Introduction.

The purpose of this course work, I have determined for myself the summing up of the study of the discipline "Conflictology", which in turn implies the development and improvement in the field of knowledge about the nature, causes and patterns of social conflicts, the ability to recognize, prevent and manage conflict situations, as well as management skills emotional experiences, behavior in stressful situations and successful negotiations and protection of their interests.

It is well known that the development of any society, any social community or group, even an individual is difficult process, which by no means always unfolds smoothly, and is often associated with the emergence and resolution of contradictions. In fact, the whole life of any person, any team or organization, any country is woven from contradictions. These contradictions are due to the fact that different people occupy different positions, are guided by different interests, pursue various purposes, and therefore, in an effort to realize their needs, interests and goals, quite often two or more individuals come into conflict with each other, and sometimes social groups and even countries are actively looking for an opportunity to prevent the opponent from achieving a certain goal, prevent the satisfaction of his interests or change his views, representations, position evaluations. Such confrontation, conducted by means of a dispute, the use of threat or intimidation, the use of physical force or weapons, is called a conflict. However, what has been said does not mean at all that any conflict of interests and goals leads to their conflict with each other. Contradiction and conflict are far from the same thing, and the development of a contradiction does not always turn into a conflict. For a conflict to arise, it is necessary that the individuals or their social groups competing for something, firstly, realize the opposite of their interests and goals, and, secondly, begin to actively oppose the opponent. Only that contradiction, which is realized in the active opposition to each other of two or more individuals, groups, parties, countries, etc., becomes the fundamental basis and source of social conflict. Thus, the emergence of a conflict as a specific social phenomenon is based on objectively existing contradictions between individual individuals, their groups, states, etc.

1. Interpersonal conflicts.

Interpersonal conflict [from lat. conflictus - clash] - clash of opposing goals, motives, points of view of the interests of the participants in the interaction. In essence, this is the interaction of people either pursuing mutually exclusive or unattainable goals simultaneously by both conflicting parties, or striving to realize incompatible values ​​and norms in their relationships. In socio-psychological science, as a rule, such structural components of interpersonal conflict as a conflict situation, conflict interaction, conflict resolution are considered. At the heart of any interpersonal conflict lies the conflict situation that has developed even before it began. Here we have the participants of a possible future interpersonal clash, and the subject of their disagreement. In many studies devoted to the problems of interpersonal conflict, it is shown that the conflict situation implies the orientation of its participants to achieve not common, but individual goals. This determines the possibility of an interpersonal conflict, but does not yet predetermine its obligatory nature. In order for an interpersonal conflict to become a reality, it is necessary for its future participants to realize, on the one hand, the current situation as generally meeting their individual goals, and on the other hand, these goals as incompatible and mutually exclusive. But until this happens, one of the potential opponents may change its position, and the object itself, about which differences of opinion have arisen, may lose its significance for one, or even for both sides. If the acuteness of the situation disappears in this way, the interpersonal conflict, which, it would seem, inevitably had to unfold, having lost its objective foundations, simply will not arise.

Direction:

horizontal - participants do not obey each other

vertical - participants are subordinate to each other

mixed - where there are both components (organization)

Conflicts with a vertical component (i.e. vertical and mixed conflicts) account for an average of 70 to 80% of their total number. Such conflicts are most undesirable for the participant standing "above" vertically, i.e. leader: participating in them, he is “bound hand and foot”. For each action and order in this case is considered by all employees (and especially the participants in the conflict) through the prism of the conflict. And even in the case of complete objectivity of the leader, they will see intrigues in relation to opponents in any of his steps. And since the awareness of subordinates is often not enough to correctly assess the actions of the leadership, the misunderstanding is more than compensated for by speculation, mostly of a negative nature.

By value:

constructive (creative)

Opponents do not go beyond ethical standards, business relations, reasonable arguments,

Leads to the development of relationships between people

destructive (destructive)

One of the parties rigidly insists on its position and ignores the other

One of the parties resorts to condemned methods of struggle

The first is beneficial to the cause, the second is harmful. It is impossible to leave the first, it is necessary to leave the second.

By the nature of the reasons:

• objective - these conflicts have real causes and grounds for their occurrence
• subjective - this type of conflict arises mainly due to subjective reasons, which can be completely different things such Bad mood or well-being.

Permit area:

• business - these conflicts are resolved in the field of business relations
• personal-emotional - conflicts are not related to business relationships, but affect the personal-emotional aspects of an individual's life.

According to the form of manifestation:

hidden (poorly understood by people)

open (understand)

Hidden conflicts usually involve two people who, for the time being, try not to show the appearance that they are in conflict. But as soon as one of them loses his nerve, the hidden conflict turns into an open one. There are also random, spontaneously arising, and chronic, as well as deliberately provoked conflicts. Intrigue is a type of conflict. Intrigue is understood as a deliberate dishonest action that is beneficial to its initiator and which forces the team or individual to commit certain acts that harm them. Intrigues, as a rule, are carefully thought out, planned, have their own storyline.

By run time:

• situational - arise within the framework of one particular situation and are usually spontaneous
• prolonged (long) - as a rule, they consist of a series of conflict episodes.

The emergence and development of conflicts is due to the action of the following groups of factors and causes:

• objective;
• organizational and managerial;
• socio-psychological;
• personal.

Objective causes of conflicts

Among the objective causes of conflicts can be attributed mainly to those circumstances of social interaction between people that led to a clash of interests, opinions, and attitudes. Objective reasons lead to the creation of a pre-conflict situation, a situation.

The subjective causes of conflicts are mainly related to those individual psychological features opponents, which lead to the fact that they choose exactly the conflict, and not any other way of resolving the objective contradiction. Rigid separation of objective and subjective causes of conflicts, and even more so their opposition, is unjustified. The seemingly purely subjective cause of the conflict may, in the end, be based on a factor that depends little on a person, i.e. objective. And, perhaps, there is not a single conflict that was or was not somehow caused by an objective and subjective factor.

Objective causes of conflicts:

Natural clash of significant material and spiritual interests of people in the process of life;

Weak development of legal and other regulatory procedures for resolving social contradictions;

Lack of material and spiritual benefits that are significant for the normal life of people;

The way of life of many Russians (material and domestic disorder, the lack of opportunities to meet their basic needs);

Sufficiently stable stereotypes of interpersonal and intergroup relations of Russian citizens, contributing to the emergence of conflicts.

Organizational and managerial causes of conflicts

Structural and organizational reasons lie in the inconsistency of the structure of the organization with the requirements of the activities in which it is engaged. The structure should be determined by the tasks that this organization will solve or solve. However, it is almost impossible to achieve an ideal correspondence between the structure of the organization and the tasks to be solved.

Functional and organizational reasons are caused by the non-optimality of the organization's functional connections with the external environment, between the structural elements of the organization, between individual workers, for example, the uncertainty of functional ties between the presidential administration and the government (the problem of rights and obligations).

Personal-functional reasons are associated with the incomplete compliance of the employee in terms of professional, moral and other qualities with the requirements of the position held.

Situational and managerial reasons are due to mistakes made by managers and subordinates in the process of solving managerial and other tasks (making an erroneous managerial decision).

As a result of the study of industrial conflicts, it was found that 52% of conflict situations arise due to the fault of managers, due to their erroneous, conflict-generating decisions, due to incompatibility - 33%, due to improper selection of personnel - 15%, that is, the above factors can cause 67% of conflicts in labor collectives.

Socio-psychological causes of conflicts

Possible significant loss and distortion of information in the process of interpersonal communication (limited vocabulary of a person in general and a particular person in particular, lack of time, deliberate withholding of information, difficulties in understanding due to information filters, inattention, difficulties in quick understanding). What a person hears usually does not take on faith, but evaluates, drawing conclusions that differ, and sometimes opposite, from what the interlocutor said.

Unbalanced role behavior in the interaction of two people(cross transactions Parent - Adult - Child according to E. Berne).

People's misunderstanding that when discussing a problem, especially complex, the mismatch of positions can often be associated not with a real divergence of views on the same thing, but with an approach to the problem from different angles (as in the parable of the five blind wise men and the baby elephant).

Different ways of evaluating the performance and personality of each other(the boss evaluates the results of the work of the subordinate, taking as a basis for assessing what he, the subordinate, failed to do in comparison with the ideal, norm, goal, other subordinates doing this work perfectly, while the subordinate evaluates his work according to the result achieved ). As a result, the same work is evaluated in completely different ways. This leads to conflicts.

Intragroup favoritism- preference of members of one's own group to representatives of other social groups:

The inherent competitive nature of human interaction with other people and groups;

Limited human capacity for decentralization, i.e. changing one's position as a result of comparing it with the positions of other people;

A conscious or unconscious desire to receive more from others than to give to them;

Striving for power;

Psychological incompatibility of people, etc.

Personal causes of conflicts

Lack of sufficient psychological resistance to the negative impact on the psyche of stress factors of social interaction (conflict resistance).

Poorly developed capacity for empathy.

Overestimated or underestimated level of claims and the level of self-esteem associated with this.

character accents.

Withdrawal (avoidance)

Accommodating (repressing oneself)

Compromise

Competition

Cooperation

Care
pros	Minuses
You can use it if the conflict does not concern you. If you are wrong. If a person is difficult to communicate with. We need a breather in the conflict.	The opportunity to take part in events is taken away. The opponent may raise demands when you return. The problem may grow during this time.
Behaviors: Silence physical care Transition to business relationship Full break
Accommodating (repressing oneself)
pros	Minuses
This conflict is important to the opponent, and less important to you. The power of the other person is higher than yours. The opponent is not ready to listen. When you feel sorry for another person. When there is little disagreement.	The need is not being met. The main controversial issues are not addressed. The opponent often doesn't know what's going on. The conflict is not resolved.
Behaviors: Agreement Suppressing your feelings Adjusting to another person Making it look like everything is ok
Compromise
pros	Minuses
A solution is better than no solution. Fair decision. When negotiations are at an impasse, the only way out. Relationships are saved.	Unstable equilibrium. "Half" benefit. One of the parties may raise the requirements.
Behaviors: Relationship maintenance concessions Avoidance of sharp collisions Finding a fair solution
Competition
pros	Minuses
If you want to show superiority. When forced to protect interests, image. Increased self-esteem and victory. Fair play within the law and rules.	Damage to personal and business relationships. Decreased self-esteem in the loser. not justified in interpersonal relationships.
Behaviors: Engaging Allies Nonverbal gestures
Cooperation
pros	Minuses
A win for everyone. The conflict is being resolved. Relationships are saved.	Collaboration is not always possible. It takes a lot of time. Requires a lot of skills. Satisfaction of interests is more important than achieving the goal.
1) Find out the needs. 2) For what? (Orange => thirst) 3) If the needs are the same => search for solutions

For a correct understanding and interpretation of social conflicts, their essence, features, functions and consequences, their typology is important, i.e. calculation of their main types based on identifying similarities and differences. Reliable ways to identify conflicts by commonality of essential features or differences. There are many principles for classifying and systematizing conflicts, for example, according to the degree of rooting in the objective socio-economic foundations of social processes and systems (structural and non-structural conflicts), depending on the prevailing influence of certain factors in the emergence of conflicts (economic, political, ideological, interethnic , religious, everyday, etc.), depending on the subjects of conflict interaction (intrapersonal, interpersonal, between an individual and a group, intergroup, intercountry (interstate) and global), depending on the form and drama (sharpness) of conflicts (antagonistic and non-antagonistic, explicit and hidden, organized and unorganized, constructive and destructive, rational and irrational, depending on structural organization individuals and groups drawn into conflicts (interpersonal, intragroup, intergroup). Let us dwell on the last classification in more detail. Interpersonal conflicts develop according to the “individual-individual” scheme, and in them two or more individuals compete, oppose each other, most often (but not necessarily included in a given social group. Many examples of such conflicts can be cited from the life of any so-called contact groups where contacts between its members take place almost daily - a study group, a brigade, a research laboratory, etc. the causes of such conflicts are as diverse as the characters of the individuals entering into them: rivalry for power, for prestige, for popularity, for more interesting view work, etc. If the conflict matures and develops between different groups within a given collective (community) or between groups representing different communities, then we are dealing with an intergroup conflict. A typical manifestation of this kind of conflicts, aggravated by various forms of hostility, up to very sharp ones, accompanied by real battles, have recently become skirmishes between fanatical fans of various football clubs both in our country and abroad. In turn, intra-group conflicts, depending on how united or disunited with each other the members of this group are in understanding the significance of a particular goal of their joint actions or in determining how to achieve it, are divided into informational and procedural. If, for example, members of the same territorial community of a village or town that found itself in the zone of radioactive contamination as a result of the Chernobyl disaster are united in the fact that the main thing in their joint activity is saving lives, first of all, of their children, but some are in favor of immediate resettlement in ecologically clean area, while others are categorically against it, believing that, according to the information they have, it is possible with the creation of appropriate conditions (clean food, health care etc.) it is quite normal to live in the old place, we are dealing with a typical information conflict. It is a different matter when all the inhabitants of a given village are convinced of the need to move to an ecologically safe zone, and a fierce dispute is being waged over whether to move in an organized manner, i.e. by all their rallied community into a common new place of residence for all, or each must carry out such a resettlement at his own discretion. In this case, we are faced with a procedural conflict that flares up when a group cannot reach a mutually acceptable agreement on the methods and forms of achieving a common goal for all its members. Role conflict is a specific type of intragroup and (or) intergroup conflict interactions. It may occur when:

a) An individual who is drawn into a conflict relationship with other individuals or their group must, by virtue of his social status, simultaneously perform two different roles;

b) These roles make conflicting demands on his behavioral patterns, i.e. are competing.

For example, the apparent leader of a student basketball team suddenly discovers that he cannot be an excellent athlete and a good student at the same time and refuses to continue to participate in competitions. In this case, the conflict that arose between him and his teammates has a clearly expressed role-playing character. Of course, all the distinguished types of conflicts are constructed on the basis of typology, in which the most characteristic features are clarified and selected for generalization, while secondary features, signs of certain conflict situations and actions are left aside as insignificant or insufficiently significant for this type of conflict behavior. In fact, the real ways and forms of the emergence, development, resolution of conflicts are as diverse as all kinds of goals, interests, needs that unite or separate people in their specific thoughts, assessments and actions. However, a fairly serious simplification of reality, carried out by typifying conflicts, does not remove the researcher from understanding their causes, essence, functions and role in the life of society, but, on the contrary, brings them closer to this, because it makes it possible to single out the most important and essential for the study of conflict situations and actions. , without which they simply cannot arise.

The universality of the group (intergroup) conflict is due to the fact that human communities, with the exception of the most primitive ones, function on the basis of social stratification, i.e. are differentiated into different social strata and groups according to the nature of their activities, occupations, economic, political status, etc. The very same social stratification, as noted by the famous conflictologist R. Collins, acts in society as a type and degree of inequality of groups and individuals in their dominance over each other. The causes of social divergence and confrontation in society must be sought in the interests of groups and individuals, and above all in the interests of maintaining their dominant positions or avoiding the domination of others. Success or failure in such a confrontation depends not only on the resources controlled by various groups - economic, political and others, but also on the degree of effectiveness of the social organization of the opposing groups, on the desires and ideas formed in these groups, forming together into more or less cohesive social communities. individuals included in them. Because of this, R. Collins notes, “the driving force social change- it is mainly a conflict; thus long periods of relatively stable dominance alternate with intense and dramatic periods of group mobilization.” As a result of these features of social stratification, the understanding of intergroup conflict as a dramatic symbol of the general interaction of various social groups in conditions of persisting or changing, irrefutable, etc. their dominance over each other becomes, according to R. Collins, a symbol of a general approach to the entire field of sociology, identified with the theory of conflict. According to the latter, the conflict itself is outlined by the structure of stratification, the intensity of dominance, the resources that enable groups to organize (or prevent them from doing so). Open conflicts are relatively infrequent. therefore, the theory of conflict does not exclude the theory of social solidarity and even theories of social ideals, moral feelings and altruism. The forms of manifestations of intergroup conflicts are as diverse as the goals, interests, values ​​that unite various people into groups, how diverse are the conditions for the existence of these groups, how they interact with other groups and society as a whole, how diverse the composition of these groups (professional, ethnic, age, territorial, etc.), and how different are the ways of their organization and functioning. Therefore, the range of such conflicts is almost limitless: from family feuds to interstate clashes, from skirmishes between hockey players of two rival teams to bloody ethnic battles. It can be rightfully asserted that all large-scale changes throughout its history humanity has experienced as a result of the deployment of intergroup conflicts: these are political upheavals, wars, revolutions, this is an economic blockade, ideological intervention, psychological warfare or financial sanctions. Of course, intergroup conflicts may not be so large-scale: they include quarrels between neighbors in the dacha over the border of the land, and the rivalry for power between two different groups within the ruling elite, and the enmity of two groups in one territorial team, leading to its split , and a long scientific dispute between supporters of the wave and corpuscular theory in physics. The very concept of "intergroup conflict" suggests that the conflict process arises in the interaction between different groups and it can be carried out for various reasons, in various conditions, in various forms, with varying degrees of tension. In fact, where there is intergroup interaction, intergroup conflicts can and usually do occur. But intergroup interaction is present in all spheres of public life - economic, social, political, spiritual, in all social institutions and in most organizations, therefore, conflicts can arise everywhere. The determination of intergroup conflicts is even more multifaceted and complex than the determination of intragroup conflicts. This situation is explained by the fact that in the case of intergroup enmity, intragroup conflicts inherent in any group seem to be layered on intergroup interactions, mutually reinforcing or, on the contrary, weakening each other, thereby significantly complicating the overall panorama of contradictions, rivalry, clashes, etc. between conflicting groups or organizations. And yet, if we single out the main reasons from the general panorama of causes leading to intergroup conflicts, then they can be combined into three main groups:

• objective conditions of interaction that bind or separate social groups;
• intra-group processes, including conflict. Flowing in each of the interacting groups;
• the content and direction of intergroup interactions. Visually, this panorama of the determination of intergroup conflict is shown in the diagram:

On the basis of the above paragraph, it is possible to carry out a typology of the whole variety of intergroup conflicts. Their various forms and manifestations can be reduced to the following main types:

1. Rivalry- this type of intergroup interaction, in which social groups are collectives of enterprises, institutions, sports teams, etc. - competing with each other, achieving the same goal, they strive to surpass the opponent in some way. For example, the main rivals of Soviet and then Russian hockey players in the fight for the world championship are usually Canadian, Czech, Swedish, Finnish American hockey clubs.

2. clash- this kind of intergroup interaction in which rival groups seek (or are forced) to inflict damage, tangible, and sometimes disastrous, to each other

3. domination(dominance) - such intergroup interaction in which one group has a significant advantage in the most important, due to which it dominates the other in economic, political, linguistic, etc. relation.

4. Evasion- this type of interaction between groups, during which one of them or both tend to move away, move away, move away from the other in order to avoid a collision, blow, attack, etc. A typical example of such interaction was the actions of Russian troops during Patriotic War 1812 before the famous battle of Borodino, and the retreating French - after the battle of Maloyaroslavets.

5. Avoidance is an intergroup interaction in which

one of the conflicting groups seeks to separate, move away from the other, to avoid meeting with it, which promises unpleasant, undesirable consequences. So, usually, groups of smugglers act, avoiding meetings with customs officers, or poachers, who seek to get away from the control of fish supervision authorities.

6. Accommodation- this kind of intergroup interaction, in the process of implementation of which one group (as a rule, inferior in power, strength, wealth, etc. to another) seeks to adapt to the pressure of a stronger social group.

7. Assimilation- a specific type of intergroup dynamics, characterized by the fact that one group is likened to another in some important respect, assimilating its essential features, norms of behavior, etc. In this way, a people or a certain part of it merges with another way.

learning its language, culture, customs, etc.

8. suppression- a type of intergroup interaction in which one of the conflicting groups gains a decisive advantage, due to which it is in a position to forcibly, often with the help of armed force, put an end to the existence of a hostile group, a striking example of which is the suppression of the Kronstadt rebellion by the Soviet authorities, its punitive bodies in 1921 .

9. Negotiation- a specific type of intergroup dynamics, during which rival groups (more often their representatives) exchange views, bring their positions closer and reach an agreement on ways to resolve the conflict through mutual concessions to each other.

10. Compromise- such intergroup interaction that allows reaching an agreement between groups through mutual concessions to each other.

11. Agreement- a kind of intergroup dynamics that allows conflicting groups to come to a mutual agreement, to an agreement on some important issue for them.

12. Cooperation- this type of intergroup interaction, in which friendly or competing groups begin to engage in joint activities in an important area of ​​public life for them.

If we keep in mind the 12 named types of intergroup interaction, which

are possible and develop depending on the existing conflict

situation and the correlation of forces of the opposing sides, then the model of intergroup

conflicts takes the form shown in the diagram:

1. Rivalry

2. Collision

3. Domination

4. Evasion

5. Avoidance

6. Accommodation

7. Assimilation

8. Suppression

9. Negotiations

10. Compromise

11. Consent

12. Cooperation

If there were no opportunities for harmonizing interests and positions, society would find itself in a state of incessant war of all against all. The fact of the matter is that with all the disagreements, contradictions, conflicts in public life, there is always the possibility of finding points of agreement between interests, aspirations, desires, and this is very important for a correct understanding of the dynamics of intergroup conflicts. Of course, no one demands a departure from the principles, but the search for ways and opportunities to harmonize or at least bring together the positions of social groups in conflict on some problems must be carried out constantly, otherwise stability and sustainability of socio-economic and political processes cannot be achieved.

Each community and society as a whole consists of many groups, like

formal as well as informal. Differences between groups, their differentiation is different

from a friend, as a rule, are deeper and sharper than interpersonal

and intragroup. Therefore, intergroup contradictions that can lead to

the emergence of conflict processes, in terms of their content, nature,

direction, scale, duration, sharpness, etc. much

more diverse than the causes of other conflicts. They can be class

ethnic, regional, professional, sociocultural, age

etc. All this leads to much greater complexity and difficulty.

managerial impact on the course and resolution of intergroup

conflicts.

Since one of the most widely acting factors in the occurrence of

intergroup conflicts is a significant predominance of differentiating,

competitive tendencies over integrative ones, because in strategy,

focused on prevention, smoothing and resolution of intergroup

confrontation, the focus should be on identifying and

the use of additional integration components in the intergroup

interaction. In contrast to the prevailing in conditions of intergroup conflict

phenomena of group-centrism, bias, hostility, discrimination,

aggressiveness to actively look for and find opportunities to enhance or include in

the action of new, previously non-existing integrative intergroup phenomena.

Socio-psychological studies conducted by V.S. Ageev and his

employees showed that there are three mutually related phenomena

intergroup integration. The first one is named "group affiliation"

and consists in using the inherent desire of any group to be a composite

part and feel that they belong to some larger social

generality, as a result of which one group is a subset of another. This phenomenon is characteristic of various social groups -

ethnic, religious, territorial, professional, etc., should

much wider than is currently done, use for

preventing and resolving possible and already existing intergroup

conflicts. As an example of the importance of using this particular approach in

to prevent the emergence of interethnic conflicts, we present data,

characterizing the features of the socio-ethnic identification of the population in

border regions of Belarus with Poland. In the existing hierarchy

self-identification, the indisputable priority is self-identification

personality with a person, i.e. identification of the individual with the human race (this

position is defended by more than 79% of respondents). Next in descending order are:

identification with a man or woman (27.7%), with a Christian (Catholic,

Orthodox, etc.) - 19%, and only the fourth place in this narrowing from above

down the spiral of self-identifications takes the identification of oneself with a certain

ethnic group - Belarusian, Pole, Ukrainian, Russian, etc. - 18.4%. So

Thus, the ethnic group in the representation of the absolute majority of the population

Belarusian-Polish borderlands appears as a less objective social

a community that is a subset of another - wider one. And such

socio-psychological reality allows you to effectively influence the processes

intergroup, in this case interethnic and interregional,

interaction in terms of preventing intergroup conflicts on

ethnic and religious grounds. To translate the general direction

integration strategy of intergroup interaction into the plane of practical

actions is necessary in such a delicate area as relationships

between representatives of different ethnic groups and religious beliefs, the main focus

do on non-institutionalized forms of cooperation – use

features of the mentality of the Belarusian people with their characteristic

tolerance, tolerance for other than their own, ethnic and religious customs,

habits, a centuries-old tradition of cooperation with different ethnic groups, etc.

The second intergroup phenomenon of strengthening integrative tendencies in intergroup

interactions is the so-called "group openness"

Those. openness of groups in relation to other groups, which consists in

seeking influence and appreciation from some other groups. How

the degree of openness of groups to intergroup interaction characterizes the degree of its

social contact, the degree of involvement in social processes is more

high order. say, in a crisis

post-Soviet society, including in Belarus, is becoming more and more obvious

conflict confrontation between the emerging new class in our country

entrepreneurs and the majority of the rest of the population, living standards

which is drastically reduced. Most effective way exit from

such a conflict confrontation can and should be the entry of our new

entrepreneurial structures in the international business community,

those. into an identical social group on a larger scale. This is one of

real ways of forming not criminogenic, but legitimate, based on

integrity, honesty, high performance, and most importantly -

legitimacy, entrepreneurial groups in our country and thereby reduce

sharpness of their conflict confrontation with the broad masses of the impoverished

population. When implementing such a strategy, the population will see in these groups not

crooks, crooks, thieves, but people who work not only for their own benefit, but also

for the benefit of the people, giving other people new jobs, opportunities for more

high and stable earnings, increasing welfare. Thus, sharply

the conflict in our society will decrease, the possibilities of the emergence of

intergroup conflicts in it.

There is also a third phenomenon of strengthening integration tendencies in the intergroup

interaction, the so-called "intergroup reference".

Reference, i.e. the need to correlate oneself, one's actions, their assessments with

significant others, exists not only on the interpersonal, but also on the intergroup

level. If we are talking about a social group, then it, as a specific whole,

inherent need to appeal to a significant outgroup that

acts either as a bearer of certain values ​​and norms, or as a

the role of a “mirror” reflecting this group and the world around it. This objectively

the existing need is realized in the appropriate strategies of intergroup

interactions, in systems of social representations related to "We" and "They"

This phenomenon is also important as a component of managerial

influence on intergroup conflicts, with which our

a society that is in a deep systemic crisis, because comparison with

what we call "They", referring to Western society with a developed market

economy and democratic tendencies, as with a reference group will allow

to institutionalize the multitude of intergroup conflicts more widely and more effectively,

shaking a transitional society, reduce their severity, duration,

negative destructive consequences.

In the management of intergroup conflicts, it is necessary to clearly define the strengths and weaknesses of the competing parties, the balance of their forces, resources, and capabilities. Depending on the named factors, their combinations can be chosen four possible options: attack, defense, evasion, retreat. The first of these is the desire to cause changes that are undesirable for the enemy. The second is to prevent a change that is undesirable for oneself by actively resisting the offensive actions of the enemy. The evasion strategy is reduced to the desire to prevent an undesirable change for oneself by evading a decisive clash with the enemy - to the desire to maintain maximum strength in the event of an undesirable change caused by the rival side. In case of application offensive strategies in intergroup conflict, you can use several methods. Let's name some of them. One of the most common methods of an offensive strategy of intergroup confrontation is the suppression of the enemy, often with the use of violence, including armed. Almost the entire history of mankind, until recently, is filled with armed conflicts. And although in the conditions of the existence of weapons of mass destruction, a large-scale war is capable of calling into question the very existence of mankind, the latter has not yet been able to get rid of attempts to violently resolve conflicts through the use of armed force. Suffice it to recall the Serbo-Croat-Bosnian armed conflicts on the territory of the former Yugoslavia or the use by the Russian government of the war in Chechnya as the most effective multifunctional means of resolving political, territorial, ethnic conflicts. Of course, war as a comprehensive and multifunctional means of suppressing the hostile side in the conflict includes many specific methods of delivering crushing blows to the opposing side. One of the effective methods of offensive confrontation, successfully used many times in different areas conflict interaction, especially in military affairs, consists in the use of unexpected action. To take the enemy by surprise or to act unexpectedly for him - this is almost half the success. The method of pre-emptive strike can be considered equally effective. To deliver an effective pre-emptive strike, it is important to take into account not only the balance of forces, but also the time factor: to get ahead of the enemy in deploying active operations and at the same time not let him come to his senses. For the effective implementation of an offensive strategy in conflict interaction, it is very important to use the method of concentration of forces. This method is used not only in this strategy, but in other areas of activity. Its modification is the well-known and widely used in the field of scientific research and development, the method of "brainstorming", in which the concentration of forces of specialists takes place. different profile preparation. A detailed description and ways of using this method are given in the already mentioned work of R. Fisher and W. Ury "The path to agreement or negotiations without defeat". Since the use of weapons and physical violence are episodic phenomena in the application of an offensive strategy in intergroup conflicts, violent structures often influence the enemy mainly through threats. The well-known American conflictologist R. Collins called such pressure on the opponent a “coercion coalition”. The meaning of this principle is extremely clear: it is not at all necessary to use armed force, it is enough to demonstrate the possibility of such use. For example, conducting military maneuvers on the border or near the state, which is under pressure. In offensive strategy, in some competitive situations, it can be effective to use the fait accompli method. Let's illustrate its action on the following example from the field of competition for sales markets. Let's say one of the firms makes its offer and asks to give it an order for a certain range of goods. The second, which is in conflict with it in an effort to capture this market, delivers the goods to the place without a preliminary request and asks only that they be tested and kept at home, and as for the conditions and calculations, they can be agreed upon later, after the checks carried out. . It is clear that with such a development of intergroup conflict, those suppliers who use the method of a fait accompli in their actions will take over the market. As you can see, this method is very similar to the method of advancing the opponent discussed above: in both cases, the one who uses the advantage of the first move wins. IN defensive strategies may be effective method use for their own purposes the functions and resources of the enemy. This method is associated with the application of rules martial arts Judo and Jiu-Jitsu: Avoid using your power directly against your opponent, instead use your skill to step aside and turn his power to your advantage.

The method of limiting the freedom of action of the enemy is also widely used in the defensive strategy of conflict confrontation. A classic example the maneuver carried out by Alexander the Great can serve here. The latter diverted the army of the Persian king Darius from the wide open plains, where it could successfully use its numerical superiority, into narrow mountain passes, and, depriving it of its advantages, won the decisive battle.

In a defensive confrontation strategy, the method of luring the enemy into a trap can be successfully applied. Encourage political opponents to debate issues. It is obviously not profitable for them to seduce an opponent in business with the appearance of an easy win. And then make him suffer losses in a competitive battle with the conflicting party - these are some of the tricks of luring into a trap. In intergroup conflicts, under certain conditions (for example, when the opponent is superior in strength, resources, experience, etc.), the strategy may turn out to be effective. retreat, aimed at maintaining the maximum of forces, means, resources during the active offensive of the enemy. Cases from hockey and football are widely known, when, even at the world championships, teams that used defensive tactics, through well-organized, swift and powerful counterattacks, achieved victory over their rivals. The retreat strategy is often intertwined with the strategy evasions. It represents a well-thought-out and well-organized avoidance of a decisive encounter with the enemy, a delay in the counteroffensive with the aim of psychologically and physically "wearing out" the opposing side. If the confrontation between the warring groups (countries, nations, armies, etc.) is not carried out in extreme conditions of wars, revolutions, coup d'etat, then the skillful application of the strategy is very important. institutionalization of the conflict, i.e. the use of legitimate conciliation procedures accepted in democratic societies to resolve it.

One of the most widely used and effective procedures of this kind is negotiation. According to one of the largest American experts in the field of conflict resolution. Professor G. Reiff of Harvard University, every sane person should have the ability to effectively resolve disputes and disagreements so that the fabric of social life does not tear with every conflict, but, on the contrary, grows stronger due to the growth of the ability to find and develop common interests. The most effective way to do this is through negotiations, during which it is necessary to seek mutual benefit based on the use of existing differences. Based on his ideas, professors of the same university r. Fisher and W. Ury concluded that negotiations are “the main means of getting what you want from other people” and are “a shuttle relationship designed to reach an agreement when the parties involved have coinciding or opposing interests.” At the same time, the most appropriate and effective is "The Principled Negotiation Method", which mean a tough approach to the consideration of the merits of the case, but provide for a soft approach to the relations between the negotiators. It can be reduced to four main points: 1) make a distinction between the negotiators and the subject of negotiations; 2) focus on interests, not positions; 3) before deciding what to do, highlight the range of possibilities; 4) insist that the result be based on some objective norm. Citing numerous and striking examples from a variety of negotiation practices, R. Fischer and W. Ury emphasize that “the main problem of negotiations is not in conflicting positions, but in a conflict between needs. Desires, concerns and fears of each of the parties. Therefore, in order to achieve a reasonable solution in the negotiation process, “it is necessary to reconcile interests, not positions, all the more so. That behind opposite positions, along with contradictions, there can be shared and acceptable interests. Being an extremely effective way to resolve intergroup conflicts, negotiations at the same time are not able to become universal, much less the only means. They have their own range of applicability. Negotiations as a form of conflict resolution are usually held when both sides estimate their resources as approximately equal and when the hostile feelings of each participant in the interaction do not exceed. tolerance. In addition, which is especially important, a negotiation strategy can be chosen when one (or both) of the participants in the interaction refuses to be aware of possible mutual incompatibility and, therefore, become capable of making concessions, of course, within certain limits.

An important institutionalized way of managerial influence on intergroup conflicts is mediation. It is a resolution method. conflict situation by contacting a third party not directly involved in the conflict in order to facilitate the cessation of conflict resistance and the establishment of cooperation. Mediation functions in the conflict can be performed by both individuals and any organizations, institutions, governments. Experience shows that a well-chosen mediator is able to ensure the settlement of the conflict in those cases where, without his efforts, agreements between the competing parties would have been impossible at all. But in order to successfully fulfill such a complex mission, the mediator must have high authority, impeccable morality, be politically and financially neutral, professionally competent, and possess high intelligence.

One of the important ways to resolve intergroup conflicts is to application of arbitration, which is a certain set of procedures of a conciliatory nature, carried out primarily officially by an authorized institution or organization. Moreover, there are two main types of arbitration: 1) when his invitation is necessary, but the execution of his decisions is not necessary, or vice versa; 2) when it is not necessary to address him, but in the case of an invitation, submission to him is necessary. In the conditions of transition to the market, the role of arbitration as a specific way of resolving intergroup conflicts will increase. This is due to the following circumstance. In the CIS countries, including Belarus, there is a widespread misconception that there are equal sellers and buyers on the market who, for mutual benefit, sell and buy various services and goods, including a specific type of goods - labor force. Meanwhile, the long-term experience of countries with a developed market economy irrefutably shows that even during periods of economic boom, the employer and employee do not meet on the labor market as equal partners. An entrepreneur, hiring or firing an employee, directly decides the issue of his material existence, therefore, the well-being of the employee is entirely dependent on the employer, at the same time, neither hiring nor dismissing the employee in any way threatens the well-being of the employer. Such an unequal position, due to the very essence of a market economy, inevitably gives rise to conflicts between both, and since the entrepreneur always has more funds, rights, opportunities, the role of arbitration, in particular, neutral conciliation commissions, becomes very important in resolving such intergroup conflicts. and especially the labor courts. These courts are set up specifically to resolve conflicts between employers and employees. Being independent in relation to both entrepreneurs and employees, labor dispute courts, on the one hand, provide employees with the possibility of legal protection from the arbitrariness of a more powerful opponent, on the other hand, they are an instance capable of removing a possible “blockade” through judicial resolution of the conflict. negotiations on the merits of this conflict on the part of its participants. This feature of their activities leads to an increase in the willingness of the conflicting parties to reach a compromise at the negotiating table.

So, a compromise, which can also arise as a result of direct negotiations between the participants in an intergroup conflict, and, if they turn to a mediator or arbitration, is also a widespread way of managing the conflict. Compromise represents a specific form of "social conflict" that creates the possibility of distribution of benefits and losses acceptable to the warring parties. An agreement to resolve a conflict is usually reached when the participants believe that the proposed distribution of gains and losses is fair. American management specialist M. H. Meskon, M. Albert and F. Hedouri argue that "the ability to compromise is highly valued in managerial situations, as it minimizes ill will and makes it possible to quickly resolve the conflict to the satisfaction of both parties" Of course , a compromise is appropriate not every and not always. Compromises that are inseparable from a deal with conscience, violations of moral standards, betrayal, etc., should be excluded from the sphere of resolving intergroup conflicts.

This paper outlines the most common ways of managerial influence on intergroup conflicts. It is impossible to avoid conflicts in our life, and maybe it is not necessary. But one should know in what ways one can transfer them from a destructive clash of opposing interests into a constructive channel, how to resolve them for the benefit of the cause. Of course, this does not mean that it is easy to change one's attitudes, habits, or perceptions, or to induce a rival side in a conflict to do so. To achieve a result, you need to know all the ways to resolve conflicts, and applying each of them in its place and at the right time, go to success.

As part of this course work, I was able to consider and study two types of emerging conflicts such as interpersonal and intergroup. It was also possible to study in detail the causes of their occurrence, characteristic properties, as well as possible solutions to these conflicts. Unfortunately, it is not possible to fully cover such a large topic as conflictology, even if we consider only two types, within the framework of one term paper, and therefore in this work I tried to concentrate the available and received knowledge as much as possible for a more compact presentation. At the same time, it should be noted that a social conflict is always a struggle generated by a confrontation between public and group, but not individual, interests.

In my opinion, the final post-conflict stage is of great importance. At this stage, efforts should be made to finally eliminate conflicts of interests, goals, attitudes, social and psychological tension should be eliminated, and any struggle should be stopped.

In conclusion, it should be emphasized that since conflicts are inevitable in our lives, we need to learn how to manage them, strive to ensure that they lead to the least costs for society and the individuals involved.
List of used literature.

1. Ageev D.S. Intergroup interaction. Socio-psychological problems. M. 1990.

2. Grishina N.V. psychology of conflict. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2000.

3. Danakin N.S., Dyatchenko L.Ya. Technology of rivalry and confrontation. Belgorod. 1993.

4. Dmitriev A., Kudryavtsev V., Kudryavtsev S. Introduction to the general theory of conflicts.

5. Durkheim E. On the division of social labor. Method of sociology. M. 1991.

6. Collins R. Conflict Theory in Contemporary Macrohistorical Sociology. // Philosophical and sociological thought. 1993.

7. Conflictology. / Ed. A.S. Carmine. SPb. 1999.

8. Meskon M.Kh. , Albert M., Hedouri F. Fundamentals of Management. M. 1992.

9. Oleinik A.N. Fundamentals of conflictology. M., 1992

10. Smelzer N. J. Sociology. M. 1994.

11. Sulimova T.S. Social work and constructive conflict resolution. M., 1996

12. Fisher R., Uri W. The path to agreement or negotiations without defeat. M. 1990.

13. Chumikov A.N. Regulation of socio-political conflicts in post-Soviet Russia. //Power. 1996, No. 10

14. http://www.minskportal.com

15. http://sob-rgsu.narod.ru/

16. http://www.angelhelp.ru/

17. http://conflictologiy.narod.ru/

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF BELARUS

BELARUSIAN STATE UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF PHILOSOPHY AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

Department of Social Communication

Interpersonal conflicts

course work

2nd year student of the department of information and communication

Grishkevich I. A.

Scientific adviser:

Candidate of Sociological Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of Social Communication Mazanik M. N.

Minsk, 2013

INTRODUCTION

LITERATURE REVIEW

CHAPTER 1: MAIN PARAMETERS AND NATURE OF INTERPERSONAL CONFLICT

2 Causes and functions of interpersonal conflict

3 Structure and dynamics of interpersonal conflict

CHAPTER 2: INTERPERSONAL CONFLICTS IN COMMUNICATION AND METHODS OF CONFLICT RESOLUTION

3 Interpersonal Conflict Resolution

CONCLUSION

LIST OF SOURCES USED

INTRODUCTION

In the usual, everyday sense, a person interprets conflict as something negative, associated with irrationality with hostility, fear, threats. Some experiences are so intense that a defensive reaction is fixed in people, and they begin to believe that the conflict is an extremely undesirable phenomenon, it should be avoided, and if it occurs, it requires immediate resolution. They cannot be judged for this, because they are partly right: conflicts can be very destructive, take a lot of time and effort. However, no matter how hard we try, conflicts in one form or another always accompany our lives, from family to geopolitical, and everyone can see this from their own experience. Consequently, since we cannot avoid them, we must learn to reduce their number and intensity, learn to control them. However, all this requires time, which we do not have, since in our time communication is undergoing serious changes, all social processes are accelerating and becoming more complicated, and our life is filled with situations in which numerous contradictions need to be resolved.

Any conflict (interethnic, interstate, organizational, etc.) is reduced to interpersonal. Interpersonal conflicts cover almost all areas human relations. They have always been present in a person's life, from the very beginning of his social life and, apparently, to the end. The very problem of interpersonal conflicts has been given much attention, since, as mentioned above, conflicts have always existed at all times, and the most basic type of conflict was interpersonal.

Today, psychology considers conflict in a positive way, as the development of an organization and personality, treats conflict as an engine of progress. It teaches us to look not at the negative, but at the positive sides of conflicts, which the vast majority of us have not done before. If we are not afraid of conflicts, but analyze them every time, then we will find that we could easily avoid many mistakes by simply noticing them in time and taking appropriate measures.

The problem of conflict resolution is now becoming more relevant not only in terms of improving the human condition, but also for practical purposes, mainly in economics and politics, where business relations prevail.

Thus, mastering the skills of successful communication in conflict situations is not only of theoretical importance, but will also help in everyday life and in the career of each person.

Object of work: interpersonal conflict.

Subject of work: conflict interaction in the course of communication and ways to resolve it

Purpose: to study interpersonal conflict as a communication phenomenon.

Describe interpersonal conflict

Identify the causes and functions of interpersonal conflict

Consider the dynamics of interpersonal conflict

Consider communication models in relation to interpersonal conflict

Determine strategies for people's behavior

Identify methods for resolving interpersonal conflicts

LITERATURE REVIEW

Antsupov, A.Ya. Shipilov, A. Conflictology: Textbook for universities / A. Antsupov, A. Shipilov. - Unity: Moscow, 2000. - 507 p.

Contains a generalization and systematization of scientific knowledge about conflicts, which are obtained in various areas Russian science. The basics of conflictology are outlined, a conceptual scheme for describing conflicts is given. The principles, methods and methods of settlement, prevention and study of conflicts are considered.

Completely and systematized information about conflicts is presented in a language understandable to the student. Contains the necessary information, which serves as the basis for conducting research or self-study of the subject.

The anthology contains a large amount of useful systematized and structured information aimed at practical application. The ways of resolving conflicts are considered and a list is given useful tips.

CHAPTER 1. THE NATURE OF INTERPERSONAL CONFLICT

1 The concept and characteristics of interpersonal conflict

The word "conflict" came into modern languages ​​from Latin (conflictus - clash), it is international and does not need to be translated.

In order to define interpersonal conflict, it is necessary to define what “conflict” is. The definition of this concept was given by very many authoritative sociologists and psychologists, considering this phenomenon from many angles, and the variety of interpretations makes it problematic to single out any particular one. However, most authors agree that there is a contradiction in the conflict, which takes the form of a disagreement, in which two or more subjects most often take part.

After analyzing the definitions of many authoritative authors, you can try to give a general definition of the conflict. So, a conflict is a situation in which two subjects clash on the basis of contradictions, each of which seeks to master the object of disagreement or defend its own point of view, which is not only incompatible with the opponent’s point of view, but often opposite to it.

Due to its scope and diversity, conflict has many different types. Interpersonal conflict is the most common type of conflict. It can be defined as a situation of confrontation between specific participants face to face, perceived and experienced by them (or at least one of them) as a significant psychological problem that requires its resolution and causes activity of the parties aimed at overcoming the contradiction that has arisen and resolving the situation in the interests of both. or one of the parties.

A large number of researchers agree on the following signs of interpersonal conflict:

Bipolarity - there are two opposite positions in the conflict.

Competition - the desire to fill the need or the destruction of the opponent.

The presence of the subjects of the conflict.

Activity aimed at overcoming the contradiction.

Just as personality conflicts differ in terms of which problems are affected by the contradiction that has arisen, Krylov identifies the basic characters of interpersonal conflicts:

value conflicts. Situations in which there is a disagreement based on incompatible ideas that are of particular individual importance to the subjects. Each person has a value system that is of great importance to him and reflects what is the meaning for the subject.

Conflicts of interest. Situations in which the goals, motives and plans of the participants are incompatible or contradict each other.

Conflicts as a result of violation of norms or rules of interaction. Norms and rules regulate the order of interaction; without them, it turns out to be impossible.

The factor is also the cause of the conflict, that is, the event that translates hidden difficulties into open environment leading to confrontation.

The last factor he singles out is such a parameter as the severity of the conflict. In any conflict there is a problem, but the degree of its significance in different situations and for different subjects will also be different. The more significant the problems that are present in the conflict, the less a person is set up for concessions and compromises.

According to A.V. Dmitriev, there are the following types of interpersonal conflict:

Sensual-affective. The most common type of interpersonal conflict. It begins with a sharp and unpleasant question that was addressed by one of the parties to the other. The party to whom the question was asked has negative feelings for the other party and tries to ignore it and keep communication to a minimum. The first main feature is the gradual development of the conflict situation, the accumulation of irritation, which does not lead to the resolution of the conflict situation. The second feature is the divergent positions of the parties, i.e. the first party tries to get answers to questions, does not receive and gets annoyed, and the second tries to ignore and move away from the first, which leads to a shaken morale of the latter, followed by a conflict situation.

Uncompromising. It begins with mutual remarks, reproaches, which continue to be used as the main arguments until the moment when one of the parties wins, while neither of them intends to make concessions. A very destructive type.

Emotionally unrestrained. It begins with the aggressiveness of one of the subjects, while the other subject interprets the behavior of the aggressor as wrong and maintains the conflict. The conflict itself is characterized by the participants' lack of desire to understand each other and understand the situation, each other's dissatisfaction, a sharp form of communication, and destructiveness. Such a conflict is of a protracted nature.

Politely touchy. Main characteristic this type of politeness. The most peaceful type. The conflict begins with a polite expression of disagreement of one of the partners with the opinion of the other, while both feel awkward and some guilt for participating in the conflict. Both are immediately ready for reconciliation.

Aggressive. Both participants are tuned to destructive behavior and exit from the situation without compromise due to the suppression of reason by emotions. The most dangerous type. The form of interaction is a verbal skirmish, the extreme form is a fight.

Each type of conflict has its own causes, which require a special approach. These types differ in the aspects of interpersonal relationships or interactions that have been affected. But the same reasons can give rise to different conflicts. Consequently, the nature of conflicts is determined by the nature of the problems between the participants, and the cause of the problems is determined by the external environment and circumstances.

2 Causes and functions of interpersonal conflicts

To resolve a conflict, first of all, you need to find out its causes. If this is not done, conflicts can neither be resolved nor, moreover, prevented.

Any specific causes of interpersonal conflicts are very different. It is difficult to single out any one classification, since each author offers his own.

The cause of conflicts are conflictogens - words or actions that can contribute to the emergence of conflict. The key word here is “can”, since not all conflictogens lead to conflict, because we get used to some of them (rudeness, impoliteness) and react differently.

A conflictogen has one pattern that makes it so dangerous, and this property is escalation. People tend to pay less attention to what they say and more to what they are told, which is a kind of catalyst for the development of the conflict. The subject receives the conflict generator x, which was sent to him by another participant, but he does not accept it as it was sent, but reacts more strongly, multiplying this conflict generator, getting, say, 1.5x. The subject tries to respond to the conflictogen with a large conflictogen, and it turns out that the one who sent the first conflictogen, in the next turn, receives a conflictogen, let's say 2x, and then a chain reaction starts. This can be explained by the fact that the subject, who has received a conflictogen in his address, wants to compensate for the psychological damage inflicted on him, and responds with aggression to aggression in order to get rid of psychological discomfort, while aggression, in order not to miscalculate, comes with a “margin”.

In modern conflictology, there are several groups of causes of conflicts:

Objective.

They are divided according to social spheres into economic, social, political, ideological. These factors cannot be drastically affected by the subject.

Socio-psychological.

Intersection of interests, values, distortion of information, inconsistency with role expectations, psychological incompatibility and natural aspirations for power and wealth.

Organizational and managerial.

associated with structural features in organizations, functions within them, correspondence between personality and position, and management situations.

Personal (subjective).

Subjective critical assessments, conflict resistance, attitude towards constructive resolution.

According to the American conflictologist W. Lincoln, there are five types of causative factors of conflicts:

informational factors.

For one of the parties, the information is not acceptable, it is rejected (incompleteness, rumors, relevance, veracity, interpretation, extraneous factors).

behavioral factors.

Characteristics of behavior that are rejected by one of the parties (the desire for dominance, aggression and selfishness, a threat to security, undermining self-esteem, unpredictability, discomfort).

relationship factors.

Dissatisfaction with the interaction between subjects (balance of power, importance of relationships, personal compatibility, difference in educational level, history and duration of relationships).

value factors.

The principles of behavior expected by participants (own systems of beliefs and behaviors, group traditions and values, modes of action and methods of institutions, political, religious, regional and cultural values, belief systems and their corresponding expectations).

Structural factors.

Circumstances that are characterized by stability, objectivity and immutability (governance system, political currents, power, social norms, property rights, standards of behavior, traditions, religions, geographical location, frequency of contacts with society).

This classification allows not only to identify the sources of conflicts, but also to help resolve them, especially when there is a lack of information.

A. Karmin has a classification that is good because it can identify the sources of conflict and the area in which they arise:

Limited resources.

The most common objective cause of conflicts. People are selfish by nature, therefore they believe that it is they who need and have the right to possess certain resources.

Differences in purpose.

Differences in ideas, values, worldview.

Differences in behavior and experience.

Personal characteristics of opponents.

Poor communications.

Various aspects of interdependence.

Among the functions of conflicts, it is customary to single out positive and negative ones.

Positive:

Eliminate contradiction.

Assessment of individual psychological characteristics of people.

Release of psychological stress.

Development of personality and interpersonal relationships.

Improving the quality of individual activities.

Self-assertion.

Negative:

Negative impact on the psyche.

Possible injuries to opponents.

Violation of interpersonal relationships.

Formation of a negative image of the opponent.

Negative reflection on the activities of the individual.

Consolidation in the experience of solving problems by violent means.

Also, in relation to the participants in the conflict, constructive and destructive functions are distinguished.

Structural:

Cognitive (conflict as a symptom of contradictions in relationships).

Function of development (improvement of the participants and the communication process).

Instrumental (conflict as a tool for resolving contradictions).

Perestroika (growth of mutual understanding and removal of factors that exacerbate interpersonal communication).

Destructive:

Destruction of joint activity.

Deterioration of relations between opponents.

negative emotional condition opponents.

Decreased effectiveness of future interaction.

For the most part, people feel only the negative and destructive side of conflicts, since it does not require any knowledge in the field of conflictology or any other efforts on the part of the participants in the conflict, that is, this is an affective state. The positive aspects influence passively and most often imperceptibly for us, give experience in resolving and some stability. They also require participants to have a certain level of preparedness in order to act more effectively.

3 Structure and dynamics of interpersonal conflicts

Conflict is one of the types of the process of interaction between people, and, like every process, it has a certain structure.

The structure is a set of stable connections of the conflict, which ensure its integrity, equality to itself, difference from other phenomena of social life, without which it cannot exist as a dynamically interconnected integral system and process.

Any interpersonal conflict situation has an objective content and subjective meaning, these are two sides of the same coin. Objective elements include participants (subjects), subject, object, conditions. The subjective elements include conflict behavior, the motives of the parties and information models of the conflict situation. More about each of them:

Participants (subjects) - direct parties, people participating in the confrontation. The contradiction of their interests lies at the heart of the conflict. They can act as both private and official or legal entities. Based on the degree of participation in the conflict, the main participants, others and support groups are distinguished.

The main participants in the conflict are subjects who take active actions against each other, whether it be defense or attack.

Support groups. Almost always behind the opponents there are forces that at any moment can influence the conflict by passive or active actions. These are individuals or groups.

Other participants are those who have an episodic impact on the conflict.

The subject is the contradiction that was the reason for which the subjects come into conflict. The contradiction reflects the clash of interests and goals of the parties, and the problem will remain the same until it is resolved. Each side seeks to resolve the contradiction in its favor.

An object is a kind of scarce resource that the parties to the conflict seek to obtain. The object is material, social and spiritual value. The object itself can be divisible and indivisible, and depending on how the subject regards it, the course of the conflict depends.

Conditions (micro- and macroenvironment) - factors, features environment that determine the emergence, course of development and characteristics of the conflict.

Microenvironment - the closest environment of the subject.

Macroenvironment - social groups.

Motives - what drives a person, determines the direction associated with the satisfaction of needs. The parties in most cases hide their motives, so it is rather problematic to reveal them during the conflict.

Conflict behavior is the activity of the subject, which is aimed at the subject of the conflict and saves the current contradiction. This behavior has its own tactics, strategies and principles. The main principles are the concentration and coordination of forces, saving resources and "strike" on the vulnerable parts of the enemy.

Information models are the subjective representation of each of the participants in the conflict of all the above elements.

As for the dynamics, the stages in interpersonal conflict can be distinguished:

pre-conflict situation.

This is the period that precedes the conflict, it can also be prosperous, but is more often characterized by tension in relations. Here an objective problematic situation arises and the participants realize that the situation is a conflict.

The event that influenced the creation of the conflict. It can also act as a minor incident, which was the "last straw".

Development.

A series of conflict actions of the parties after the start and before the climax of the conflict, or, if the participants are competent enough, before seeking a solution to the conflict.

There are 2 phases: constructive and destructive.

The constructive phase of the conflict is characterized by the fact that the opponent of the goal, the object of the conflict, the means to achieve the goal, the correct assessment of one’s state, “weight”, capabilities are realized, and the ability to adequately assess oneself and the opponent is determined. The only thing that may not satisfy opponents is, firstly, the style of conducting a conversation (high tone, self-orientation, prevalence of personal interests, weak feedback, ignoring), and secondly, non-verbal characteristics of behavior (avoidance of conversations, stopping or deterioration of joint activities, etc.).

The destructive phase of the conflict (which refers only to the non-realistic, i.e. when the conflict is pointless) is characterized by the fact that it begins when the dissatisfaction of the opponents with each other, the way of solving problems is out of control and, therefore, the situation becomes unmanageable. In turn, this phase is divided into 2 stages:

Psychological. The desire to overestimate one's own capabilities and underestimate the opponent's capabilities.

Increasing activity. Mutual insults, lowering perception, etc.

Climax.

It is characterized by the fact that it occurs when the degree of tension of the conflict reaches its peak and causes significant harm to the participants. After that, the participants realize that they need to look for a way out.

Completion.

Transition from conflict to search for a solution to the problem. Here we can distinguish such concepts as the price of the conflict and the price of the exit from the conflict.

The price of conflict is the sum of three indicators:

Energy consumption - how much effort, time and resources were spent on the conflict.

Damage - the severity of the negative consequences that the opponent created.

Losses - deterioration of the situation as a result of conflict actions of both parties.

The price of getting out of the conflict is the difference between the minuses of getting out of the conflict and the pluses. If the value exceeds zero, then the prospect of getting out of the conflict and gaining benefits become obvious to the conflicting parties.

CHAPTER 2

1 Models of interpersonal communication

Interpersonal conflicts are part of communication in society, they are inseparable from each other, they are closely intertwined. It is impossible to resolve a conflict without knowing the principles of communication between people.

To date, there are many models of communication in society - Lasswell, Shannon-Weaver, Newcomb, Jacobson, Lotman, Eco and others. Each of them is unique in its own way, offers something new, and also complements the previous ones, but they are all similar.

To analyze communication in society, you can take the model of Umberto Eco, as it is well-known and one of the latest.

So, what does the Eco model include?

A source.

Sender.

Receiver.

Message.

Some corrections can be made to this model: the source and signal are combined in the sender (the brain is the source, the articulatory apparatus is the signal), the receiver (sense organs) and the addressee are combined in the same way. As a result, we get the following model:

Sender.

Message.

The message here is a form that the addressee has endowed with meaning based on some code.

A channel is a way of transmitting a message, but there is a risk that the message will distort its meaning under the influence of noise. This risk can be reduced by complicating the coding system or by duplicating information, making it redundant.

In this model, the subjects of the conflict situation are the sender and the addressee. As we can see, almost every element, with the exception of the code and, in part, the channel, can cause a conflict situation to develop.

The sender and the recipient may have some incompatible characteristics, which may lead to a conflict.

The way a message is conveyed can very often vary and take many forms, but it also affects the conflict situation.

Noise here is a destructive element that can destroy communication or change it so much that the meaning of the message can be accepted by the addressee exactly the opposite.

As for the code, the sender encodes the message in advance so that it is understandable to the addressee, or, conversely, not understandable. There is an element of manipulation that can be seen so often in interpersonal conflicts.

And finally, the message. The message is a means of information transfer, communication between subjects. It depends on its content whether the conflict will be resolved, created or preventively stopped.

After the communicative act, the sender and the addressee change places, and the process is repeated anew.

This model is good because it can be applied to any conflict situation and understand where the conflict began.

2 Behavior of people in interpersonal conflicts

Every interpersonal conflict has both a beginning and an end, both a beginning and a resolution. However, there are a lot of ways to achieve conflict resolution, and these ways depend on the parameters that people have, namely temperament, character and level of personal development.

A person receives a temperament at birth, it is an inseparable part not only of our psyche, but also of the body, since it is conditioned by the central nervous system. Temperament was considered and classified by such personalities as Hippocrates and I.P. Pavlov, who made the greatest contribution.

There are 4 types of temperament:

Sanguine.

Strong, balanced, mobile.

Most best type temperament for conflict resolution.

Phlegmatic person.

Strong, balanced, inert.

The second best type, but he is not characterized by initiative.

Strong, unbalanced, mobile.

This type can be the most destructive in conflicts, as it relies not on calculation, but on the violent emotional reaction.

Melancholic.

Weak, unbalanced, inert.

In this case, the subject will be passive in the conflict, he can avoid it or adapt.

Temperament has a very strong influence on a person's behavior in interpersonal conflicts, and almost every type has its pros and cons that can be managed.

As for character traits, their typology was developed by Jung, and 4 pairs of opposite types are distinguished in it:

Introvert - Extrovert.

Intuitives - Sensory.

Feeling - Thinking.

Perceiving - Decisive.

Each character type has 4 preferences, one on each row. In accordance with this typology, there are 16 types of character in total. This dualism is due to the fact that the human brain consists of two hemispheres - left and right, which are formed by the age of seven and no longer change. The left hemisphere - rational and logical activity, the right - subconscious activity and emotions. It also explains why some of us are left-handed and others are right-handed.

The problem of conflicts is connected with the inconsistency of types of characters, with opposite sets of characteristics, which hinders the solution of a joint task.

You can try to identify five types of conflict personalities:

Demonstrative.

Good adaptability to situations, likes to be the center of attention, avoids effort, irrational. Feels comfortable in conflicts.

Rigid.

Critical to others, but not to himself, has an overestimated self-esteem, touchy, straightforward. In conflicts, it is characterized by low adaptability, which interferes with behavior in conflict.

Ungovernable.

Impulsive, aggressive, unpredictable, has high self-esteem, lack of self-control. Poorly controls the situation in the conflict and does not accompanies cooperation.

Ultra-precise.

Perfectionist, worries about failures, demanding of everyone, including himself, touchy, outwardly restrained and poor. Poorly oriented in a conflict situation.

Conflict-free.

Suggestible, weak-willed, dependent on the opinions of others, contradicts himself. In conflict, he most often compromises or tries to avoid it.

Purposefully conflict.

Manipulative, active, planned. In conflict, he behaves confidently, evaluates positions and achieves the goal with the help of conflict.

Styles (strategies) of behavior in conflict - the orientation of a person (group) in relation to the conflict, installation on certain forms of behavior.

There are 5 styles:

Cooperation.

Joint actions to solve a problem that involve a different view of the problem. Satisfaction with the decision by both parties.

Compromise.

Concessions on something important on each side to the extent that both are satisfied with the decision.

Rivalry.

Persistent and uncompromising imposition of a solution, dictation of one's own interests and use of all means to win.

Adaptation.

The readiness of the subject to give in in order to maintain relations, lowering aspirations and, as a result, making imposed decisions.

avoidance.

An attempt to get away from the conflict, being in the stage of conflict in the absence of active actions to resolve it.

These styles (strategies) are implemented through the following tactics:

Capturing and holding the object of the conflict. Condition: the object must be material.

Physical abuse. Destruction of property, blocking activities and causing bodily harm.

Psychological abuse. Insult, deceit, slander, discrimination, etc.

Pressure. Demands, threats, orders, blackmail.

demonstrative actions. Attracting attention to oneself, namely public statements, suicide attempts, etc.

Validation. Denial of execution, increase in workload, imposition of a ban.

Coalitions. The goal is to increase the rank in the conflict, i.e. creation of unions, groups, appeal to the media and authorities.

Fixing your position. The most used tactic. Application of logic, facts, criticism, requests and persuasion.

Friendliness. Correct handling, demonstration of readiness to solve a problem, encouragement, apology, etc.

These styles can be both spontaneous and purposefully used. As a rule, combinations of strategies are used in the conflict, sometimes one of them dominates, however, during the conflict, strategies can change.

3 Conflict resolution

Without establishing the causes and motives of the participants, it is impossible to resolve the conflict. Conflict resolution also requires conflict management. Conflict management is a targeted impact to eliminate the causes that caused the conflict, influence on the behavior of the participants in the conflict in order to correct it and maintain a certain acceptable level of conflict.

The management process depends on a number of factors, the main of which are given below:

Adequacy of perception (an objective and accurate assessment of one's own actions and the actions of an opponent).

Willingness to discuss problems with an opponent openly.

Creating a friendly atmosphere for cooperation.

Determination of the basis of the conflict.

There are also other factors, but they are weakly influenced, such as stereotypes, motives and needs, prejudices, etc.

It is worth noting that conflict avoidance is not conflict resolution, but only a delay and respite, so the symptoms that correspond to conflict avoidance do not contribute to solving the problem.

It is also worth avoiding a prolonged escalation phase, as here the conflict can take on rampant proportions, and it becomes increasingly difficult to control such a situation.

However, before moving on to resolving a conflict situation, it is worth considering a number of conditions that are important in the interaction of the parties.

Voluntary actions on both sides.

You cannot force a person to perform the actions that we need, that is, the opponent must be convinced using constructive arguments.

"Mirror reflection".

Each action of the subject will affect the attitude towards him and the actions of the opponent.

It depends on the representative of which social group the subject communicates with, and what personality the opponent has.

These 3 aspects are prerequisites for resolving a conflict situation.

There is a list of conflict-free communication rules that can help resolve interpersonal conflict or at least reduce its intensity:

Do not use conflictogens.

Do not respond with a conflictogen to a conflictogen.

Showing empathy for the opponent.

The use of benevolent messages.

To resolve the conflict, the subject also needs to be aware of a number of certain rules that make the conflict resolution procedure easier. They are the following:

The conflict situation is all that needs to be eliminated.

The conflict situation arises before the conflict.

The wording helps to identify the causes.

Ask yourself the question "Why" until you know the real reason.

Formulate the conflict situation in your own words without using words that describe the conflict.

Keep the wording to a minimum.

Successful conflict resolution requires:

Adopt a mindset to resolve the conflict in a way that is beneficial to both parties.

Regulation of one's behavior towards the opponent in a rational way.

Try to find common ground between positions.

Preparation and conduct of negotiations, functionally - with an intermediary.

There are 2 negotiation models:

mutual benefits.

When solutions are found that satisfy both parties.

The meaning of this model is that at the outcome of the conflict it is not at all necessary that one side wins at the expense of the other, but that there is a possibility of mutual gain. The main thing here is interests, not positions.

Concessions and rapprochement or bargaining of the parties.

The essence of the model is that during a conflict with a conflict of interests, the participants make mutual concessions until they find a common ground.

In our time, the degree and role of such a person as a mediator (intermediary) has significantly increased. However, despite the obvious positive attributes of the presence of a mediator, there are also negative ones:

The intervention of the mediator violates the stability within the relations of the parties to the conflict.

The presence and actions of the mediator can lead to the end of the conflict, but this will only be an external influence, while internal motivation may remain unaffected, which in the future may affect the relationship between the subjects.

The potential danger that the actions of the mediator may lead to the development and deterioration of the conflict.

To avoid such problems, the parties to the conflict need to trust the mediator, and the chances of success when both parties have chosen a mediator are much higher than when only one party has chosen him.

The mediator has the following tactics:

Intervention, which is aimed at establishing and maintaining contact with the subjects of the conflict, gaining their trust.

Contextual intervention, which is used to establish a favorable negotiating climate, prevent complications (also emotional), etc.

Interference related to the decision-making process or the consideration of options.

There are 3 mediation strategies:

Logical (analysis, discussion, etc.).

Aggressive (threats, coercion, etc.).

Paternalistic (gives advice individually to each participant in the conflict, discusses, approves and encourages).

The task of the mediator is difficult because he has to deal with two sides of the conflict, each of which is sure that it is she who has an objective vision of the situation.

The biggest problem in dealing constructively with conflict is the unwillingness of the parties to resolve the conflict. The parties will not seek to resolve the conflict, since each of them is comfortable on their own side, and the search for a way out requires leaving this side and starting to search for a joint solution with the opponent.

interpersonal conflict behavior communication

CONCLUSION

Interpersonal conflicts have always been and always will be. They will meet every day several times, some familiar, some new. We cannot prevent the emergence of conflicts, since they are an important and integral part of society and human essence. All that can be done is to facilitate the flow of conflicts, change your attitude towards them, learn how to manage them, and, if desired, use them to achieve your goal.

Interpersonal conflicts will not lose their relevance, just as the ways to resolve them will not lose their relevance, since throughout history, and especially in our time with the development of globalization and the advent of the Internet, communication has constantly evolved and changed, new forms of interaction have changed and added, new forms of interaction have been created. spheres and institutions, in each of which the conflict proceeded differently, changing with the person.

To get out of a conflict situation, it is not at all necessary that both parties to the conflict have certain conflict management skills, it is enough if at least one subject owns them, and then the chances that the situation will be resolved in a rational way with the least losses will increase many times over.

Most often, it is not conflicts that have a destructive effect on people, but how we emotionally experience them during them. These are threats, fear, hostility, in a word, any acute emotional experience. These effects, unfortunately, are neither limited nor short-lived. They can spread to other areas of human activity and haunt him for a long period of life, as well as transfer these fears and dangers to other people or raise their children in this atmosphere.

Interpersonal conflicts are closely related to other types of conflicts. Suppose they can arise as a result of an intrapersonal conflict, when a person who cannot find answers to his questions begins to involve other people in his problems, which can lead to conflict. Also, interpersonal conflicts are included in intra-group and inter-group conflicts, since the units of groups are subjects, and in case of interpersonal conflict within a group, the conflict passes into the status of a group conflict, because there are parties to the conflict, certain points of view that can be shared by several people. Thus, interpersonal, intrapersonal and group conflicts create some closed system, the elements of which determine each other.

In psychology, the dual nature of the conflict is recognized. It is recognized that it helps to prevent the ossification of the system of relations and is an incentive for change, for the progress of man and society as a whole. Conflicts will bring real benefits when we learn how to rationally manage them.

LIST OF USED SOURCES

1. Antsupov, A.Ya. Shipilov, A. Conflictology: Textbook for universities / A. Antsupov, A. Shipilov. - Unity: Moscow, 2000. - 507 p.

Babosov, E. M. Sociology of conflicts: textbook-method. allowance / E. M. Babosov. - Minsk: BSU Publishing House, 2011. - 399 p.

Grishina, N. V. Psychology of conflict / N. V. Grishina - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2004. - 464 p.

Dmitriev, A.V. Conflictology: Textbook / A. Dmitriev. - M.: Gardariki, 2000. - 320 p.

Karmin, A. Conflictology / A. Karmin - St. Petersburg: Lan Publishing House, 1999. - 448 p.

Krylov, A. Psychology / A. Krylov. - Prospect Publishing House; Moscow, 2005 - 744 p.

Lincoln, W.F. etc. Negotiations. / W. Lincoln. - St. Petersburg: Riga: Ped. Center "Experiment", 1998. - 159 p.

Pavlov, I. P. Twenty years of experience in the objective study of higher nervous activity(behavior) of animals / I. P. Pavlov. - M.: Nauka, 1973. - 661 p.

Selchenok, K. Applied conflictology: Reader / K. Selchenok. - Harvest, AST, 2007. - 565 p.

Scott, G. J. Conflicts: ways to overcome / G. J. Scott. / Per. from English. - K. : Publishing House Verzilin and KLTD, 2000. - 246 p.

11. Jung, K. G. Psychological types/ K.G. Jung. - St. Petersburg: Azbuka, 2001. - 370 p.

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Introduction. 2

1. Interpersonal conflicts. 3

1.1 Types of interpersonal conflicts 4

1.2 Causes of interpersonal conflicts 6

1.3 Conflict Strategies 9

2.1 Typology of social conflicts 11

2.2 Causes of intergroup conflicts. fourteen

2.3 Typology of intergroup conflicts. 17

2.4Phenomena of intergroup integration 20

2.5 Methods of managing intergroup conflicts. 23

Introduction.

The purpose of this course work, I have determined for myself the summing up of the study of the discipline "Conflictology", which in turn implies the development and improvement in the field of knowledge about the nature, causes and patterns of social conflicts, the ability to recognize, prevent and manage conflict situations, as well as management skills emotional experiences, behavior in stressful situations and successful negotiations and protection of their interests.

It is well known that the development of any society, any social community or group, even an individual, is a complex process that does not always unfold smoothly, and is often associated with the emergence and resolution of contradictions. In fact, the whole life of any person, any team or organization, any country is woven from contradictions. These contradictions are due to the fact that different people occupy different positions, are guided by different interests, pursue different goals, and therefore, in an effort to realize their needs, interests and goals, quite often two or more individuals, and sometimes social groups and even countries are actively looking for an opportunity to prevent the opponent from achieving a certain goal, to prevent the satisfaction of his interests or to change his views, ideas, assessments of the position. Such confrontation, conducted by means of a dispute, the use of threat or intimidation, the use of physical force or weapons, is called a conflict. However, what has been said does not mean at all that any conflict of interests and goals leads to their conflict with each other. Contradiction and conflict are far from the same thing, and the development of a contradiction does not always turn into a conflict. For a conflict to arise, it is necessary that the individuals or their social groups competing for something, firstly, realize the opposite of their interests and goals, and, secondly, begin to actively oppose the opponent. Only that contradiction, which is realized in the active opposition to each other of two or more individuals, groups, parties, countries, etc., becomes the fundamental basis and source of social conflict. Thus, the emergence of a conflict as a specific social phenomenon is based on objectively existing contradictions between individual individuals, their groups, states, etc.

1. Interpersonal conflicts.

Interpersonal conflict [from lat. conflictus - clash] - clash of opposing goals, motives, points of view of the interests of the participants in the interaction. In essence, this is the interaction of people either pursuing mutually exclusive or unattainable goals simultaneously by both conflicting parties, or striving to realize incompatible values ​​and norms in their relationships. In socio-psychological science, as a rule, such structural components of interpersonal conflict as a conflict situation, conflict interaction, conflict resolution are considered. At the heart of any interpersonal conflict lies the conflict situation that has developed even before it began. Here we have the participants of a possible future interpersonal clash, and the subject of their disagreement. In many studies devoted to the problems of interpersonal conflict, it is shown that the conflict situation implies the orientation of its participants to achieve not common, but individual goals. This determines the possibility of an interpersonal conflict, but does not yet predetermine its obligatory nature. In order for an interpersonal conflict to become a reality, it is necessary for its future participants to realize, on the one hand, the current situation as generally meeting their individual goals, and on the other hand, these goals as incompatible and mutually exclusive. But until this happens, one of the potential opponents may change its position, and the object itself, about which differences of opinion have arisen, may lose its significance for one, or even for both sides. If the acuteness of the situation disappears in this way, the interpersonal conflict, which, it would seem, inevitably had to unfold, having lost its objective foundations, simply will not arise.

Types of interpersonal conflicts

Direction:

horizontal - participants do not obey each other

vertical - participants are subordinate to each other

mixed - where there are both components (organization)

Conflicts with a vertical component (i.e. vertical and mixed conflicts) account for an average of 70 to 80% of their total number. Such conflicts are most undesirable for the participant standing "above" vertically, i.e. leader: participating in them, he is “bound hand and foot”. For each action and order in this case is considered by all employees (and especially the participants in the conflict) through the prism of the conflict. And even in the case of complete objectivity of the leader, they will see intrigues in relation to opponents in any of his steps. And since the awareness of subordinates is often not enough to correctly assess the actions of the leadership, the misunderstanding is more than compensated for by speculation, mostly of a negative nature.

By value:

constructive (creative)

opponents do not go beyond ethical standards, business relations, reasonable arguments,

leads to the development of relationships between people

destructive (destructive)

one of the parties rigidly insists on its position and ignores the other

one of the parties resorts to condemned methods of struggle

The first is beneficial to the cause, the second is harmful. It is impossible to leave the first, it is necessary to leave the second.

By the nature of the reasons:

objective - these conflicts have real causes and grounds for their occurrence

subjective - this type of conflict arises mainly due to subjective reasons, which can be completely different things such as a bad mood or well-being.

Permit area:

business - these conflicts are resolved in the field of business relations

personal-emotional - conflicts are not related to business relationships, but affect the personal-emotional aspects of an individual's life.

According to the form of manifestation:

hidden (poorly understood by people)

open (understand)

Hidden conflicts usually involve two people who, for the time being, try not to show the appearance that they are in conflict. But as soon as one of them loses his nerve, the hidden conflict turns into an open one. There are also random, spontaneously arising, and chronic, as well as deliberately provoked conflicts. Intrigue is a type of conflict. Intrigue is understood as a deliberate dishonest action that is beneficial to its initiator and which forces the team or individual to commit certain acts that harm them. Intrigues, as a rule, are carefully thought out, planned, have their own storyline.

By run time:

situational - arise within the framework of one particular situation and are usually spontaneous

prolonged (long) - as a rule, they consist of a series of conflict episodes.

Causes of interpersonal conflicts

The emergence and development of conflicts is due to the action of the following groups of factors and causes:

objective;

organizational and managerial;

socio-psychological;

personal.

Objective causes of conflicts

Among the objective causes of conflicts can be attributed mainly to those circumstances of social interaction between people that led to a clash of interests, opinions, and attitudes. Objective reasons lead to the creation of a pre-conflict situation, a situation.

The subjective causes of conflicts are mainly related to those individual psychological characteristics of the opponents, which lead to the fact that they choose exactly the conflict, and not any other way of resolving the objective contradiction. Rigid separation of objective and subjective causes of conflicts, and even more so their opposition, is unjustified. The seemingly purely subjective cause of the conflict may, in the end, be based on a factor that depends little on a person, i.e. objective. And, perhaps, there is not a single conflict that was or was not somehow caused by an objective and subjective factor.

Objective causes of conflicts:

natural clash of significant material and spiritual interests of people in the process of life;

poor development of legal and other regulatory procedures for resolving social contradictions;

lack of material and spiritual benefits that are significant for the normal life of people;

the way of life of many Russians (material and domestic disorder, the lack of opportunities to meet their basic needs);

rather stable stereotypes of interpersonal and intergroup relations of Russian citizens, contributing to the emergence of conflicts.

Organizational and managerial causes of conflicts

Structural and organizational reasons lie in the inconsistency of the structure of the organization with the requirements of the activity in which it is engaged. The structure should be determined by the tasks that this organization will solve or solve. However, it is almost impossible to achieve an ideal correspondence between the structure of the organization and the tasks to be solved.

Functional and organizational reasons are caused by the non-optimality of the organization's functional relations with the external environment, between the structural elements of the organization, between individual employees, for example, the uncertainty of functional relations between the presidential administration and the government (the problem of rights and obligations).

Personal-functional reasons are associated with the incomplete compliance of the employee in terms of professional, moral and other qualities with the requirements of the position held.

Situational and managerial reasons are due to mistakes made by managers and subordinates in the process of solving managerial and other tasks (making an erroneous managerial decision). Abstract >> Psychology

an important role in intrapersonal conflicts because they projected interpersonal And intergroup conflicts, they produce them themselves ... allowance 2000. Content Characteristic conflictology as a scientific discipline conflict Causality in society...

• Characteristic the course of the main stages conflict

  Abstract >> Sociology

  Consequences. Characteristics social conflicts. Flow stages conflict. Analysis conflicts necessary... conflict. 2. interpersonal conflict. 3. Intergroup conflict. 4. Conflict accessories. five. Conflict with the external environment. Any social conflict It has...

• Intergroup conflicts and management methods conflicts

  Test work >> Psychology

  In each specific conflict a certain mechanism will dominate. Intergroup mechanisms interpersonal interactions in their own way... their individual characteristics inevitably appear. It is important to understand the place of these interpersonal relationship...

• Conflict as a stage of team development

  Thesis >> Psychology

  1.2 Socio-psychological characteristic team development 1.3 Characteristic conflict as a stage of development ... rules. Kinds conflicts: There are intrapersonal, interpersonal And intergroup conflicts. Intrapersonal conflict is a collision...

Interpersonal conflict.

This type of conflict is perhaps the most common. Interpersonal conflicts can be viewed as a clash of personalities in the process of their relationship. Such clashes can occur in a wide variety of spheres and areas (economic, political, industrial, socio-cultural, domestic, etc.). “Most often it arises due to a shortage of some kind of resources, for example, the presence of one prestigious vacancy with several candidates for it.”

“Interpersonal conflict is understood as an open clash of interacting subjects based on the contradictions that have arisen, acting as opposite goals that are incompatible in a particular situation. Interpersonal conflict is manifested in the interaction between two or more persons. In interpersonal conflicts, subjects confront each other and sort out their relationship directly, face to face.

Interpersonal conflicts arise both between people who meet for the first time and between constantly communicating people. In both cases, an important role in the relationship is played by the personal perception of a partner or opponent. An obstacle to finding agreement between individuals can be a negative attitude that has been formed by one opponent in relation to another. Installation is a readiness, a predisposition of the subject to act in a certain way. This is a certain direction of manifestation of the psyche and behavior of the subject, readiness for the perception of future events. It is formed under the influence of rumors, opinions, judgments about a given individual (group, phenomenon, etc.).

Interacting with other people, a person primarily protects his personal interests, and this is normal. The resulting conflicts are a reaction to obstacles to achieving goals. And on how significant the subject of the conflict is for a particular individual, his conflict setting will largely depend.

Individuals face in interpersonal conflicts, protecting not only their personal interests. They can also represent the interests of individual groups, institutions, organizations, labor collectives, society as a whole. In such interpersonal conflicts, the intensity of the struggle and the possibility of finding compromises are largely determined by the conflict attitudes of those social groups whose representatives are opponents.

“All interpersonal conflicts arising from the clash of goals and interests can be divided into three main types.
The first one presupposes a fundamental clash, in which the realization of the goals and interests of one opponent can be achieved only at the expense of infringing on the interests of another.
The second - affects only the form of relations between people, but at the same time does not infringe on their spiritual, moral and material needs and interests.
The third one is imaginary contradictions that can be provoked either by false (distorted) information or by an incorrect interpretation of events and facts.

“Interpersonal conflicts can also be divided into the following types:

• rivalry - the desire for dominance;
• dispute - disagreement about finding the best solution to joint problems;
• discussion - discussion of a controversial issue.

Any conflict resolution or prevention is aimed at preserving the existing system of interpersonal interaction. However, the source of the conflict may be such reasons that lead to the destruction of the existing system of interaction. In this regard, there are various functions of the conflict: constructive and destructive.

Structural features include:

• cognitive (the appearance of a conflict acts as a symptom of dysfunctional relationships and a manifestation of the contradictions that have arisen);
• development function (conflict is an important source of development of its participants and improvement of the interaction process);
• instrumental (the conflict acts as a tool for resolving contradictions);
• perestroika (conflict removes factors that undermine existing interpersonal interactions, promotes the development of mutual understanding between participants).

The destructive functions of conflict are associated with

• destruction of existing joint activities;
• deterioration or collapse of relations;
• negative well-being of the participants;
• low efficiency of further interaction, etc.

This side of the conflict causes people to have a negative attitude towards them, and they try to avoid them.

In a systematic study of conflicts, the structure and elements are distinguished in them. The elements of interpersonal conflict are: the subjects of the conflict, their personal characteristics, goals and motives, supporters, the cause of the conflict. The structure of the conflict is the relationship between its elements. The conflict is always in development, so its elements and structure are constantly changing. There is a wide range of views on this issue in the literature.
AND I. Antsupov and A.I. Shipilov in the textbook "Conflictology" give a detailed table of the main periods and stages of the dynamics of the conflict. Depending on the degree of tension in relations, they distinguish differentiating and integrating parts of the conflict. The conflict itself consists of three periods:

1. pre-conflict (the emergence of an objective problem situation, awareness of an objective problem situation, attempts to solve the problem in non-conflict ways, pre-conflict situation);
2. conflict (incident, escalation, balanced counteraction, end of conflict);
3. post-conflict situation (partial normalization of relations, full normalization of relations).

For the emergence of interpersonal conflict, the presence of contradictions (objective or imaginary) is necessary. The contradictions that have arisen due to a discrepancy in the views and assessments of people on a variety of phenomena lead to a situation of dispute. If it poses a threat to one of the participants, then a conflict situation arises.

The conflict situation is characterized by the presence of opposite goals and aspirations of the parties to master one object.

In a conflict situation, the subjects and object of the conflict are identified.
The subjects of interpersonal conflict include those participants who defend their own interests, strive to achieve their goal. They always speak for themselves.
The object of interpersonal conflict is what its participants claim. This is the goal that each of the opposing subjects strives to achieve. For example, a husband or wife claims sole control over the family budget. In this case, the object of disagreement may be the family budget, if the opposing party considers its rights infringed. The subject of the conflict in such a situation are contradictions, in which the opposite interests of the husband and wife are manifested. In the above case, the subject will be the desire of the spouses to master the right to manage the family budget, i.e. the problem of mastering the object, the claims that the subjects present to each other.

Every interpersonal conflict eventually has its resolution. The forms of their resolution depend on the behavioral style of the subjects in the process of conflict development. This part of the conflict is called the emotional side and is considered the most important.

Researchers distinguish the following styles of behavior in interpersonal conflict: confrontation, evasion, adaptation, compromise, cooperation, assertiveness.

1. Confrontation is a characteristically persistent, uncompromising, cooperation-rejecting defense of one's interests, for which all available means are used.
2. Evasion - associated with an attempt to get away from the conflict, not attaching great value to it, perhaps due to the lack of conditions for its resolution.
3. Adaptation - implies the willingness of the subject to give up their interests in order to maintain relationships that are placed above the subject and object of disagreement.
4. Compromise - requires concessions from both sides to the extent that through mutual concessions, an acceptable solution is found for the opposing parties.
5. Cooperation - involves the joint performance of the parties to solve the problem. With such behavior, different views on the problem are considered legitimate. This position makes it possible to understand the causes of disagreements and find a way out of the crisis acceptable to the opposing sides without infringing on the interests of each of them.
6. Assertive behavior (from the English. assert - assert, defend). Such behavior implies the ability of a person to defend his interests and achieve his goals without prejudice to the interests of other people. It is aimed at ensuring that the realization of one's own interests is a condition for the realization of the interests of interacting subjects. Assertiveness is an attentive attitude both to oneself and to a partner. Assertive behavior prevents the emergence of conflicts, and in a conflict situation helps to find the right way out of it. At the same time, the greatest efficiency is achieved when one assertive person interacts with another such person.

All of these styles of behavior can be both spontaneous and consciously used to achieve the desired results in resolving interpersonal conflicts. The personality itself has a decisive influence on the choice of a behavior model in an interpersonal conflict - its needs, attitudes, habits, way of thinking, style of behavior, its past experience in solving problems and behavior in conflict. A significant role is often played by its internal spiritual contradictions, searches and throwing.

“In an interpersonal conflict, the emotional foundations of its development and attempts to resolve it are distinguished. According to Dan, conflict relations between two interdependent people, in which one of them or both of them feel anger towards the other and believe that it is the other who is to blame, are interpersonal. Boyko emphasizes that from the point of view of the state of interpersonal relationships, the conflict is the destruction of these relationships at the emotional, cognitive or behavioral level.

Used Books.

1. Antsupov A.Ya., Shipilov A.I. Conflictology. – M.: UNITI, 1999.- 591 pages.
2. Bolshakov A.G., Nesmelova M.Yu. Conflictology of organizations. Tutorial. - M.: M3 Press, 2001. - 182 pages.
3. Zaitsev A.K. social conflict. M.: Academia, 2000. - 464 pages.
4. Kozyrev G.I. Conflictology. Interpersonal conflicts. // Social and humanitarian knowledge / № 3, 1999.
5. Ratnikov V.P., Golub V.F. Lushakova G.S. etc. Conflictology: a textbook for universities. - M.: UNITI-DANA, 2002. - 512 pages.

Abstract review prepared by Timur Vodovozov

Conflicts in interpersonal relationships.

Classification of conflicts and their causes.

Conflict personality types.

Conflict management and ways to resolve them.

1. Conflicts in interpersonal relationships. The concept and functions of conflict.

Conflict- a social phenomenon generated by the very nature of social life. One of the main human needs is the need to belong to a community of one's own kind. At the same time, individual differences, differences in interests and goals, in ways of building a joint life lead to contradictions between people, the aggravation of which should be called a conflict.

In the psychological dictionary "conflict" (lat. Conflictus - collision) is defined as a collision of oppositely directed, incompatible with each other tendencies in the mind of a single individual, in interpersonal relationships or interpersonal actions of individuals or groups of people, associated with acute negative emotional experiences.

The main role in the emergence of conflicts is played by the so-called conflictogens - words, actions (or inactions) that contribute to the emergence and development of the conflict, that is - leading to conflict directly.

A "single" conflictogen is not capable, as a rule, of leading to a conflict. There should be a "chain of conflictogens" - their so-called escalation.

There are three main types of conflictogens:

striving for excellence;

manifestation of aggressiveness;

manifestation of selfishness.

conflict situations arise in all spheres of public life - be it economics, politics, everyday life, culture or ideology. They are inevitable as an integral component of the development of society and the individual himself. Conflict-freeness is an illusion, a utopia, and even less good.

The conflict situation develops, as a rule, gradually. It distributes and determines the positions of the participants in the future conflict, but it has not yet reached the point of an open clash. The components of a conflict situation are members And subject, i.e. the essence of the disagreement. Participants can take at least two mutually exclusive positions on the subject of conflict, but there may be more. The participants in the conflict occupy a certain hierarchy, where their leaders, initiators and their more or less passive supporters stand out.

A conflict always presupposes an open clash, realized by its participants, i.e. incident. The meaning of the incident lies in the mastery of the subject of the conflict. The incident shows, makes the conflict visible, and its participants are more active than in a conflict situation.

A conflict situation may not always end in an incident, but the subject of the conflict itself remains.

A conflict is a clash of opposing interests, views, positions in the psyche of an individual, in the relationship of people or their groups. Conflict interaction, if it takes place in creative forms, carries a constructive, productive beginning. Such conflict promotes progressive change.

Conflict is a predictable phenomenon, it can be regulated. Conflict interaction is different in that the confrontation of people in it serves as a link for them at the same time (the more dependent the relationship, the more they are fraught with conflict). Since people are in conflict, they are bound to have something in common.

By its very nature, conflict can be the bearer of creative and destructive tendencies, be good and evil at the same time.

Conflict functions:

stabilizing (relationships are strengthened, the norms and values ​​​​of joint life and activity are more clearly realized);

activating (interaction becomes more dynamic, which affects the pace of socio-economic development both in society and within a single organization);

signaling (factors of dissatisfaction with the existing state of affairs are revealed);

emotional response (open expression of their thoughts and feelings allows people to get emotional relief);

innovative (conflict is a means of promoting creative initiative);

preventive (timely conflict prevents destructive behavior).