary, but conservative, as it is a book and verbal;
- programmed learning ignores the achievements of psychology, which for more than 20 years has been studying the structure of the brain activity and the dynamics of assimilation;
- programmed training does not make it possible to get a holistic picture of the subject matter and represents "Learning for crumbs" ().
Although not all these objections are fully valid, but undoubtedly they have certain foundations. Therefore, interest in programmed learning in the 70-80s. Xx in. He began to fall and his revival occurred in recent years on the basis of the use of new generations of computer equipment.
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As already noted, the greatest distribution of various systems Programmed training - training according to a previously developed program, which provides for the actions of both students and a teacher (or replacing its training machine). ");" onmouseout \u003d "nd ();" href \u003d "javascript: void (0);"\u003e programmed learning Received in the 50-60s. The twentieth century, later began to use only individual elements of programmed learning, mainly to control knowledge, consulting and training skills. In recent years, programmed learning ideas have become reborn on a new technical basis (computer, television systems, microcomputers, etc.) in the form of computer, or electronic, training. The new technical base allows you to almost completely automate the learning process, build it as a sufficiently free dialogue of the trainee with the training system. The role of the teacher in this case is mainly in the development, commissioning, correction and improvement of the training program, as well as conducting individual elements of unamarious learning. Many years of experience confirmed that programmed learning, and especially computer, provides a fairly high level of not only learning, but also the development of students, causes them unrelenting interest.In pedagogy, it is customary to allocate three main types of learning: the traditional (or explanatory-illustrative), problematic and programmed. Each of them, as already mentioned, has both positive and negative sides. Traditional training does not ensure the effective development of the thinking abilities of students because it is based on the laws of reproductive thinking, and not creative activity.
Today, the most promising and relevant socio-economic, as well as psychological conditions is problematic training.Summary
- In pedagogy, it is customary to allocate three main types of learning: the traditional (or explanatory-illustrative), problematic and programmed. Each of these types has both positive and negative sides.
- Today, the most common is the traditional type of training. The foundations of this type of training were laid almost four centuries ago, more Ya.A. Komensky ("Great Didactics").
- The term "traditional training" implies primarily a cool-term organization of learning that prevail in the XVII century. On the principles of didactics, formulated by Ya.A. Komensky, and still being dominant in the schools of the world.
- Traditional training has a number of contradictions (A.A. Verbitsky). Among them, one of the mains is a contradiction between the influence of the content of educational activities (consequently, both the most traitable) in the past, defined in the "Founding of Sciences", and the orientation of the subject of the future, the content of professional-practical activities and the entire culture.
- Today, the most promising and relevant socio-economic, as well as psychological conditions is problematic training.
- Under the problematic training, such an organization of training sessions is usually understood, which involves creating a teacher's problem situations and active independent activities of students to resolve.
- In the American pedagogy began the XX century. Two basics of problem learning concept (J. Dewey, V. Burton) are known.
- The pedocentric concept of J. Dewey had a great influence on the overall nature of educational work of US schools and some other countries, in particular the Soviet school of the 20s, which found its expression in the so-called integrated programs and in the project method.
- The theory of problem learning began to be intensively developed in the USSR in the 60s. XX century In connection with the search for ways to enhance, stimulate the cognitive activity of students, the development of the independence of the student.
- The basis of problem learning is the problem situation. It characterizes a certain mental state of a student arising in the process of performing a task for which there are no ready-made means and which requires the assimilation of new knowledge about the subject, methods or conditions of its implementation.
- Programmed training is training on a previously developed program, which provides for the actions of both students and a teacher (or replacing its teaching machine).
- The idea of \u200b\u200bprogrammed learning was offered in the 50s. XX century American psychologist B. Skinner to improve the efficiency of managing the process of teaching using achievements of experimental psychology and technology.
- Training programs built on behavior-based basis are divided into: a) linear, developed by B. Skinner, and b) the so-called branched programs N. Kwueder.
- In domestic science, the theoretical foundations of programmed learning were actively studied, and learning achievements were introduced into practice in the 70s. XX century One of the leading specialists in this area is Professor Moscow University N.F. Talyzin.
Dictionary Terminos
- Cybernetics
- Class-grade training system
- Motive achieving success
- Tutorial
- Problem
- Problem situation
- Problem learning
- Programmed learning
- Contradiction
- Traditional training
Questions for self-test
- What is the essence of traditional learning?
- Name the distinctive features of the traditional class-urgent learning technology.
- Name the advantages and disadvantages of traditional learning.
- What are the main contradictions of traditional learning?
- Indicate the main historical aspects of problem learning in foreign pedagogy and psychology.
- What are the features of the problematic training of J.Dewie?
- What is characteristic of the development of problem learning in domestic science and practice?
- What is the essence of problem learning?
- Name the types of problem situations most often arising in the educational process.
- In what cases do problem situations arise?
- Name the basic rules for creating problem situations in the educational process.
- Name the main advantages and disadvantages of problem learning.
- What is the essence of programmed learning?
- Who is the author of programmed learning?
- Give the characteristics of the type of learning programs.
- What are the features of branched programmed learning programs?
- What is characteristic of a behavioral approach to programmed learning?
- What is characteristic of the development of programmed learning in domestic science and practice?
- Why programmed learning did not receive proper development?
Bibliography
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- Burton V. Principles of learning and its organization. M., 1934.
- Brunner J. Psychology of knowledge. M., 1977.
- Verbicksky A.A. Active learning in high school: contextual approach. M., 1991.
- Vygotsky hp Pedagogical psychology. M., 1996.
- Galperin P.Ya. Methods of teaching and mental child development. M., 1985.
- Gurova L.L. Psychological analysis of solving problems. Voronezh, 1976.
- Davydov V.V. Theory of educational training. M., 1996.
- Dewey J. Psychology and pedagogy of thinking (as we think): Per. from English M., 1999.
- Komensei Ya.A. Selected pedagogical writings. M., 1955.
- Kudryavtsev T.V. Psychology of creative thinking. M., 1975.
- Kulyuttin Yu.N. Heraist methods in the structure of solutions. M., 1970.
- Lerner I.Ya. Problem learning. M., 1974.
- Lipkina A.I. Self-assessment of a schoolboy and his memory // Vopr. Psychology. 1981. No. 3.
- Markova A.K., Matis T.A., Orlov A.B. Formation of the motivation of the exercise. M., 1990.
- Matyushkin A.M. Problem situations in thinking and training. M., 1972.
- Makhmutov M.I. Problem learning. M., 1975.
- Presentation V. Introduction to general didactics: per. with Polish. M., 1990.
- CODE V. Basics of problem learning. M., 1968.
- Ponomarev Ya.A. Psychology of creation. M.; Voronezh, 1999.
- The development of the creative activity of schoolchildren / Ed. A.M. Matyushkina. M., 1991.
- Selko G.K. Modern educational technologies: studies. benefit. M., 1998.
- Talyzina N.F. Theoretical problems of programmed learning. M., 1969.
- Talyzina N.F. Management of the process of learning knowledge. M., 1975.
- CNT I.E. Individualization and differentiation of learning. M., 1990.
- Hekhausen H. Motivation and activity: in 2 t. M., 1986. T. 1, 2.
Threads of exchange work and abstracts
- The essence of traditional learning.
- The main contradictions of traditional learning.
- Historical aspects of problem learning in foreign pedagogy and psychology.
