1) cognitive psychology
2) gestalt psychology
3) behaviorism
4) domestic psychology

2. The main task of psychology is:

1) correction of social norms of behavior
2) study of the laws of mental activity
3) development of problems in the history of psychology
4) improvement of research methods

3. Mental processes include:

1) temperament
2) character
3) feeling
4) ability

4. One of the principles of domestic psychology is the principle:

1) taking into account the age characteristics of a person
2) unity of thinking and intuition
3) unity of consciousness and activity
4) learning

5. The specific characteristic of testing is:

1) individual approach in the selection of tasks
2) the depth of the results of the procedure
3) subjectivity of the obtained results
4) standardization of the procedure

6. The sign that characterizes the concept of "test" is:

1) validity
2) conformity
3) attractiveness
4) associativity

7. A person's observation of the inner plan of his own mental life is:

1) interaction
2) interference
3) introspection
4) intuition

8. A group of methods based on the projection phenomenon is called ... methods:

1) survey
2) test
3) projective
4) empirical

9. One of the reasons for changing the subject of psychology from consciousness to behavior was:

1) an increase in the number of marriages
2) urbanization and manufacturing boom
3) reducing the number of divorces
4) population explosion

10. The methods by which the subject of science is studied are called:

1) processes
2) goals
3) methods
4) goals

11. Psychology deals with the study of individual differences between people:

1) integral
2) integrative
3) personality
4) differential

12. The study of the psyche through communication is called:

1) conversation method
2) tests
3) observations
4) questionnaires

13. Psychology becomes an independent and experimental field of scientific knowledge:

1) in the XIX century.
2) in the XX century.
3) in the XVIII century.
4) in the XVI century.

14. The foundations of the reflex theory of the psyche were laid by the works:

1) R. Descartes, I.M. Sechenov
2) L.S. Vygotsky, S.L. Rubinstein
3) Aristotle, Hippocrates, Plato
4) Z. Freud, A. Maslow¸ K. Jung

15. The psychological direction, which believes that the subject of psychology is behavior as a set of body reactions to environmental stimuli, is:

1) psychoanalysis
2) humanistic psychology
3) psychology of consciousness
4) behaviorism

16. Psychological system for the analysis of mental life, proposed by Z. Freud:

1) humanistic psychology
2) depth psychology (psychoanalysis)
3) associative psychology
4) cognitive psychology

17. Domestic psychologist L.S. Vygotsky is the author of:

1) stratometric concept
2) cultural and historical concept of mental development
3) activity concept
4) the concept of the phased formation of mental actions

18. Actively engaged in the psychology of activity:

1) E. Kretschmer
2) Z. Freud
3) V.M. Bekhterev
4) A.N. Leontiev 1) R.S. Nemov
2) L.S. Vygotsky
3) A.V. Petrovsky
4) I.M. Sechenov

20. W. Wund is the first who created:

1) psycho-correction center
2) the concept of the unconscious
3) psychological laboratory
4) reflex theory

21. The founder of the direction of psychology, who considers unconscious drives and instincts to be the source of personality activity:

1) Z. Freud
2) K. Levin
3) J. Watson
4) I.M. Sechenov

22. A direction in psychology that denies consciousness and reduces the psyche to various forms of behavior is called:

1) psychoanalysis
2) gestalt psychology
3) structuralism
4) behaviorism

23. The content of the psyche, which under no circumstances can enter the sphere of consciousness, Z. Freud called:

1) repressed
2) unconscious
3) resistant
4) preconscious

24. What does the CNS include:

1) dorsal
2) Head

25. Structural and functional element of the nervous system is:

1) ganglion
2) neuron
3) synapse
4) axon

26. The perception of environmental signals is carried out by the nervous system with the help of:

1) detectors
2) receptors
3) analyzers
4) acceptors

27. The system of brain structures and sensory organs that provides perception, processing and storage of information is called:

1) neuron
2) impulse
3) analyzer
4) reflex

28. I.P. Pavlov, based on the degree of predominance of the second signaling system over the first, divided the higher nervous activity of a person into:

1) artistic type
2) synthetic
3) thinking type
4) analytical-synthetic

29. An increase in sensitivity as a result of the interaction of analyzers and exercises is called:

1) synesthesia
2) adaptation
3) the interaction of sensations
4) sensitization

30. The executive phase of the animal's behavior is different, first of all:

1) situational, lack of experience
2) non-directional activity
3) stereotypical
4) rigidity

31. Stages of the evolutionary development of the psyche - 1) perceptual; 2) elementary sensory; 3) intelligence - have the following order of their sequence:

1) 1,2,3
2) 2,1,3
3) 3,2,1
4) 2,3,1

32. The concept of "strength of the nervous system" means:

1) property nervous system, characterized by the predominance of excitation processes over inhibition processes
2) a property of the nervous system, characterized by the predominance of inhibition processes over excitation processes
3) a property of the nervous system that determines the performance of cortical cells, their endurance
4) a property of the nervous system that determines the speed at which one nervous process is replaced by another

33. A specific type of human activity is called:

1) activity
2) reflex
3) reaction
4) consciousness

34. Activity as a general characteristic of living things has received the name in human society:

1) reflex
2) reaction
3) consciousness
4) activity

35. Activities include:

1) the presence of a goal
2) the presence of the unconscious
3) the presence of claims
4) the presence of self-esteem

36. The psychological structure of activity does not include the concept of:

1) operation
2) action
3) act
4) motive

37. The method of performing an action, which has become automated as a result of exercises, is:

1) reception
2) skill
3) habit
4) skill

38. A research method based on the transition from particular judgments to a general conclusion is called:

1) registration
2) inductive
3) ranking
4) observation

39. The vision of the future desired outcome is:

1) purpose
2) symbol
3) icon
4) meaning

40. According to A.N. Leontiev, the human personality is something other than a hierarchy:

1) values
2) needs
3) motives
4) activities

41. Higher mental functions, according to L.S. Vygotsky:

1) unmediated
2) mediated
3) do not have a morphological basis
4) local

42. The ratio of the purpose of the action to the motive is determined by:

1) quasi-need
2) need
3) meaning
4) operation

43. The way to perform actions is called:

1) quasi-action
2) under the action
3) operation
4) activities

44. The author of the theory of the evolution of the psyche in phylogenesis adopted in Russian psychology is:

1) M.Ya. bass
2) L.I. Bozovic
3) A.N. Leontiev
4) P.F. Kapterev

45. According to A.N. Leontiev, there is no stage in the evolutionary development of the psyche:

1) perceptual psyche
2) mediated psyche
3) intelligence
4) elementary sensory psyche

46. ​​Protozoa are characterized by ... a nervous system.

1) tubular
2) reticulate
3) nodal
4) mixed

47. The emergence of the ability to perceive and learn by object is a sign of ... the stage of development of the psyche.

1) direct
2) mediated
3) perceptual
4) elementary sensory

48. The process of development of the psyche from irritability in protozoa to human consciousness is called:

1) anthropogenesis
2) ontogeny
3) phylogenesis
4) sociogenesis

49. Ontogeny includes the period of a person's life from birth to death, i.e. not only progressive, but also ... changes.

1) backward
2) degradation
3) evolutionary
4) regressive

50. The pace and nature of individual mental development:

1) uniquely original and do not depend on the social environment, communication, learning
2) uneven and due to the maturation of the body and changes in the social situation of development
3) with appropriate training and education, they can be accelerated indefinitely
4) are the same in time and content for all healthy individuals and are due to the growth of the brain and nervous system

51. The main condition for the development and formation of personality in domestic psychology is (are):

1) activity
2) punishment and prohibitions
3) organizational control
4) adequate self-esteem

52. The age from 0 to 2 years in the concept of J. Piaget corresponds to ... the stage of intellectual development:

1) sensory-motor
2) preoperative
3) concrete-operational
4) formal-operational

53. The fundamental difference between the human psyche and animals is:

1) the presence of consciousness and self-consciousness
2) using special signals for communication
3) intellectual activity
4) the use of objects of the surrounding world as a means to achieve the goal

54. The highest form of reflection, which is inherent in a person, is denoted by the concept:

1) "consciousness"
2) "soul"
3) "reaction"
4) "reflex"

55. Sensual tissue of consciousness contains:

1) values
2) meanings
3) images and representations
4) abstract reasoning

56. The concept of “consciousness” is disclosed by such definitions as:

1) the highest level of mental activity of a person as a social being
2) a form of reflection of objective reality in the human psyche
3) the highest level of mental reflection and self-regulation, inherent only to man
4) a set of mental processes, operations and states that are not realized by the subject
5) everything that does not become the subject of special actions for awareness

57. Consciousness happens:

1) religious
2) superficial
3) procedural
4) long-term

58. The manifestation of the unconscious does NOT include:

1) errors, reservations
2) forgetting
3) reflection
4) dream, dreams

59. Consciousness:

1) only humans have
2) there is in humans and animals
3) not in humans and animals
4) only animals have

60. One of the components of consciousness is:

1) instinct
2) installation
3) attraction
4) self-awareness

61. The initial source of all our knowledge about the outside world and our own body is:

1) need
2) thinking
3) feeling
4) imagination

62. Mental reflection in the cerebral cortex of individual properties, objects and phenomena that directly affect the senses is called:

1) perception
2) feeling
3) activities
4) reflex

63. Auditory and visual sensations are ... sensations.

1) tactile
2) distant
3) contact
4) interoceptive

64. The magnitude of the stimulus that allows a person to first feel the impact, and then realize it, is called:

1) contrast of sensations
2) adaptation
3) sensitivity threshold
4) upper threshold of sensitivity

65. Sensation is a mental process consisting of:

1) a holistic reflection of the objects of the surrounding world
2) a generalized reflection of objects and phenomena of the material world
3) reflection of individual properties of objects and phenomena of the material world
4) indirect reflection of individual properties of the physical world

66. The ability to sense is present:

1) in all living beings with a central nervous system
2) all living beings
3) only in humans
4) in all living beings with a nervous system

67. The minimum strength of the stimulus that causes a barely noticeable sensation is called the threshold:

1) lower absolute
2) top absolute
3) difference
4) differential

68. A holistic reflection of objects, situations and events that occurs with a direct impact on the senses is called:

1) feeling
2) thinking
3) imagination
4) perception

69. The profession of a teacher refers to the system:

1) man-technique
2) man-man
3) man-nature
4) man-sign system

70. The type of labor activity of a person, the subject of his permanent employment is called:

1) profession
2) creativity
3) specialization
4) skill

71. The group of general pedagogical skills includes skills such as:

1) constructive
2) organizational
3) communicative
4) motor

72. The dependence of perception on the content of a person’s mental life, on the characteristics of his personality is called:

1) imagination
2) attention
3) apperception
4) perception

73. The perception of a person by a person has a special name:

1) attraction
2) reflection
3) empathy
4) social perception

74. The relation of a visual image of perception to certain objects of the external world is called:

1) selectivity
2) objectivity
3) adequacy
4) meaningfulness

75. The illusory apparent movement of an actually motionless object is called:

1) Consistent image
2) phi-phenonema
3) dynamic effect
4) autokinetic effect

76. To perceive an object consciously means:

1) to perceive an object or phenomenon while being conscious, i.e. aware of the fact of his perception of this subject
2) attribute the perceived object to a specific group, class of objects, generalize it in a word
3) perceive the subject from the point of view of needs
4) calculate the possible consequences of the interaction of these objects

77. Perception is a mental process, the essence of which is:

1) reflection in the mind of a person of objects or a phenomenon in the aggregate of its properties
2) indirect reflection of individual properties of physical objects
3) reflection of individual properties of objects and phenomena of the material world
4) abstract reflection of objects and phenomena of the material world

78. According to the nature of the goals of activity, memory is divided into:

1) active and passive
2) figurative and logical
3) mechanical and dynamic
4) arbitrary and involuntary

79. The professional orientation of the teacher's personality includes:

1) professional intentions and inclinations
2) communication opportunities
3) teaching vocation
4) interest in the teaching profession

80. Memory processes do not include:

1) defrag
2) save
3) playback
4) memorization

81. The grounds for differentiation of specialties of the pedagogical profile are:

4) subject areas of knowledge

82. Memorization with a special mindset "to remember" and requiring certain volitional efforts is ... memory.

1) emotional
2) involuntary
3) arbitrary
4) figurative

83. Short-term memory is a type of memory that consists of:

1) memory for individual events
2) instant imprinting of information
3) operational retention and transformation of information for certain purposes of activity
4) retention of information in memory for a very short time

84. Education acts as a mechanism in relation to socialization:

1) acceleration
2) braking
3) identifications
4) suppression

85. Nonsense syllables as material for studying the "pure laws of memory" were proposed by:

1) G. Ebbinghaus
2) B.F. Zeigarnik
3) J. Watson
4) W. Neisser

86. Amnesia occurs: 1) with local lesions of the cerebral cortex; 2) as a consequence of traumatic events; 3) as a result of the influence of hypnosis.

1) 2
2) 1,2,3
3) 1,2
4) 1

87. In short-term memory at the same time is on average:

1) 7 elements
2) 11 elements
3) 5 elements
4) 9 elements

88. The mental process of a generalized and indirect reflection of reality is called:

1) memory
2) thinking
3) attention
4) perception

89. The forms of thinking include:

1) judgment
2) analysis
3) presentation
4) concept

90. Schools where children, of their own free will or at the behest of their parents, learn the basics of a particular creed are called:

1) communes
2) labor
3) Sunday
4) boarding school

91. The operations of thinking include:

1) agglutination
2) fantasy
3) analysis
4) generalization

92. Thinking, which is carried out with the help of logical operations with concepts, is called ... thinking.

1) verbal-logical
2) visual-effective
3) visual-figurative
4) autistic

93. Every act of thinking includes imagination, thanks to which it becomes possible:

1) abstraction
2) concentration of consciousness
3) extrapolation and interpolation
4) selectivity and orientation of consciousness

94. The appearance of ... situations becomes the motive, the beginning of the movement of thinking:

1) perfect
2) problematic
3) real
4) stressful

95. Intelligence means:

1) the system of all cognitive abilities
2) focus and concentration of consciousness on a particular subject
3) general ability to learn and solve problematic problems, ensuring the success of any activity
4) vocabulary

96. Association is a connection between mental phenomena on the basis of: 1) similarities; 2) contrast; 3) space-time relations; 4) causal relationships.

1) 1,2,3,4
2) 1,2
3) 1,2,3
4) 3,4

98. The mental process of creating images, including the prediction of the final result of objective activity, is called:

1) meditation
2) feeling
3) imagination
4) abstraction

99. The property of consciousness that allows a person to create new images in the process of thinking based on past perception and cognition is:

1) feeling
2) imagination
3) intelligence
4) memory

100. Active imagination can be:

1) creative and creative
2) visual-figurative
3) recreative and creative
4) visual and auditory

101. The construction of an image of a situation on the basis of a story is realized with ... imagination.

1) anticipatory
2) reproductive
3) productive
4) anticipating

102. The method of creating images of the imagination by highlighting any part, detail of the whole, is called:

1) typing
2) accent
3) dream
4) schematization

103. When mastering such subjects as physics, chemistry, astronomy, the realization of ... the function of imagination is of great importance.

1) regulatory
2) educational
3) cognitive
4) emotional

104. The following can be distinguished as types of imagination:

1) ideas, plans, thoughts
2) dreams, dreams, fantasy
3) typification, schematization, agglutination
4) creativity, insight

105. Typification as a mechanism of imagination is:

1) highlighting the essential, repeating in homogeneous images
2) separate merging ideas, in which differences are smoothed out, and similarities stand out clearly
3) an increase or decrease in an object, as well as a change in its individual parts
4) "bonding" of various Everyday life incompatible qualities

106. Emphasis in the imagination is:

1) a combination of individual elements of various images of objects in new, more or less unusual combinations
2) creation of new images based on "gluing" representations
3) an increase or decrease in an object, as well as a change in its individual parts
4) emphasizing certain features

107. Attention is associated with:

1) reconstruction of the image of reality
2) likening yourself to others
3) focusing on the object of the greatest analytical and synthetic efforts
4) selection of objects essential for the activity

108. The annotation plan consists of:

1) a concise statement of the position of the author of the source
2) conclusions
3) source content analysis
4) output data source

109. The following forms of manifestation of attention are distinguished - these are:

1) sensitive
2) interactive
3) sensory (visual, auditory, gustatory, etc.)
4) intelligent

110. The level of education and readiness to perform a certain type of activity in the received area of ​​training or specialty is called:

1) specialty
2) profession
3) qualification
4) competitiveness

111. The ability of a person to keep in the center of attention a certain number of heterogeneous objects at the same time is called ... attention.

1) resistant
2) distribution
3) concentration
4) mobility

112. The property of attention, which is associated with the possibility of the simultaneous successful completion of two or more different types of activities, is called:

1) switching
2) skill
3) distribution
4) abilities

113. The simplest and initial form of involuntary attention is:

1) unconditioned reflex
2) conditioned reflex
3) orienting reflex
4) motor reflex

114. The property of attention, manifested in the speed of its transfer from one object to another, is:

1) stability
2) switchability
3) concentration
4) distribution

115. The term "personality" in psychology is defined as:

1) a strong, strong-willed person who has achieved public recognition
2) a person who has reached a high level of maturity
3) a mentally healthy person engaged in socially useful activities
4) social quality acquired by an individual in objective activity and communication

116. The systemic social quality acquired by an individual in activity and communication is denoted by the concept:

1) personality
2) temperament
3) makings
4) motivation

117. A holistic psychological structure that is formed in the process of a person's life on the basis of his assimilation of social norms of consciousness and behavior is:

1) individuality
2) individual
3) personality
4) "I-concept" of personality

118. A person as a subject of activity is characterized by:

1) activity
2) interhemispheric asymmetry
3) gender, age
4) constitution

119. A person as an individual is characterized by:

1) sense of duty
2) creativity
3) tolerance
4) average height

120. The peculiarity of the psyche and personality of the individual, its uniqueness, originality, manifested in the properties of temperament, character traits, emotional and intellectual spheres, needs and abilities, is called:

1) human
2) personality
3) individuality
4) subject of activity

121. Of the following: 1) individuality of a person; 2) representation of the personality in the system of interpersonal relations; 3) anatomical and physiological features; 4) imprinting the personality in other people - the personality structure includes:

1) 3,4
2) 2,4
3) 1,2,4
4) 1,3

122. The cognitive component of the image of "I" is:

1) what a person would have to become in order to meet their own internal criteria for success
2) assessment by the individual of himself, his capabilities, qualities and place among other people
3) self-respect, self-criticism, selfishness, etc.
4) idea of ​​their abilities, appearance, social significance, etc.

123. Extreme variants of the norm of character are called:

1) psychopathy
2) pathologies
3) accentuations
4) neuroses

124. Emotions are most closely related to (with):

1) abilities
2) imagination
3) motives
4) memories

125. The state of a person caused by insurmountable difficulties that arise on the way to achieving a goal is defined as:

1) euphoria
2) sadness
3) passion
4) frustration

126. A special form of experience that arises in an extreme life situation that requires a person to mobilize neuropsychological forces is called:

1) passion
2) surprise
3) affect
4) stress

127. Humanism, responsiveness, justice, dignity, shame are manifestations of ... feelings.

1) ethical
2) practical
3) intelligent
4) aesthetic

128. The ability to empathize with another person is called:

1) sympathy
2) sincerity
3) rationality
4) empathy

129. The function of the will is:

1) personal development
2) regulation of behavior and activities
3) psychotherapeutic
4) knowledge of the surrounding reality

130. A secondary volitional quality, which consists in the ability to control the sensual side of one's psyche and subordinate one's behavior to the solution of consciously set tasks, is:

1) self-control
2) courage
3) responsibility
4) decisiveness

131. Volitional action is not characterized by:

1) overcoming subjective obstacles
2) the presence of a well-thought-out plan for the implementation of a behavioral act
3) the application of conscious effort
4) direct pleasure received in the process of its execution

132. A stable long-term emotional state with great strength of feelings is:

1) frustration
2) mood
3) stress
4) passion

133. The totality of stable individual characteristics is:

1) character
2) temperament
3) quality
4) ability

134. The main forms of personality orientation (according to K.K. Platonov) do not include:

1) beliefs
2) inclinations
3) interests
4) frustration

135. Individually unique properties of the psyche that determine the dynamics of a person's mental activity are called:

1) abilities
2) temperament
3) feelings
4) character

136. The totality of individual characteristics that characterize the dynamic and emotional aspects of a person's behavior, his activities and communication is:

1) temperament
2) impressionability
3) rigidity
4) activity

137. Temperament, being ..., is the basis of most personality traits.

1) social
2) congenital
3) changeable
4) acquired

138. The scientist who developed the physiological basis of the doctrine of the types of temperament is:

1) Confucius
2) Ibn Sina
3) I.P. Pavlov
4) F. Gall

139. The character of a person is manifested in:

1) introversion, extraversion, anxiety, impulsivity
2) his attitude towards himself, people, activities, things
3) excessive severity of individual personality traits, bordering on psychopathy
4) plasticity, rigidity, reactivity, tempo of mental reactions

140. A description of the system of features that characterize a particular profession, a list of norms and requirements for an employee is called:

1) job description
2) state educational standard
3) technology
4) professiogram

141. Professional readiness for pedagogical activity is divided into ... readiness.

1) cultural
2) practical
3) socio-economic
4) scientific and theoretical

142. Congenital anatomical and physiological features that make up the natural basis for the development of human abilities are called:

1) accentuations
2) makings
3) habits
4) skills

143. The doctrine of the types of higher nervous activity belongs to:

1) I.P. Pavlov
2) K. Jung
3) G. Eysenck
4) K. Leonhard

144. The physiological feature of temperament is:

1) type of higher nervous activity
2) reflex arc
3) reflex
4) analyzer

145. A multifaceted process of developing contacts between people, generated by the needs of joint activities, is called:

1) communication
2) affection
3) society
4) relationships

146. The actual pedagogical research methods include:

1) summarizing
2) analysis of products of activity
3) observation
4) sociometry

147. The process of perception and cognition of each other by communication partners and the establishment of mutual understanding on this basis is the content of ... side of communication.

1) interactive
2) affective
3) integrative
4) perceptual

148. The perception of a person by a person has a special name:

1) reflection
2) attraction
3) social perception
4) empathy

149. Attracting the attention of listeners to the material being presented with the help of a rhetorical question refers to ... method.

1) non-verbal
2) verbal
3) motion-sign
4) mixed

150. Non-verbal communication is the process of communication through:

1) language
2) letters
3) distance
4) facial expressions and gestures

151. The initial conceptual scheme, the leading idea, the model for setting and solving problems, which prevails over a certain period, is:

1) law
2) concept
3) paradigm
4) doctrine

152. The development of pedagogy is due to:

1) the progress of science and technology
2) parents' concern for the happiness of children
3) the objective need to prepare a person for life and work
4) increasing the role of education in public life

153. A holistic model of the educational process that systematically determines the structure and content of the activities of both sides of this process (teacher and student), with the goal of achieving the planned results, adjusted for the individual characteristics of its participants, is:

1) technology
2) plan
3) educational technology
4) project

154. The taxonomy of learning goals according to B. Bloom includes:

1) knowledge and awareness
2) understanding and application
3) assessment and self-assessment
4) knowledge, understanding, application, analysis, synthesis, evaluation

155. The theory and practice of cognition, regulation and implementation by educational environments of the process of socialization or resocialization of a person, the result of which is the acquisition by an individual of an orientation and a standard of behavior (beliefs, values, corresponding feelings and actions) is:

1) correctional pedagogy
2) social pedagogy
3) pedagogy
4) ethnopedagogy

156. The method of education is:

1) a set of means of educational influence
2) a set of homogeneous methods of educational influence
3) the way to achieve the goal of education
4) an option for organizing an educational event

157. Class hour is:

1) form of education
2) method of education
3) means of education
4) training session

158. What educational institutions in Russia do not train teaching staff?

1) pedagogical colleges
2) pedagogical universities
3) GOU DPO
4) MOU SOSH

159. Deviations in development caused by unfavorable forms of family education and not associated with disorders of the analyzer systems or the central nervous system can lead to:

1) socio-pedagogical neglect
2) mental retardation
3) underdevelopment of intelligence
4) somatic weakness

160. A complex of personality traits that ensures a high level of self-organization of professional activity is:

1) professional skill
2) pedagogical abilities
3) professional development
4) professional competence

161. Paradigm is:

1) the doctrine of scientific method knowledge
2) the original conceptual scheme, the leading idea, the model for posing and solving the problem
3) the doctrine of the principles, methods, forms, procedures for cognition and transformation of pedagogical reality
4) a collective concept that summarizes all the methods used, their tools, procedures and techniques

162. Highlight the objectives of the lesson, focused on the development of the information culture of students:

1) Promote the development of children's communication skills
2) to ensure the development of schoolchildren's ability to highlight the key moments of their own or someone else's activities as a whole
3) create conditions for the development of schoolchildren's ability to structure information
4) to provide schoolchildren with the development of skills to draw up simple and complex plans

163. In the list below, classify organizational forms of education by the number of students (according to I.M. Cheredov):

1) frontal
2) group
3) individual
4) self

164. The methods of formation of knowledge include:

1) story
2) dispute
3) example
4) competition

165. Modern approaches in the theory and practice of education:

1) systemic
2) synergistic
3) activity
4) personality-oriented

166. The principles of education are:

1) methods of work on the organization of the learning process
2) theses of the theory and practice of teaching and education, reflecting the key points in the disclosure of processes, phenomena, events
3) the main provisions of the theory of learning
4) means of folk pedagogy and the modern pedagogical process

167. Pedagogical process:

1) ruler
2) whole
3) esoteric
4) asocial

168. Learning objectives:

4) internal and external

169.Education should be of ... character.

1) creative, personal
2) cyclo-flow
3) customized
4) polysubjective

170.Education is:

1) the result of the upbringing process
2) the result of the processes of socialization and adaptation
3) the mechanism of the socio-cultural environment for familiarization with universal values
4) the result of obtaining a system of knowledge, skills and rational ways of mental actions

171.Modern models of organization of training include:

1) only models of forms of organization of learning
2) models of systems of principles, systems of methods, forms, types of organization of training
3) models of forms and methods of organizing training
4) models of types and forms of organization of training

172. The principles of education were first formulated by:

1) Pestalozzi I.G.
2) Comenius Ya.A.
3) Montaigne M.
4) Ushinsky K.D.

173. Didactics is:

1) the science of training and education, their goals, content, methods, means, organization, results achieved
2) art "children's skill"
3) the ordered activity of the teacher to achieve the goal of learning
4) a system of ZUN acquired in the learning process and ways of thinking

174. Training is:

1) streamlining the didactic process according to certain criteria, giving it required form in order to best achieve the goal
2) the science of getting an education
3) orderly interaction of the teacher with students, aimed at achieving the goal
4) the category of philosophy, psychology and pedagogy

175. The form of organization of training is:

1) how the learning process is organized
2) where the learning process is organized
3) why the learning process is organized
4) for whom the learning process is organized

176. Duration of a standard lesson:

1) 40–45 minutes
2) 30 minutes
3) 90 minutes
4) 60 minutes

177. Teaching and learning are:

1) categories of training
2) teaching methods
B. forms of education
G. teaching aids

178. Pedagogical technologies are divided into:

1) general subject, subject and modular
2) general subject, subject, modular and particular methodological
3) general subject and subject
4) subject and modular

179. Education is:

1) the way to achieve the goal and objectives of training
2) a system of ZUN acquired in the learning process and ways of thinking
3) what the learning process comes to, the end results of the learning process

180. The purpose of training is divided into components - tasks, which are divided into:

1) educational, educational and developmental
2) correctional, organizational and general didactic
3) organizational-methodical and epistemological-semantic
4) internal and external

181. Which of the lessons is not a lesson in the control of knowledge of skills and abilities?

1) computer
2) suggestive
3) essay
4) laboratory work

182. Teaching aids may be:

1) material (technical, informational) and ideal
2) ideal and real
3) material and ideological
4) technical and aesthetic

183. Pedagogical technology is:

1) a set of operations for the design, formation and control of knowledge, skills and attitudes in accordance with the goals
2) tools for achieving the learning goal
3) a set of provisions that reveal the content of any theory, concept or category in the system of science
4) the stability of the results obtained during repeated control, as well as close results when it is carried out by different teachers

184. Teaching methods are:

1) ways of joint activity of the teacher and students aimed at solving learning problems
2) monologue form of presentation, designed to relay the system of social experience
3) a means of self-learning and mutual learning
4) ways of cognition of objective reality in the conditions of multidimensional consideration of epistemological mechanisms and cognitive activity of students

185. Pedagogical technologies according to the leading development factor are divided into:

1) biogenic and sociogenic
2) biogenic, sociogenic, psychogenic
3) suggestive, neurolinguistic
4) secular and religious

186. The educational process is determined by the categories:

1) training and education
2) a set of categories of pedagogical science
3) a set of categories of didactics
4) a set of categories of psychological and pedagogical anthropology

187. ... learning is a kind of learning based on an algorithm in its original sense.

1) Software
2) Programmed
3) Computer
4) Modular

188. What concept (term) is not a concept of learning theory?

1) ways of mental activity
2) the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions
3) quality of education
4) training

189. The principles of education are:

1) pedagogical conditions for cooperation, co-creation
2) mechanisms for the implementation of student-centered learning
3) the main provisions of any theory or concept
4) the main provisions that determine the content, organizational forms and methods of the educational process in accordance with common goals and patterns

190. In Russia, for the first time formulated (a) the principles of education:

1) Krupskaya N.K.
2) Ushinsky K.D.
3) Babansky Yu.K.
4) Makarenko A.S.

191. Learning as a co-creation of a teacher and a student was considered:

1) Comenius Ya.A.
2) Shatalov V.F.
3) Bolnov O.
4) Krupskaya N.K.

192. A creative lesson and a non-standard lesson are the concepts:

1) identical
2) symmetrical
3) having a common basis (intersecting)
4) similar

193. What does not apply to written control?

1) test
2) message
3) essay
4) presentation

194. Control methods do not include:

1) oral control
2) written control
3) mutual evaluation
4) computer control

195. Learning functions and learning objectives can be divided into:

1) internal and external
2) correctional, organizational and general didactic
3) organizational-methodical and epistemological-semantic
4) educational, educational and developmental

196. Training has the following categories:

1) teaching and learning
2) teaching and education
3) teaching and learning
4) socialization and adaptation

197. Institutions of secondary vocational education do not include:

1) technical schools
2) lyceums
3) schools
4) colleges

198. Education is:

1) the ordered activity of the teacher to achieve the goal of learning
2) subject support of the educational process
3) a system of knowledge, skills and abilities acquired in the learning process
4) the way the teacher and students cooperate

199. A learning tool is:

1) a set of ideal and material objects that allow solving the goals and objectives set in the learning process
2) techniques and methods for obtaining, generalizing and systematizing knowledge
3) a set of pedagogical tools for solving cognitive problems
4) all objects of the material world that are used to organize classes

200. Pedagogical technology is:

1) a form of mental activity of the individual, aimed at understanding and transforming the world and the person himself
2) a set of means and methods for reproducing theoretically substantiated training and education processes that make it possible to successfully achieve the set goals
3) active interaction with the surrounding reality, during which Living being acts as a subject that purposefully influences an object and thus satisfies its needs
4) a practical method for achieving moral self-improvement through the regulation by a person of his bodily needs

201. Pedagogical technologies on a philosophical basis can be:

1) authoritarian and democratic
2) materialistic, idealistic and dualistic
3) reproductive and developmental
4) classroom and alternative

202. What concept (term) is not a concept of learning theory?

1) knowledge
2) skills
3) skills
4) motivation

203. The following types of education are distinguished:

1) incomplete secondary, secondary, incomplete higher, higher
2) daytime, part-time, evening, remote
3) incomplete secondary, secondary, incomplete secondary vocational, secondary vocational, incomplete higher, higher, academic
4) incomplete secondary, secondary, incomplete secondary vocational, secondary vocational, incomplete higher professional, higher professional

204. ... is a process in which ready-made knowledge is presented to students, followed by a process of consolidation, generalization, systematization and control.

1) Suggestive learning
2) Problem based learning
3) Reproductive learning
4) Level training

205. The pedagogical process reveals the features of teaching:

1) lined
2) concentrates
3) stepwise
4) systemically

206. Definition of the concept of "education":

1) the concept of learning theory
2) the category of not only didactics, but also the system of pedagogical science as a whole
3) the result of development and adaptation
4) the mechanism of socialization and education

207. The system of higher pedagogical education includes the following blocks:

1) general cultural block, psychological and pedagogical block, subject block.
2) general cultural block and subject block.
3) philosophical, psychological and pedagogical, general cultural blocks
4) undergraduate and graduate programs.

208. Teaching methods are:

1) a means of controlling the cognitive activity of students and pupils, an element of culture and morality
2) ways, methods of creating favorable conditions for the organization of the educational, educational process
3) mechanisms of socialization and education
4) the category of psychological and pedagogical sciences, which ensures continuity in obtaining education.

209. Control is:

1) checking the results of self-learning
2) it is a teacher-student feedback in the teaching-learning process, which provides an analysis of the assimilation of knowledge, skills, and stimulating the activity of both parties (both the teacher and the student) to optimize all parts of the educational process
3) a system of assessment and assessment activities aimed at forming an adequate idea of ​​the objectively occurring processes in the social continuum
4) a mechanism for testing knowledge, skills, abilities of students

210. Higher education institutions are:

1) colleges, institutes, universities
2) colleges, institutes, universities, academies
3) institutes, universities, academies
4) lyceums, colleges, institutes, universities, academies

211. New information training tools do not include:

1) computer
2) overhead projector
3) printer
4) modem

212. The system of principles of developmental education was first proposed by:

1) Vygotsky L.S.
2) Ivanov I.P.
3) Yakimanskaya I.S.
4) Zankov L.S.

213. Training is:

1) a system of ZUN acquired in the learning process and ways of thinking
2) what the learning process comes to, the end results of the learning process
3) the way to achieve the goal and objectives of training
4) orderly interaction of the teacher with students, aimed at achieving the goal

214. “Brainring” lessons are based on ... training.

1) problematic
2) productive
3) gaming
4) modular

215. Teaching methods in Greek means:

1) learning mechanisms
2) means of achieving the goal of learning
3) ways, ways to achieve the goal of learning
4) learning techniques

216. The form of organization of education in secondary school is:

1) occupation
2) lesson
3) Classroom hour
4) an hour of communication

217. A non-standard lesson differs from a standard one:

1) duration
2) shape
3) purpose
4) developed model

218. Institutions of secondary education do not include:

1) evening shift school
2) lyceum
3) gymnasium
4) university

219. Teaching and learning processes should be:

1) interconnected
2) mutually exclusive
3) discretely built
4) continuous and polymorphic

220. Training in the education system can be:

1) secondary, secondary vocational, higher vocational
2) full-time daytime, full-time evening, correspondence
3) self-learning and mutual learning
4) state and additional

221. What concept is not a concept of learning theory?

1) knowledge
2) skills
3) skills
4) good manners

222. The principles of education are:

1) ways of joint activity of the teacher and students aimed at achieving their goals, the process of pedagogical interaction
2) guidance for managing the process of psychological and pedagogical interaction
3) guiding ideas, regulatory requirements for the organization and implementation of the educational process
4) conditions for successful social interaction of various subjects of the socio-educational space

223. Learning as a co-creation of a teacher (S1) and a student (S2) is characterized by the following model:

1) S1<=>S2
2) S1< S2
3) S1 > S2
4) S1= S2

224. What does not apply to the lessons:

1) workshops
2) laboratory work
3) homework
4) independent work

225. Pedagogical technology is:

1) conditions for optimizing the educational process
2) the project of a specific pedagogical system, implemented in practice
3) the main position of the theory of learning
4) the result of the interaction between the teacher and the student

226. Recognition of the self-worth of the individual, the realization of internal and external freedom is the principle:

1) humanism
2) continuity
3) democratization
4) integrity

227. The group of organizational and structural pedagogical functions includes ... function.

1) information
2) gnostic
3) constructive
4) mobilizing

228. Pedagogical creativity is not:

1) introduction of qualitatively new elements into the educational process
2) anticipation of desired and prevention of undesirable results in personality development
3) the art of educating the younger generation
4) solving educational problems in changing circumstances

229. The grounds for differentiation of pedagogical specialties are:

1) types of pedagogical activity
2) age periods of child development
3) psychophysical and social factors in the development of the child's personality
4) subject areas of knowledge

230. The main methods of speed taking notes are:

1) hyperabbreviation
2) hieroglyphics
3) exclusion of words
4) rubrication

231. Knowledge of the provisions of pedagogical theory, the ability to analyze one's own scientific activity are part of:

1) the basic culture of the individual
2) methodological culture of the teacher
3) pedagogical culture
4) personality culture

232. The teaching profession refers to ... a type of professional activity.

1) artonomic
2) bionomic
3) technical
4) socionomic

233. There are such types of plans as:

1) artistic
2) blueprint
3) complex
4) combined

234. Career guidance is a system of such interrelated components as:

1) professional diagnostics
2) self-education
3) professional education
4) professional selection

235. If a teacher adapts his communication to the characteristics of the audience, then his activity can be attributed to ... level.

1) adaptive
2) locally modeling
3) productive
4) creative

236. A form of vocational guidance that provides assistance to students in choosing a profession is called:

1) interview
2) consultation
3) education
4) diagnostics

237. In accordance with the requirements of the State Educational Standard for Higher Professional Education, such types of pedagogical activity are distinguished as:

1) analytical and diagnostic
2) educational
3) socio-pedagogical
4) scientific and methodological

238. There are such types of theses as:

1) deep
2) complex
3) theses-citations
4) simple

Personality in psychology, a systemic social quality is denoted, acquired by an individual in objective activity and communication and characterizing the level and quality of representation of social relations in an individual.

What is a personality as a special social quality of an individual? First of all, if we recognize that personality is the quality of an individual, then we thereby affirm the unity of the individual and personality and at the same time deny the identity of these concepts (for example, photosensitivity is the quality of photographic film, but one cannot say that photographic film is photosensitivity or that light sensitivity is photographic film). The identity of the concepts of "personality" and "individual" is denied by all leading Soviet psychologists - B. G. Ananiev, A. N. Leontiev, B. F. Lomov, S. L. Rubinstein etc. “Personality – individual; this is a special quality that an individual acquires in society, in the totality of relations, social in nature, in which the individual is involved, the essence of the personality in the “ether” (Marx) of these relations ... personality is a systemic and therefore “supersensory” quality, although the carrier this quality is a completely sensual, bodily individual with all his innate and acquired properties.

Thus, a person needs a special characteristic that could describe this social quality, the bearer of which is an individual. And first of all, it is necessary to clarify why a person can be said to be a “supersensory” quality of an individual (“systemic and therefore “supersensory”). It is obvious that the individual has completely sensual (i.e., accessible to perception with the help of the senses) properties: corporality, individual characteristics of behavior, speech, facial expressions, etc. How, then, are qualities found in a person that cannot be seen in their direct sensory form? To embody the system of social relations means to be their subject. The child, included in relationships with adults, initially acts as an object of their activity, but, mastering the composition of the activity that they offer him as leading for his development, for example, learning, becomes in turn the subject of these relationships.

Social relations are not something external to their subject, they act as a part, a side, an aspect of personality as a social quality of an individual.

If the generic essence of a person, unlike all other living beings, is the totality of all social relations, then the essence of each specific person, i.e., the abstract inherent in an individual as a person, is a totality of specific social connections and relationships. in which he is included as a subject. They, these connections and relations, are outside of him, i.e., in social being, and therefore impersonal, objective (the slave is completely dependent on the slave owner), and at the same time they are inside, in himself as a person and therefore subjective (he hates the slave owner, subjugates or rebels against him, treats him in general, enters into socially conditioned relations with him).

The assertion of the unity, but not the identity of the concepts “individual” and “personality” suggests the need to answer a possible question: can the fact of the existence of an individual who would not be a personality, or a personality that would exist outside and without an individual as its specific carrier, be indicated? ? Hypothetically it could be both. If we imagine an individual who grew up outside of human society, then, when he encounters people for the first time, he will not find, in addition to the individual characteristics inherent in a biological individual, any personal qualities, the origin of which, as was said, is always of a socio-historical nature, but has only natural prerequisites for their appearance in the event that the surrounding people manage to “draw” him into joint activities and communication. The experience of studying children raised by animals testifies to the exceptional complexity of this task. Before us will be an individual who has not yet taken place as a person. It is permissible, with certain reservations, to recognize the possibility of the emergence of a personality, behind which there is no real individual. However, this will quasi-personality.

Such, for example, is Kozma Prutkov, created as a result of the co-creation of A. K. Tolstoy and the Zhemchuzhnikov brothers. The hero of the novel by E. Voynich "The Gadfly", behind which there was no real individual, nevertheless had a huge impact on society.

Appeal to the situation “an individual without a personality” or “a personality without an individual” is like a thought experiment, useful for understanding the problem of unity and non-identity of personality and individual.

As follows from the fact of non-coincidence, non-identity of the concepts “individual” and “personality”, the latter can be understood only in a system of stable interpersonal relationships that are mediated by the content, values, and meaning of joint activity for each of the participants. These interpersonal connections are real, but by nature they are "supersensual". They are manifested in specific individual properties and actions of people who are part of the collective, but they are not reducible to them. They form a special quality of the group activity itself, which mediates these personal manifestations that determine the special position of each individual in the system of interindividual relations and, more broadly, in the system of social relations.

Interpersonal connections that form a personality in a team externally appear in the form of communication, or subject - subjective relationship, existing alongside subject - object relation, characteristic of subject activity. However, the moment, the fact of mediation, remains the central link not only for objective activity, but also for communication. On closer examination, it turns out that the direct subject - subjective relations exist not so much on their own, but in the mediation of some objects (material or ideal). This means that the relation of an individual to another individual is mediated by the object of activity (subject - object - subject).

In turn, what outwardly looks like a direct act of the objective activity of the individual is in fact an act of mediation, and the mediating link for the individual is no longer the object of activity, not its objective meaning, but the personality of another person as an accomplice in the activity, acting as if refractive device through which he can better perceive, understand, feel the object of activity. In order to solve an exciting issue, I turn to another person.

All of the above allows you to understand personality as a subject of a relatively stable system of interindividual (subject - object - subjective and subject - subject - object) relations, formed in activity and communication.

The personality of each person is endowed only with its inherent combination of features and characteristics that form its individuality. individuality - it is a combination of the psychological characteristics of a person that make up his originality, his difference from other people. Individuality is manifested in the traits of temperament, character, habits, prevailing interests, in the qualities of cognitive processes (perception, memory, thinking, imagination), in abilities, individual style of activity, etc. There are no two people with the same combination of these psychological characteristics - human personality unique in its individuality.

Just as the concepts "individual" and "personality" are not identical, personality and individuality, in turn, form a unity, but not an identity. The ability to add and multiply large numbers very quickly “in the mind”, dexterity and determination, thoughtfulness, the habit of biting nails, laughter and other features of a person act as traits of his personality, but do not necessarily enter into the characterization of his personality, if only because they can be and not be represented in the forms of activity and communication that are essential for the group in which the individual possessing these traits is included. If personality traits are not represented in the system of interpersonal relations, then they turn out to be insignificant for assessing the individual's personality and do not receive conditions for development. Only those individual qualities appear as proper personal qualities which to the greatest extent “drawn” into the leading activity for this social community. So, for example, dexterity and determination, being personality traits of a teenager, did not act for the time being as a characteristic of his personality, until he was included in a sports team that claimed the championship of the region, or until he took on the provision of crossing a fast and cold river. The individual features of a person remain “silent” until a certain time, until they become necessary in the system of interpersonal relations, the subject of which will be this person as a person.

So, individuality is only one of the aspects of a person's personality.

That is why it is necessary to highlight the important task for the teacher to implement individual approach to the student, which involves taking into account his differential psychological characteristics (memory, attention, type of temperament, development of certain abilities, etc.), i.e., finding out how this student differs from his peers and how in connection with this should build educational work. However, it must be understood that the individual approach is just an aspect of a more general, personal approach to a schoolchild, which is based on the study of the conditions and circumstances of the inclusion of a teenager or young man in the system of interindividual relations with adults, teachers and parents, with peers of both sexes, fellow students and fellow students, friends on the street, etc. Only with well-established pedagogical communication between students and the teacher, the latter it is possible to find out how this boy or this girl “fits” into the classroom team, what place they occupy in the hierarchy of interindividual relations, what prompts them to act one way or another, what changes the student’s personality undergoes, integrated in the team or not able to adapt to it at all. Under these conditions, a personal approach to the student as the subject of his system of relations is realized. Only such an approach, which is not limited to taking into account the individual characteristics of thinking, will, memory, feelings of the student, but aimed at identifying how the individual is represented in the group And how the collective is represented in its personality, can be considered as personal, corresponding to the Marxist understanding of human essence as a representation in the personality of a system of social ties. Most favorable conditions for the implementation of a personal approach creates a collective educational activity, as well as participation in work in student production teams.

If the individual approach in pedagogy and psychology turns out to be divorced from the personal approach, then it leads to the “collection” of the child’s personality traits, without a proper understanding of what conclusions can be drawn on the basis of compiling such a “collection”. A. S. Makarenko, who knew how to masterfully use the personal approach in education, wrote: these values, no one knows.”

The personality of the student, included in the system of its actual relations, must remain constantly in the eye of the teacher, whose task is always to enrich the spiritual world of students. “... The actual spiritual wealth of an individual depends entirely on the wealth of his actual relationships...”

The fact that the concepts of "personality" and "individuality", with all their unity, do not coincide, does not allow us to present the structure of personality only as a certain configuration of individual psychological properties and qualities of a person. For non-Marxist areas of Western psychological science, where the concepts of “personality” and “individuality” (as well as the concepts of “individual” and “personality”) are identical and personality is not considered as a subject of a system of relations that are public in nature, as a systemic social quality of an individual, a structure (i.e., structure, organization) personality and individuality are completely the same. From the point of view of these psychological schools and directions, it is enough to characterize the structure of individuality - and thus the personality of a person will be fully covered and described. Thus, psychologists use special personality questionnaires(a kind of questionnaire, including questions in which the subject is asked to evaluate himself, his individual personal qualities). Analyzing the content of these answers and mathematically processing the results of the survey, the researcher obtains a numerical value for the severity of any trait (type) on the scale corresponding to this trait;

With this approach, a certain set of scales supposedly sets the structure of the personality. However, it can be assumed that, at best, using these methods, one can describe the individuality of a person, but by no means the entire personality in the “totality” of social relations in which a person is involved.

Indeed, if we take into account that a person always acts as the subject of his “real relations” with a specific social environment, then these “real relations” and connections that develop in the activities and communication of specific social groups and collectives must necessarily enter into the structure of the personality. Questionnaires, on the other hand, are focused on a person's assessment of himself in an amorphous social environment, in an abstract “environment in general”. This side - the real interindividual relations of the personality - questionnaires cannot reflect and detect. As already mentioned, claiming to characterize the general structure of the personality, the questionnaires are actually limited to attempts to describe individuality, to find the principle of organizing personality traits around some of its core features. (factors). Metaphorically speaking, an extensive “collection” of individual psychological traits is placed in several “showcases” that are supplied with labels (“schizothymia - cyclothymia”, “introversion - extroversion”, “emotionality - balance”, etc.).

So, in psychology, numerous personality traits have been identified - conformity, aggressiveness, level of claims, anxiety, etc., which together describe the originality of the individual. These psychological phenomena are essentially correlative, explicitly or implicitly, a certain social environment is assumed, in relation to which a person does not show conformity, aggressiveness, anxiety, etc. But if the individual characteristics of people appear in these studies as flexible, changeable, diverse - meaningful, then the social environment is presented as unchanging, amorphous, empty of content, “environment in general”. This mechanistic interpretation of the social environment, which has become traditional, in terms of the “personality-environment” relationship, interprets the environment either as a point of application of forces for an active personality, or as a force of group pressure on a person. The idea of ​​the active nature of the interaction of the individual and his social environment in Western science was not included either in the fabric of theoretical structures of the psychology of the individual, or in the psychological methods of studying the individual.

However, the approach to the social environment as an “environment in general” gave rise to a theoretical idea of ​​the personality in general, regardless of the system of socially determined relationships in which it exists, acts and develops. Virtually all personality questionnaires adopted by traditional Western personality psychology are oriented towards this amorphous social environment.

Meanwhile, in the conditions of a particular social group, individual psychological qualities exist in the form of personality manifestations, which by no means always coincide with them. The individuality of a person is significantly transformed in the conditions of joint objective activity and communication, characteristic of a given level of development of the group. The individual-psychological under these conditions changes as a personal, as a side of interpersonal relations. This hypothesis has now been tested and confirmed in a number of specific works.

So, the task of one study was to test the above hypothesis in relation to suggestibility (conformity) as a property of a person, as well as to the opposite phenomenon - self-determination as a phenomenon of interpersonal relations in a group. The hypothesis was concretized in the following experimental procedure. A number of really existing groups forms a hierarchy of levels of group development - from a diffuse group to a genuine collective. About a third of the subjects in each group, regardless of the level of its development, according to the experiment, showed a tendency to conformity in an insignificant situation. The same is evidenced by the data of personality questionnaires. The question was how these subjects would behave under the conditions of an experiment to identify the phenomenon of collectivist self-determination in groups of different levels of development. Experimental data confirmed that individuals belonging to a group of a higher level of development, in relation to which, when using insignificant influences, it was concluded that they were amenable to group pressure, they showed a collectivist self-definition, that is, the ability not to succumb to group pressure, protecting collective values. In other words, such an individual psychological quality as suggestibility turns out to be transformed into the personality of the individual as a member of the collective.

In other studies, it was found out whether such a feature of a person's personality as extrapunity(the tendency to blame other people for one's own failures), the behavior of a member of a good team, that is, whether it acts as a necessary manifestation of his personality. Initially, with the help of a special personality test, a group of athletes with pronounced extrapunitiveness was identified (there were a lot of them among team members in team sports). It would seem that this personality trait should determine the characteristics of their personality in their leading sports activities. In fact, in highly developed groups of athletes (in genuine teams), according to the personality test, extrapunitive individuals showed collectivist identification in relation to members of their team (see 11.6), i.e., they revealed personality traits that are directly opposite to extrapunitiveness.

Thus, it is obvious that the structure of a person's personality is wider than the structure of individuality. Therefore, the first should include not only the features and general structure of his personality, most fully expressed in temperament, character, abilities, etc., but also how a person finds himself in groups of different levels of development, in interindividual relations, mediated by the leading for this group's activities. From the standpoint of psychology, the data obtained as a result of the study personality as an individual cannot be directly transferred to the characteristics of a person as a subject of interindividual relations; the individual-typical acts essentially differently depending on the development of the community in which the personality lives and is formed, and on the nature, values ​​and goals of the activity that mediate interindividual relations.

The problem of the correlation of biological (natural) and social principles in the structure of a person's personality is one of the most complex and debatable in modern psychology.

In psychology, a prominent place is occupied by theories that distinguish two main substructures in a person’s personality, formed under the influence of two factors - biological And social. The idea was put forward that the whole personality of a person breaks up into an “endopsychic” and “exopsychic” organization. "Endopsyche" as a substructure of the personality expresses the internal interdependence of mental elements and functions, as if the internal mechanism of the human personality, identified with the neuropsychic organization of man. "Exopsychic" is determined by the attitude of a person to the external environment, i.e. to the whole sphere of what is opposed to the personality, to which the personality can relate in one way or another. “Endopsychic” includes such traits as receptivity, features of memory, thinking and imagination, the ability to volitional effort, impulsivity, etc., and “exopsychic” - a system of human relations and his experience, i.e. interests, inclinations , ideals, prevailing feelings, formed knowledge, etc. "Endopsyche", which has a natural basis, is biologically determined, in contrast to "exopsyche", which is determined by a social factor. Modern foreign multifactorial theories of personality ultimately reduce the structure of personality to projections of all the same basic factors - biological and social.

How should one treat this concept of two factors? The human personality, which is both the product and the subject of the historical process, could not preserve the biological structure, which is adjacent and equal to the social substructure. The natural prerequisites for the development of an individual, his bodily organization, his nervous and endocrine systems, the advantages and disadvantages of his physical organization, powerfully influence the formation of his individual psychological characteristics. but biological, entering the personality of a person, becomes social and further exists (psychologically) in social form. So, brain pathology generates in an individual, in his structure, individual biologically determined psychological traits, but they become personality traits, specific personality traits or do not become due to social determination. Natural, organic features and traits appear in the structure of personality as its socially conditioned elements.

Of course, the individuality of the human personality retains the imprint of its natural, biological organization. The question is not whether biological and social factors should be taken into account in the structure of the personality - it is absolutely necessary to take them into account, but how to understand their relationship. The theory of two factors mechanically opposes social and biological, environment and biological organization, "exopsyche" and "endopsyche". In reality, such an external, mechanistic opposition is fruitless and does nothing for understanding the structure of personality. But another approach to the problem of natural and social in the formation and structure of personality is possible.

We will show by the example of a study that studied the formation of personality traits of people whose height did not exceed 80 - 130 cm. A significant similarity in the structure of the individuality of these people was established, in which, apart from short stature, there were no other pathological abnormalities. They had a specific infantile humor, uncritical optimism, spontaneity, high endurance to situations requiring significant emotional stress, the absence of any kind of shyness, etc. The indicated personality traits cannot be attributed to either “endopsychic” or “exopsychic”, if only because, being the result of the natural characteristics of dwarfs, these traits can arise and form only in the conditions of the social situation in which dwarfs are with moment when the difference in height between them and their peers was revealed. Precisely because others treat the dwarf differently than other people, seeing him as a toy and expressing surprise that he can feel and think in the same way as the rest, a specific structure of personality arises and is fixed in dwarfs, which masks their oppressed state. and sometimes an aggressive attitude towards others and towards oneself. If for a moment we imagine that a dwarf is formed in a society of people of the same height, it will become quite obvious that he, like all those around him, will form completely different personality traits.

Natural, organic aspects and features exist in the structure of the individuality of the human personality as its socially conditioned elements. Natural(anatomical, physiological and other qualities) and social form a unity and cannot be mechanically opposed to each other as independent substructures of personality.

So, recognizing the role of both natural, biological, and social in the structure of individuality, it is impossible only on this basis to look for biological substructures in a person's personality, since they already exist in it in a transformed form.

The structure of personality, therefore, primarily includes systemic organization of her personality, presented in the structure of temperament, character, abilities of a person, necessary, but insufficient for understanding the psychology of personality. Thus, the first component of the personality structure is singled out - its intra-individual (intra-individual) subsystem.

The personality, being the subject of a system of real relations with society, with the groups in which it is integrated, cannot be enclosed only in some kind of closed space within the organic body of the individual, but reveals itself in the space of interindividual relations. Not the individual in itself, but the processes of interpersonal interaction, which include at least two individuals (in fact, a community, a group, a collective), can be considered as manifestations of the personality of each of the participants in this interaction.

It follows from this that a person in the system of his “actual relations” (K. Marx) acquires, as it were, his own special being, which differs from the bodily being of an individual. From the point of view of Marxist philosophy, the real existence of the individual is found in the totality of the objective relationships of individuals mediated by their activities, and therefore one of the characteristics of the structure of the individual should be sought in the “space” outside the organic body of the individual, which constitutes interindividual subsystem of personality.

It is noteworthy that by translating the consideration of the personality into an interindividual “space”, we get the opportunity to answer the question of what the above-described collective phenomena are: collectivist self-determination, collectivist identification, etc. What is it: proper group or personal manifestations? When the characteristics and the very existence of a personality are not closed “under the skin” of an individual, but are taken out into the interindividual “space”, the false alternative generated by the identification of the concepts “individual” and “personality” (either personal or group) is overcome. The personal acts as a manifestation of group relationships, the group acts in a concrete form of personality manifestations.

“It is noteworthy that until the second half of the 1930s, subject indexes to books on psychology, as a rule, did not contain the term “personality” at all.

At the present stage of the improvement of socialist society, the task has been set of forming a harmoniously developed, socially active person who combines spiritual wealth, moral purity and physical perfection. Therefore, philosophical, psychological, sociological research personality becomes a priority and attracts Special attention public because of its not only theoretical but also practical significance. […]

One of the attempts to solve this problem is our proposed concept of personalization of an individual in a system of activity-mediated relations with other people. This concept is further development psychological theory of the collective. It creates an idea of ​​the psychological structure of the personality, the laws of its formation and development, offers a new methodological toolkit for its study.

The starting point for constructing the concept of personalization of the individual is the idea of ​​unity, but not the identity of the concepts of "personality" and "individual". […]

Personality is a systemic social quality acquired by an individual in objective activity and communication, as well as characterizing the level and quality of social relations reflected in an individual.

If we recognize that personality is the quality of an individual, then we thereby affirm the unity of the individual and personality and at the same time deny the identity of these concepts (for example, photosensitivity is the quality of photographic film, but one cannot say that film is photosensitivity or that photosensitivity is it's film).

The identity of the concepts of "personality" and "individual" is denied by all leading Soviet psychologists - B. G. Ananiev, A. N. Leontiev, B. F. Lomov, S. L. Rubinshtein and others. , which is acquired by an individual in society, in the totality of relations, public in nature, in which the individual is involved ... Personality is a systemic and therefore “supersensory” quality, although the bearer of this quality is a completely sensual, bodily individual with all his innate and acquired properties » (Leontiev A.N. Selected psychological works, M., 1983, Volume 1., p. 335).

First of all, it is necessary to clarify why a person can be said to be a “supersensory” quality of an individual. It is obvious that the individual has completely sensual (that is, accessible to perception with the help of the senses) properties: corporality, individual characteristics of behavior, speech, facial expressions, etc. How, then, are qualities found in a person that cannot be seen in their immediate sensual form?

Just as surplus value K. Marx showed this with the utmost clarity - there is some “supersensible” quality that you cannot see in a manufactured object through any microscope, but in which the worker’s labor unpaid by the capitalist turns out to be embodied, the personality personifies the system of social relations that make up the sphere of the individual’s being as his systemic (internal dissected, complex) quality. Only scientific analysis can open them; they are inaccessible to sensory perception.

To embody the system of social relations means to be their subject. The child, included in relationships with adults, initially acts as an object of their activity, but, mastering the composition of the activity that they offer him as leading for his development, for example, learning, becomes, in turn, the subject of these relationships. Social relations are not something external to their subject, they are a part, a side, an aspect of personality as a social quality of an individual.

K. Marx wrote: “... the essence of a person is not an abstract inherent in a separate individual. In its reality, it is the totality of all social relations. (Marx K., Theses on Feuerbach // Marx K., Engels F. Soch. - 2nd ed., Volume 42, p. 265). If the generic essence of a person, unlike other living beings, is a set of social relations, then the essence of each specific person, that is, the abstract inherent in a separate individual as a person, is a set of specific social connections and relations in which he is included as a subject. They, these connections and relations, are outside of it, that is, in social being, and therefore impersonal, objective (the slave is completely dependent on the slave owner), and at the same time they are inside, in himself as a person, and therefore subjective (the slave hates slave owner, subjugates or rebels against him, enters into socially conditioned relations with him). […]

To characterize a personality, it is necessary to investigate the system of social relations in which, as mentioned above, it is included. Personality is clearly closely "under the skin" of the individual, and it goes beyond the limits of his corporality into new "spaces".

What are these "spaces" in which you can see the manifestations of personality, understand and evaluate it?

The first is the "space" of the individual's psyche (intra-individual space), his inner world: his interests, views, opinions, beliefs, ideals, tastes, inclinations, hobbies. All this forms the orientation of his personality, a selective attitude towards the environment. Other manifestations of a person's personality can also be included here: features of his memory, thinking, fantasies, but those that somehow resonate in his social life.

The second "space" is the area of ​​interindividual connections (interindividual space). Here, not the individual in itself, but the processes in which at least two individuals or a group (collective) are included are considered as manifestations of the personality of each of them. The clues to the "structure of personality" are hidden in space outside the organic body of the individual, in the system of relations of one person with another person.

The third "space" for the realization by an individual of his capabilities as a person is not only beyond his inner world, but also beyond the boundaries of actual, momentary (here and now) connections with other people (meta-individual space). Acting, and actively acting, a person causes changes in the inner world of other people. So, communication with an intelligent and interesting person affects the beliefs, views, feelings, desires of people. In other words, this is the "space" of the ideal representation (personalization) of the subject in other people, formed by the summation of the changes that he made to the psyche, consciousness of other people as a result of joint activities and communication with them.

It can be assumed that if we were able to fix all the significant changes that this individual made by his real activity and communication in other individuals, then we would get the most complete description of him as a person.

An individual can achieve the rank of a historical person in a certain socio-historical situation only if these changes affect a sufficiently wide range of people, receiving an assessment not only of contemporaries, but also of history, which has the ability to accurately weigh these personal contributions, which ultimately turn out to be contributions into public practice.

A personality can be metaphorically interpreted as a source of some kind of radiation that transforms people associated with this personality (radiation, as you know, can be beneficial and harmful, can heal and cripple, speed up and slow down development, cause various mutations, etc.).

An individual deprived of personal characteristics can be likened to a neutrino, a hypothetical particle that permeates a dense environment without a trace, without making any changes in it; “impersonality” is a characteristic of an individual who is indifferent to other people, a person whose presence does not change anything in their lives, does not transform their behavior and thereby deprives him of his own personality.

The three "spaces" in which a person finds himself do not exist in isolation, but form a unity. The same personality trait appears differently in each of these three dimensions. […]

So, a new way of interpreting the personality is being laid - it acts as an ideal representation of the individual in other people, as his "other being" in them (and also in himself as a "friend"), as his personalization. The essence of this ideal representation, these "contributions" lies in those real semantic transformations, effective changes in the intellectual and emotional sphere of another person's personality, which are produced by the activity of the individual and his participation in joint activities. The “other being” of an individual in other people is not a static imprint. We are talking about an active process, about a kind of "continuation of oneself in another", about the most important need of the individual - to find a second life in other people, to make lasting changes in them.

The phenomenon of personalization opens up an opportunity to clarify the problem of personal immortality that has always worried humanity. If a person's personality is not reduced to its representation in a bodily subject, but continues in other people, then with the death of an individual, the personality does not "completely" die. “No, all of me will not die ... as long as at least one piit is alive in the sublunary world” (A. S. Pushkin). The individual as a carrier of personality passes away, but, personalized in other people, he continues, giving rise to difficult experiences in them, explained by the tragedy of the gap between the ideal representation of the individual and his material disappearance.

In the words "he lives in us even after death" there is neither mysticism nor pure metaphor - this is a statement of the fact of the destruction of an integral psychological structure while maintaining one of its links. It can be assumed that at a certain stage of social development, personality as a systemic quality of an individual begins to act as a special social value, a kind of model for development and implementation in people's individual activities.

Petrovsky A., Petrovsky V., "I" in "Others" and "Others" in "Me", in the Reader: Popular Psychology / Comp. V.V. Mironenko, M., "Enlightenment", 1990, pp. 124-128.

Topic 2.7. Personality and its socialization.

Plan

1. The concept of personality. Basic theories of personality.

2. The structure of personality. Self-consciousness of the individual. Personality formation.

3. Socialization and its main characteristics.

4. Concept social behavior. Prosocial and antisocial behavior. Aggression and regulation of social behavior

1. Abulkhanova-Slavskaya K.A. Activity and personality psychology. –– M.: Nauka, 1980.–– S. 113-185, 210-259.

2. Averin V.A. Psychology of Personality: Tutorial. - St. Petersburg: Publishing House of Mikhailov V.A., 1999. - 89 p.

3. Asmolov A.G. Psychology of Personality: Principles of General Psychological Analysis: Textbook. –– M.: MSU Publishing House, 1990. –– S. 7-363.

4. Bodalev A.A. Personality and Communication: The Chosen Ones psychological writings. –– 2nd ed., revised. –– M.: International Pedagogical Academy, 1995 – S. 5-20.

5. Bodalev A.A. Psychology about personality. –– M.: Publishing House of Moscow State University, 1988. –– S. 5-11, 37-59.

6. Bozhovich L.I. Personality and its formation in childhood. –– M.: Enlightenment, 1982. –– S. 39-123.

7. Zeigarnik B.V. Personality theory in foreign psychology. –– M.: Publishing House of Moscow State University, 1982.–– S. 6-97.

8. Leontiev A.N. Activity. Consciousness. Personality. –– M.: Nauka, 1982. –– S. 86-135.

9. Merlin V.S. The structure of personality. Character, abilities, self-awareness. Textbook for the special course. - Perm: University Publishing House, 1990. - P. 81-108.

10. Orlov A.B. Personality and essence: external and internal "I" of a person. //Questions of psychology. –– 1995. –– No. 2. –– C. 5 - 19.

11. Psychology of individual differences. Texts.–– M: Pedagogy, 1982.–– S. 179-218.

12. Psychology of personality. Texts. –– M: Pedagogy, 1982.–– S. 11-19, 39-41.

13. Psychology of a developing personality / Ed. A.V. Petrovsky. –– M.: Pedagogy, 1987.–– S. 10-105.

The concept of personality. Basic theories of personality.

A person as a subject of social relations, a carrier of socially significant qualities is personality.

Personality is a systemic social quality of an individual, which is formed in joint activities and communication.

Along with the concept of personality, we also use such terms as person, individual and individuality. All these concepts have specifics, but they are interconnected:

Man is the most general, integrative concept. It means a creature that embodies the highest degree of development of life, a product of social and labor processes, an indissoluble unity of the natural and the social. But, bearing in itself a social and generic essence, each person is a single natural being, an individual;

An individual is a specific person as a representative of the genus Homo sapiens, the bearer of the prerequisites (inclinations) of human development;

Individuality is the unique originality of a particular person, his natural and socially acquired properties.

In the concept of personality, a system of socially significant qualities of a person comes to the fore.

The personality has a multi-level organization. The highest and leading level of the psychological organization of the personality - its need-motivational sphere - is - orientation personalities, her attitude to society, to individuals, to herself and her social duties.

A person is not born with ready-made abilities, character, etc. These properties are formed during life, but on a certain natural basis. The hereditary basis of the human body (genotype) determines its anatomical physiological features, the main qualities of the nervous system, the dynamics of nervous processes. The natural, biological organization of man contains the possibilities of his mental development.

A human being becomes a human only through mastering the experience of previous generations, enshrined in knowledge, traditions, objects of material and spiritual culture.

In the formation of an individual as a personality, processes are essential personal identification (the formation of an individual's identification with other people and human society as a whole) and personalization (realization by the individual of the need for a certain representation of his personality in the life of other people, personal self-realization in a given social community).

The person interacts with other people on the basis of " I-concepts ", personal reflection - their ideas about themselves, their capabilities, their significance.

A person is born with certain hereditary inclinations. Most of them are ambiguous: on their basis, various personality traits can be formed. In this case, the process of education plays a decisive role.

However, the possibilities of education are also connected with the hereditary characteristics of the individual. hereditary basis the human body determines its anatomical and physiological features, the basic qualities of the nervous system, the dynamics of nervous processes. The biological organization of man, his nature, contains the possibilities of his future mental development.

Modern scientific data indicate that certain biological factors can act as conditions that make it difficult or easier to form certain mental qualities of a person.

In the second floor. In the 20th century, many approaches and theories of personality have developed.

Structural theories of personality aimed at identifying the structure of the personality, its typology, constituent elements, personality traits. The largest representatives of the structural theories of personality are G. Allport, K. Rogers, D. Cattell, G. Eysenck.

Gordon Willard Allport(1897 - 1967), an American psychologist, one of the founders of the modern systematic approach to the study of personality psychology, believed that any personality has a stable set of features. (His theory is called "the theory of personality traits".) Allport explored the hierarchy of personality's value orientations and typologized personality on this basis ("Personality: a psychological interpretation", 1938).

Another American psychologist Carl Ransome Rogers (1902 - 1987), one of the leaders of the so-called humanistic psychology, believed that the core of the personality is its self-concept. Being formed in the social environment, it is the main integrative mechanism self-regulation of the individual. The self-concept is constantly compared with the ideal self, causing attempts to protect the self-concept from disintegration: the individual constantly strives to self-justify his behavior, uses a variety of psychological defense mechanisms (up to perceptual distortions - distortions of perception, and ignoring objectionable objects). Rogers developed a special (interactive) system of psychotherapy based on a trusting relationship with the patient ("Client-Centered Therapy", 1954).

In the XX century in the study of personality psychology begins the widespread use of experimental mathematical methods. American psychologist James McKean Cattell (1860 - 1944) pioneered the testological movement in psychology. He was the first to use in the psychological study of personality a complex method of modern statistics - factor analysis, which minimizes many different indicators and personality assessments and allows you to identify 16 basic personality traits (16-factor Cattell personality questionnaire).

The Cattell questionnaire reveals such basic personality traits as reasonableness, secrecy, emotional stability, dominance, seriousness (frivolity), conscientiousness, caution, sensitivity, gullibility (suspiciousness), conservatism, conformity, manageability, tension.

There are more than 100 questions in the Cattell questionnaire, the answers to which (affirmative or negative) are grouped in accordance with the "key" - a certain way of processing the results, after which the severity of a particular factor is determined.

Methods mathematical analysis results of observations and surveys, documentary data were also developed G. Eysenkom . His concept of personality traits is related to its two interrelated basic qualities: 1) extraversion-introversion; 2) stability-instability (neuroticism, anxiety).

cognitive psychology

The disadvantage of structural personality theories was that it is impossible to predict human behavior on the basis of knowledge of personality traits, because. it also depends on the situation.

As an alternative to this theory, arose theory of social learning. The main psychological characteristic of a person in this theory is an act, or a series of acts. Influence on human behavior is provided by other people, support or condemnation of actions on their part. A person acts one way or another, based on his life experience, which is acquired as a result of interaction with other people. Forms of behavior are acquired by imitation (vicarial learning). A person's behavior and his personal characteristics depend on the frequency of occurrence of the same "stimulus situations" and on the assessments of behavior in these situations received from other people.

One of the main directions of modern foreign psychology is cognitive psychology(from Latin cognitio - knowledge), which, in contrast to behaviorism, postulates knowledge as the basis of behavior. Within the framework of cognitive psychology, regularities are studied cognitive activity(J. Bruner), psychology of individual differences (M. Eysenck), personality psychology (J. Kelly). In connection with the development of cybernetics and the actualization of the problem of control complex systems there is an increased interest in the structure of the human.

Proponents of personality psychology also offered their own approach to personality psychology humanistic psychology(Maslow, Rogers). The main attention of representatives of this direction was drawn to the description of the inner world of the individual. The basic human need, according to this theory, is self-actualization, the desire for self-improvement and self-expression.

The problem of personality is one of the central ones in psychology. Personality(from lat. persona - actor's mask; role, position; face, personality) in psychology is indicated systemic social quality, acquired by an individual in objective activity, communication and characterizing the level of representation of social relations in an individual.
The relationship between the individual, as a product of anthropogenesis (the origin and development of all species and subspecies of the genus Man (Homo) in genetic, mental and sociocultural terms), a person who has mastered the socio-historical experience and an individuality that transforms the world, can be conveyed by the formula: “An individual is born . They become a person. Individuality is upheld."
The most important personality characteristics
1. Personality is a socio-historical category. The main thing in the characterization of personality is its public entity and social functions . A person is not born as a person, he becomes one in the process of interaction with the social and natural environment, with the material and spiritual circumstances of his life and activity. In the process of this interaction, a person is formed and manifests himself as a person. Personality is an object of study only in the social sciences - history, philosophy, sociology, ethics, aesthetics, psychology, pedagogy, etc.
2. Personality is not a passive product of social and other circumstances. The most important characteristic of personality is activity. Under personality activity is understood as the ability of a person to produce socially significant transformations of the environment, manifested in communication, joint activities, and creativity. Most general characteristics personality activity - active life position expressed in its ideological adherence to principles, consistency in defending its views, the unity of word and deed.
3. Stability of personality traits. With all the variability of the mental manifestations of the personality, the relative constancy of its mental make-up still clearly stands out, which, in particular, makes it possible to foresee the behavior of a given personality in a given situation.
4. Unity of personality. Personality is a single whole, where each trait is inextricably linked with others, and therefore each personality trait acquires its own meaning, often completely different, depending on its relationship with other personality traits.

Man, individual, individuality, subject.

The root or generic, initial concept is the concept of man. Human is a biological creature belonging to the class of mammals of the species Homo sapiens. Unlike other animals, this species is endowed with consciousness, i.e., the ability to cognize the essence of both the external world and its own nature, and in accordance with this, act and act reasonably. Man as a biological species is characterized by a special bodily organization, the essential features of which are: upright posture, the presence of hands adapted to knowledge and work, and a highly developed brain capable of reflecting the world in concepts and transforming it in accordance with one’s needs, interests and ideals.
Under the "individual" understand this particular person with all his inherent features. In the concept of the individual is embodied generic affiliation person. To say about a particular person that he is an individual means to say very little. Essentially, it says that he potentially human.
Individuality usually considered as a set of physiological and mental characteristics of a particular person, characterizing his originality. Individuality is not something super- or super-personal. Individuality is a personality in its originality. When they talk about individuality, they mean the originality of the individual. Each person is individual, but the individuality of some is manifested very brightly, convexly, while others are hardly noticeable. Individuality can manifest itself in the intellectual, emotional, volitional sphere, or in all spheres of mental activity at once.
Subject- this is a person in the totality of such mental characteristics that allow him to carry out goal-setting and actions, deeds, activities and behavior in general that correspond to the goals.

Different approaches to the definition of a person's personality.

Personality psychology occupies a special position among other areas in psychological science, the high significance and at the same time the complexity of this area of ​​psychology are obvious. However, there is still no established single and generally accepted definition of this concept. Such ambiguity, uncertainty of the psychological content of the concept of "personality" is due to the multidimensional nature of this concept itself. Thus, there are many definitions of personality, but there is still little agreement between them, therefore it is preferable to call the existing developments in the field of personality study rather than theories, but models of personality or orienting approaches to its study.
The earliest and most traditional for psychology is personality trait theory G. Allport. The creator and followers of this theory used large statistical samples subjects and used time-consuming methods of mathematical processing of large data sets of "objective" measurements obtained by psychodiagnostic tests. However, the personality structure revealed in this way did not provide a sufficiently stable and reliable prediction of human behavior. This concept, thus, "grasped" the formal-situational and static rather than the content-dynamic side of a person's personal characteristics.
A significant role in the development of psychological research of personality was played by psychoanalysis Z. Freud. Psychoanalysts of the school of Freud and his followers are characterized by a special understanding of personality as an iceberg, only a small part of which is visible to us, and most of the causal mechanisms of behavior are hidden in the depths of the unconscious. The experience of psychoanalysis has proved the need to recognize and adequately assess the role of the unconscious in the mental regulation of human behavior. Numerous practice-oriented studies have convincingly shown that in organizing one's life a person strives to satisfy deep personal motives and needs, among which motives of pleasure, aggressive and sexual desires occupy a significant place.
Behavioral theories of personality, which are reflected in the works of L. Thorndike, E. Tolman, and others, occupy a special place in the history of psychological research. In them, personality (or rather, personal variables) is understood as a kind of system that connects the totality of the individual's response actions to environmental stimuli. , and the diagnosis of personality variables is based on the fixation of external observed reactions to these stimuli and their totality. The result of such a study is usually described in terms of a stimulus-response pair.
Significant place in psychological research up to the present time have cognitive concepts and personality theory. Psychologists who adhere to this direction (T. Bauer, S. Shakhter, D. Kelly, etc.) understand the behavior of a person as a function of internal structural formations formed in the process of a person's relationship with the outside world. As a result of these studies, numerous structural blocks of cognitive and executive processes (perception; memory different kind and level; decision-making processes; programs and action plans, etc.).
Humanistic direction(A. Maslow, K. Rogers, V. Frankl, etc.) affirms the personality as an integral and unique entity. This direction does not deny either the role of the social environment or the role of biological factors, which, mutually conditioning each other, become the source of the essential forces of the individual. They consider the main thing in a personality to be its “primary motives”, the desire to be independent, to assert oneself in the social environment, to fulfill oneself, to create oneself as an individual. The formation of a person, in their opinion, as a rule, proceeds and is carried out in the transformative activity of a person, which determines the development of his individuality, uniqueness.
In Russian psychology, starting from the 1920s, the so-called activity approach, which is currently widely used in the study of almost all aspects of a person’s mental life (L. S. Vygotsky, V. V. Davydov, A. N. Leontiev, S. L. Rubinshtein, etc.). The starting point of this approach is the assertion that the personality develops, manifests itself and changes in activity. At the same time, the activity itself is understood very broadly; it is both objective activity and the work of consciousness. Activity forms consciousness, and consciousness, in turn, forms activity. At the same time, consciousness is also interpreted in a broad sense: it includes images, attitudes, motives, interests, knowledge, skills, etc. The personality, according to the supporters of this approach, is a system, and the systemic qualities of a personality are the result of a wide social, external and internal, mental and moral activity of a person.

Factors of socialization, formation and development of personality.

Personality is not an innate and genetically predetermined characteristic of a person. A child is born as a biological individual who is yet to become a personality. However, this can only happen under certain conditions (Scheme 6).
The leading role in the formation of personality is played by social circumstances, which include the following:
macro environment – social order, state structure, level of development of society, socio-political, ethnic, religious situation in society, etc.
Microenvironment- this is an environment of direct contact interaction of a person: family, friends, school class, work collective.
Upbringing- a specially organized process of formation and development of a person, first of all, his spiritual sphere.
Activity- this is a dynamic connection of the subject with the surrounding world, acting as a necessary and sufficient condition in the implementation of the life relations of the subject.
Communication- social interaction in all its variety of varieties.

Scheme 6

Factors of personality formation and development

The mental (and biological) development of a person is influenced by built environment his habitat, modern technology, technologies for its production and operation, by-products of modern industries, the information and technical environment that is created by modern radio, television and other technical devices.
Along with social factors, an important role in the formation and development of personality is played by biological factor, physiological characteristics of a person, and first of all, the features of general and specific types of GNI, the originality of the morphology of the brain, the development of its individual functional structures, the presence of certain disorders, anomalies in the work of the brain, its departments.
mental development person also depends on natural factors : climatic, geographical, space and other conditions of human life and activity (earthquakes, floods, fires, ozone holes, general warming of the planet).
One of the less studied factors is noosphere as a special state of the information and energy environment of the earth. The noosphere has an impact on the spiritual state of every person living on Earth.
Plays a special role in the formation and development of personality she herself as one of essential conditions manifestations of all external and internal influences on a person. In general, personality as a systemic mental formation of a person is the result of a complex interaction of these and other factors and circumstances.

The system of socio-biological substructures according to A. G. Groysman.

The dynamic structure of personality has four substructures.
First substructure unites the orientation, attitudes and moral traits of the personality. This substructure is formed through education. She is socially conditioned. Briefly, it can be called motivational, or a substructure of personality orientation.
Second substructure personality includes knowledge, skills, abilities and habits acquired in personal experience, through training, but already with a noticeable influence of biologically determined personality traits. It is sometimes called individual culture or preparedness; briefly it can be called a substructure of experience.
Third substructure covers the individual characteristics of individual mental processes or mental functions as forms of reflection. The influence of biologically determined features in this substructure can be seen even more clearly. This substructure, interacting with the rest, is formed through exercise. Briefly, it can be called a substructure of reflection forms.
Fourth substructure combines the properties of temperament (typological properties of the personality), sex and age properties of the personality and its pathological, so-called organic changes. The necessary traits that are included in this substructure are formed (or rather, they are altered through training). They are incomparably more dependent on the physiological and even morphological features of the brain than on social influences per person, and therefore briefly this substructure can be called a biologically determined substructure.

The concept of personality orientation, its essential characteristics. Personality Orientation System
An important characteristic of personality is its orientation, which determines goals that a person puts in front of him, aspirations that are characteristic of him motives according to which it operates. Orientation Personality is the personal purposefulness of a person determined by the system of motives. Depending on the sphere of manifestation, the following types of personality orientation are distinguished: professional, moral, political, domestic, etc., for example, in the field of creativity, sports activities, etc.
Personal orientation characterized relations, quality and forms. Relations are included in the structure of all forms of orientation and are manifested primarily in the relationship of a person to other people, to the team and to society. They manifest such character traits as sociability, self-esteem, professional pride, self-criticism, etc.
The qualities of orientation are classified as follows: level, breadth, intensity, stability, effectiveness. The level of orientation is understood as the social significance of the individual. But at high level motives, sometimes there is a narrow orientation of the personality, in contrast to which the concept of breadth is distinguished. The intensity of the orientation has a range, often associated with emotional coloring, from vague inclinations, conscious desires, active aspirations, to complete conviction. The stability of the orientation is characterized by its constancy over a certain period of time, and the most important quality is efficiency, which determines the activity of achieving goals in activities.
The main forms of personality orientation include worldview, belief, ideal, interests, inclinations, inclinations and desires. outlook- this is a system of established views on the world around and one's place in it; has such characteristics as scientific, systematic, logical sequence, evidence, etc. Belief- an important conscious motive of behavior, giving all the activities of the individual a special significance and a clear direction. attraction- the least differentiated vague desire without a clear awareness of the goal. A wish- a higher form of orientation, having a goal of its aspiration. Interest as a conscious form of cognitive orientation, as well as inclination how the desire for a certain activity is the basis for the formation ideals embodied in a specific image.
Directional system personality includes the following main elements (components): a system of value-semantic formations of the personality, claims of the personality (claims for a certain place in the system of professional and other social and interpersonal relations, for a certain success in actions, deeds, for a particular place in life), need states of the individual and motives of the individual (internal mental urges to activity, behavior, due to the actualization of certain needs of the individual.

Need-motivational sphere. Types of needs and motives

Under need in psychology understand a person's need for something. This is a state of physical and mental discomfort that occurs in a person when a stable balance is disturbed in interaction with the material and spiritual environment of his life and activity.
Human needs are varied. First of all, the needs natural (natural) that directly ensure the existence of a person: the need for food, rest and sleep, clothing and housing. Along with natural, a person has spiritual or social needs: the need for verbal communication with other people, the need for knowledge, active participation in public life, cultural needs (reading books and newspapers, listening to music, etc.).
According to A. Maslow, in every person the so-called "instinctoid" basic needs are inherent in nature, manifesting themselves in a certain hierarchical sequence (Fig. 3).


The lowest (and most significant) base level is physiological (organic) needs. Physical survival depends on their satisfaction. These include the need for oxygen, sleep, food and drink, normal (for physical survival) temperature, rest during high physical exertion, etc. If one or another physiological need is not satisfied, then it becomes dominant and all the needs of higher levels cease be significant, recede into the background. According to A. Maslow, a chronically hungry person is incapable of creative activity, relationships of affection and love, striving for a career, etc.
The next level from the base of the pyramid includes safety and protection needs related to long-term survival. These are the needs for protection natural Disasters, from chaos and unrest, from diseases; needs for legitimacy, stability of life, etc. These needs become relevant when they are sufficiently satisfied and physiological needs recede into the background.
The third level of motivation represented by the needs of belonging and love. They appear when the needs of the two previous levels are satisfied. A person needs a relationship of affection and love with members of his family, a relationship of friendship, spiritual closeness. In addition, he needs attachment to his father's house, the place where he grew up. The realization of the needs of this level is, according to A. Maslow, the main prerequisite for mental health.
With sufficient satisfaction of the needs for belonging and love, their relevance decreases and the next, fourth level arises - need for respect and self-respect. Self-esteem needs are aimed at gaining self-confidence, achievement, freedom and independence, competence. The need for respect (by other people) is associated with the motives of prestige, status, reputation, recognition, fame, evaluation. Satisfying the needs of this level gives rise to self-esteem, awareness of one's usefulness and necessity. Dissatisfaction leads to passivity, dependence, low self-esteem, feelings of inferiority.
With a sufficient degree of satisfaction of the needs of the four listed levels, there arises need for self-actualization. A. Maslow understands it as "a person's desire for self-embodiment, for the actualization of the potentialities inherent in him." "Man ... must conform to his own nature if he wants to live in peace with himself."
Needs are expressed in motives, i.e., in immediate motives for activity. There are the following types of motives: emotional(desires, desires, desires) and rational(aspirations, interests, ideals, beliefs), conscious(a person is aware of what prompts him to activity, what is the content of his needs) and unconscious(a person is not aware of what motivates him to act; they are characterized by attitudes and drives).