Measure - There is a definition of the relation of one (measured) value to another, adopted for the standard.Since the results of the observation, as a rule, acquire the form of various signs, graphs, curves on an oscilloscope, cardiograms, etc., the inspection of an important component of the study is the interpretation of the data obtained. Special complexity is distinguished by observation in social sciences, where its results are largely dependent on the personality of the observer and its attitude towards studied phenomena. In sociology and psychology distinguish simply and participating (included) observation. Psychologists, along with this, use the introspection method (self-surveillance).

Experiment , unlike observation - This is a method of cognition at which phenomena is studied in controlled and managed conditions. The experiment is usually carried out on the basis of the theory or hypothesis that determine the formulation of the problem and interpretation of the results. The advantages of the experiment in comparison with observation are, firstly, it turns out to be possible to study the phenomenon, so to speak, in "pure form", secondly, the conditions for the flow of the process, thirdly, the experiment itself can repeat repeatedly. There are several types of experiment.

• 1) the simplest type of experiment - qualitativeestablishing the presence or absence of the theory of phenomena.
• 2) the second, more complex species is the measuring or quantitativeexperiment that establishes the numerical parameters of a property (or properties) of the subject, process.
• 3) a special variety of experiment in fundamental sciences is mentalexperiment.
• 4) Finally: a specific type of experiment is socialthe experiment implemented in order to introduce new forms of social organization and management optimization. The scope of the social experiment is limited by moral and legal norms.

Analysis - the process of mental, and often the real dismemberment of the subject, phenomenon on the part (features, properties, relationship). The procedure, inverse analysis, is synthesis.
Synthesis - this is a compound of the subject part of the subject allocated during the analysis of the parties.

Comparison — cognitive operation, revealing the similarity or distinction of objects.It makes sense only in the totality of homogeneous objects forming a class. Comparison of objects in the class is carried out on features essential for this review.
Description — cognitive operation, consisting in fixing the results of experience (observation or experiment) with certain designation systems adopted in science.

A significant role in the generalization of observation results and experiments belongs induction (from lat. Inductio - guidance), a special type of generalization of these experience. Under the induction, the thought of the researcher moves from private (private factors) to a common one. There are popular and scientific, complete and incomplete induction. The opposite of induction is deduction , Movement of thought from the total to the private. Unlike induction, with which the deduction is closely connected, it is mainly used on theoretical level of knowledge. The induction process is associated with such an operation as a comparison - the establishment of similarities and differences in objects, phenomena. Induction, comparison, analysis and synthesis prepare the soil for generating classifications - combining various concepts and relevant phenomena to certain groups, types to establish links between objects and classes of objects. Examples of classifications - Mendeleev table, classification of animals, plants, etc. Classifications are presented in the form of schemes, tables used for orientation in the manifold of concepts or relevant objects.

With all its difference, the empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge are interconnected, the border between them is conditional and mobile. The empirical study, reveaing new data through observations and experiments, stimulates the theoretical knowledge that summarizes them and explains, puts new, more complex tasks. On the other hand, theoretical knowledge, developing and concretizing the new one's own content, opens up new, broader horizons for empirical knowledge, orients and sends it in search of new facts, contributes to the improvement of its methods and means, etc.

Science as a holistic dynamic system of knowledge cannot be successfully developed, not enriched with new empirical data, without summarizing them in the system of theoretical tools, forms and methods of knowledge. At certain points of development of science, the empirical goes to theoretical and vice versa. However, it is unacceptable to absolute one of these levels to the detriment of the other.

The cognitive attitude of a person to the world is carried out in various forms - in the form of ordinary knowledge, the knowledge of the artistic, religious, finally, in the form of scientific knowledge. The first three areas of knowledge are considered in contrast to science as discharge form. Scientific knowledge has grown from the knowledge of ordinary, but at present these two forms of knowledge are quite far away from each other.

In the structure of scientific knowledge, two levels are allocated - empirical and theoretical. These levels should not be mixed with the parties of knowledge in general - sensual reflection and rational knowledge. The fact is that in the first case, there are in mind the various types of cognitive activities of scientists, and in the second, we are talking about the types of mental activity of the individual in the process of knowledge in general, and both of these types are used on empirical and theoretical levels of scientific knowledge.

The levels of scientific knowledge themselves differ in a number of parameters: 1) on the subject of the study. Empirical research is focused on phenomena, theoretical - in essence; 2) by means and instruments of knowledge; 3) according to research methods. At the empirical level, this observation, experiment, on theoretical - system approach, idealization, etc.; 4) by the nature of the mined knowledge. In one case, these are empirical facts, classifications, empirical laws, in the second - laws, disclosure of substantial connections, theory.

In the XVII-XVIII and partly in the XIX centuries. Science was still on an empirical stage, limiting its tasks with a generalization and classification of empirical facts, formulating empirical laws. In the future, the theoretical, associated with a comprehensive study of reality in its essential connections and patterns is extended above the empirical level. At the same time, both types of research are organically interrelated and assume each other in the holistic structure of scientific knowledge.

Methods applicable on the empirical level of scientific knowledge: observation and experiment.

Observation - This is a deliberate and targeted perception of phenomena and processes without direct interference in their course subordinate to the tasks of scientific research. The main requirements for scientific observation are as follows: 1) the definition of the goal, the idea; 2) systematicism in observation methods; 3) objectivity; 4) the ability to control either by re-observation, or with the help of an experiment.

Observation is used, as a rule, where the intervention in the process under study is undesirable or impossible. Observation in modern science is associated with the wide use of devices, which, firstly, enhance the senses, and secondly, they remove the subjectivity of subjectivism with the assessment of the observed phenomena. An important place in the process of observation (as well as the experiment) takes the measurement operation. Measure - There is a definition of the relation of one (measured) value to another, adopted for the standard. Since the results of the observation, as a rule, acquire the form of various signs, graphs, curves on an oscilloscope, cardiograms, etc., the inspection of an important component of the study is the interpretation of the data obtained.

Special complexity is distinguished by observation in social sciences, where its results are largely dependent on the personality of the observer and its attitude towards studied phenomena. In sociology and psychology distinguish simply and participating (included) observation. Psychologists, along with this, use the introspection method (self-surveillance).

Experiment Unlike observation, this is a method of cognition in which the phenomena are studied in controlled and managed conditions. The experiment is usually carried out on the basis of the theory or hypothesis that determine the formulation of the problem and interpretation of the results. The advantages of the experiment in comparison with observation are, firstly, it turns out to be possible to study the phenomenon, so to speak, in "pure form", secondly, the conditions for the flow of the process, thirdly, the experiment itself can repeat repeatedly.

There are several types of experiment.

1) The simplest type of experiment is a qualitative, establishing the presence or absence of the theory of phenomena.

2) A second, more complex view is a measuring or quantitative experiment that sets the numerical parameters of any property (or properties) of the object, the process.

3) A special kind of experiment in fundamental sciences is a mental experiment.

4) Finally: a specific type of experiment is a social experiment implemented in order to introduce new forms of social organization and optimization of management. The scope of the social experiment is limited by moral and legal norms.

Observation and experiment are source scientific facts Such in science means a special kind of proposals that fix the empirical knowledge. Facts - the foundation of the building of science, they form the empirical basis of science, the base for nominating the hypotheses and the creation of theories.

Denote by some methods of processing and systematization Empirical knowledge. This is primarily analysis and synthesis. Analysis - The process of mental, and often the real dismemberment of the subject, phenomenon on the part (features, properties, relationship). The procedure, inverse analysis, is synthesis. Synthesis - This is the connection of the subject part of the object allocated during the analysis of the parties.

A significant role in the generalization of the observation results and experiments belongs to induction (from lat. Inductio - guidance), a special type of generalization of the data of experience. Under the induction, the thought of the researcher moves from private (private factors) to a common one. There are popular and scientific, complete and incomplete induction. The opposite of induction is the deduction, the movement of thought from the common to the private. Unlike induction, with which the deduction is closely connected, it is mainly used on theoretical level of knowledge.

The induction process is associated with such an operation as comparison - establishing similarities and differences in objects, phenomena. Induction, comparison, analysis and synthesis prepare the ground to develop classifications - combine various concepts and their respective phenomena in certain groups, types to establish links between objects and classes of objects. Examples of classifications - Mendeleev table, classification of animals, plants, etc. Classifications are presented in the form of schemes, tables used for orientation in the manifold of concepts or relevant objects.

Scientific knowledge - Activities associated with the identification of essential, repeating relations and relations in the "Man - World" system, with overcoming cognitive difficulties and the desire to find answers to various questions and problems. The most important characteristic of scientific knowledge is its evidence that is achieved with the help of mathematical calculations, experiments, experiments, etc.

Scientific knowledge is the result and basis of scientific knowledge.It is characteristic of: objectivity, evidence, principled verifiability (verifiability), systemicity. Scientific knowledge seeks to be neutral with respect to ideology and politics. The main goal and value of scientific knowledge, then for which scientists give their lives - is the truth.

It is customary to allocate two main levels of scientific knowledge: empirical and theoretical. This division is due to the fact that the knowledgeing entity can produce knowledge with different ways: a) experienced, that is empirical; b) logical, that is theoretical.

You can offer three main criteria for which these levels differ:

1) the nature of the subject of research,

2) type of applied research tools,

3) features of research methods.

The empirical level includes the actions of a learning entity that directly associate it with a learned reality, and those results that fix this reality.

If it is described to detail, the empirical level of knowledge includes:

Observation of phenomena

Accumulation and selection of facts

Establishing links between them.

The empirical level is the stage of collecting data on social and natural objects, which is missing by scientists to create a relatively complete picture of the phenomenon under study.

On the empirical level, the subject is reflected mainly by external relations and manifestations. The main thing for the empirical level is a factotecting activity.

These tasks are solved using appropriate methods: observation, measurement, comparison, experiment, material modeling, etc.

Methods for obtaining empirical knowledge.

Method is a way to achieve the goal, the path of knowledge, which relies on some principles. (F.Bekon is a lamp that helps a traveler / scientist / to go in the dark).

Consider the content of the main methods by which the empirical knowledge can be obtained.

Observation - This is a system Organized, targeted perceptions by the subject of the knowledge of various phenomena of reality. Another distinguishing feature of scientific (unlike ordinary) observation is non-interferencesubject (researchers) in the observation object, which should be in conventional, natural conditions. Moreover, often the fact of observation must be hidden. For example, observation of animals, sociological observation.

Observation becomes the main method of empirical knowledge from about Hu1 century.

It is actively used, for example:

To explore the animal world (observation in zoos, nurseries, natural conditions),

For information about astronomical objects (planets, stars, "black holes", quasars, red dwarfs, etc.),

For the study of the plant world (observation of plants, for example, in experienced sites).

Some difficulties and observation limitations.

Firstly, reproducibility;

Secondly, the presence of the border, thresholdobservations as sensory activities; From here - the need to use instruments that expand the possibilities of the observer;

Thirdly, the harmfulness of the interpretation of the data obtained in the spirit of any theory shared by the observer; subjectivism - the enemy of observation;it is even more important that observations are often singly, unique.

Distinguish two types of observations:

1. Direct (visual) - the scientist receives information about the phenomena without the help of devices.

2. The indirect - the object is observed using instruments or automatically with the help of recording equipment, technical means. For example, for meteoprothosis, there is automatic equipment that collects information about natural phenomena.

Feature of observation when studying social phenomena: The results of the observation here largely depend on the personality of the observer, its installations and attitudes towards the observed phenomenon, the object. In sociology and social psychology, depending on the position of the observer, two types of observations are distinguished:

Simple (ordinary) - events are recorded by the parties;

Meeting (enabled) - events are analyzed, as if from the inside. That is, the observer is included in a specific social environment (group), adapts in it and analyzes the events from the inside.

Self-surveillance is a private observation case, applied in psychology.

Observation is associated with a description.

DESCRIPTION Allows you to fix and transmit observation results using certain iconic means. Thanks to this, sensual information is translated into the language of concepts (words), signs, schemes, drawings, graphs, numbers, thereby taking the form that is convenient for further processing of the material, the network for systematization, classification, generalizations.

EXPERIMENT (from Latinsk. - Sample, experience) is a specific type of objective and instrument activity, during which the subject of knowledge affects an object with special tools and instruments. This allows experimental actively interfere in the natural course of events, Select the object under the object from natural conditions, isolate the phenomena that dimming it. Experiment can be unlimited and systematically reproduce and vary. Thus, the experiment is the planned and managed scientific activity carried out with the help of special guns.

The experiment becomes the most important method of scientific knowledge in the natural sciences since the time of Galilee and F.Bekon.

About the 20s of the 20th century, social experiments are actively developing. For example, a social experiment facility can be a certain group of people when its interests, needs, behavior are being studied.

The object (unit) of the study may be various social strata, for example, during the study of their relationship to risk-containing projects implemented by the authorities.

Measure.

This method of scientific knowledge appeared because surrounding people objects and bodies have quantitative and qualitative characteristics. Therefore, it is possible to express them in various numbers (numeric values). For example: 1 cm, 2 meters, 4 grams, 2 tons, etc. In the natural sciences in order to open the laws of nature, you need to know, for example, how much water or iron is expanding when heated, what is the atomic weight of the chemical elements.

Measurement is the foundation of the number of studied value in the received units, this is a quantitative expression of determined values. For example: time is measured in seconds, current force in amperes, pressure in Pascal, power in watts.

The measurement is applied not only in natural, but also in social sciences. For example, with the development of society began to be applied: an assessment of labor in monetary units; qualifications - in categories; - Successes in learning, sports achievements - in points.

An example of measuring in social studies can be a scale of attractiveness of professions, fixing the latter in conventional units. This makes it possible to compare different professions according to the degree of popularity.

MODELING - This is a method for obtaining scientific knowledge, which allows to obtain the necessary information about the various properties of studied phenomena on the basis of experiments, experiments without the participation of real objects in them, when their substitutes are examined instead.

The model is a mental or financially implemented system that replaces another system while being in a state of similarity.

Modeling a very common research method, since real objects can be either very expensive, or inaccessible (remoteness, small sizes, the duration of existence, superior to human life), or at all inviolable (for example, a person as an object of medical research).

Models are material and mental. The empirical level of scientific research includes mainly material models; Here is the process of material modeling.

Types of material models.

1. Spatially similar (or geometrically similar). They differ from the object by material, internal structure and other parameters. For example, various layouts, doubts.

2. Physically similar when the original and model are similar in their physical nature. Let's say the mechanical properties of the object can be studied on the mechanical properties of the model, and the monkey of the rat or a frog can be a human biological model.

3. Mathematically similar - the model and the object belong to different forms of movement, and

the likeness is implemented with the help of mathematical formulas. The mathematical model assumes that the similarity with the original is stacked in the framework of the same mathematical description.

SO,The empirical level of scientific knowledge is a full-fledged scientific research, the base and the main content of science at all. Most of the discoveries are made at this level.

Similar information.

Two levels are allocated in the structure of scientific knowledge: empirical and theoretical. These two levels should be distinguished from two steps of the cognitive process as a whole - sensual and rational. Sensual knowledge is close, but not identically empirical, rational differs from the theoretical.

Sensual and rational - the forms of human knowledge generally, both scientific and ordinary; Empirical and theoretical knowledge is characteristic of science. Empirical knowledge is not reduced to sensual, it includes the moments of understanding, understanding, interpreting these observation and the formation of a special type of knowledge - a scientific fact. The latter is the interaction of sensual and rational knowledge.

In theoretical knowledge, the forms of rational knowledge (concept, judgment, conclusion) are dominated, but visual model representations of the type of perfect ball, absolutely solid body are used. The theory always contains sensually visual components. Thus, at both levels of knowledge, feelings and mind function.

The difference in empirical and theoretical levels of scientific knowledge takes place at the following grounds (Table 2):

Reflection level of reality

The nature of the subject of research,

Used learning methods

Forms of knowledge

Language funds.

table 2

The difference of empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge

The empirical and theoretical study is directed to the knowledge of the same objective reality, but its vision, reflection in knowledge occurs differently. The empirical study is based on its focus on the study of external connections and parties to objects, phenomena and dependencies between them. As a result of this study, empirical dependencies are found. They are the result of inductive summarization of experience and are probabilistic-true knowledge. This is, for example, the law of the Mariott law, describing the correlation between the pressure and the volume of gas: PV \u003d CONST, where p is the gas pressure, V is its volume. Initially, it was opened by R. Boylel as an inductive generalization of experimental data, when the dependence was discovered between the volume of compressing gas and the magnitude of this pressure in the experiment.

At the theoretical level of knowledge, the internal, substantial bonds of the object occurs, which are recorded in the laws. No matter how much experiences we have done and have not summarized their data, there is no simple inductive generalization to theoretical knowledge. The theory is not constructed by inductive generalization of the facts. Einstein considered this conclusion by one of the important gnoseological lessons of the development of the physics of the 20th century. Theoretical law is always knowledge of reliable.

Empirical study is based on the direct practical interaction of the researcher with the object being studied. And in this interaction, the nature of objects, their properties and features are known. The truth of empirical knowledge is checked by directly appealing to experience, to practice. At the same time, empirical knowledge objects should be distinguished from reality objects that have an infinite number of features. Empirical objects are abstractions with a fixed and limited set of signs.

Theoretical study does not have direct practical interaction with objects. They are studied only indirectly, in a mental experiment, but not in real. Theoretical ideal objects are studied here, which are called idealized objects, abstract objects or constructs. According to their examples, the material point, the perfect product, an absolutely solid body, perfect gas, etc. For example, the material point is defined as the body devoid of size, but focusing the whole body weight. There are no such bodies in nature, they are constructed with thinking to identify the essential sides of the object being studied. Checking theoretical knowledge by handling experience is impossible, and therefore it is associated with the practice through empirical interpretation.

The levels of scientific knowledge differ in functions: on the empirical level there is a description of reality, on theoretical-attraction and prediction.

Empirical and theoretical levels differ in the methods used and forms of knowledge. The study of empirical objects is carried out using observation, comparisons, measurements and experiment. Empirical research by means are instruments, installations and other means of real observation and experiment.

At the theoretical level there are no means of material, practical interaction with the object being studied. Special methods are used here: idealization, formalization, mental experiment, axiomatic, climbing from abstract to specific.

The results of an empirical study are expressed in a natural language with the addition of special concepts in the form of scientific facts. They record objective, reliable information about the objects studied.

The results of theoretical research are expressed in the form of law and theory. For this, special language systems are created, in which the concepts of science are formalized and mathematized.

The specificity of theoretical knowledge is its reflexivity, the focus on itself, the study of the process of knowledge, its methods, forms, conceptual apparatus. In the empirical knowledge of this kind of research, as a rule, are not conducted.

In real knowledge of reality, empirical and theoretical knowledge always interact as two opposites. EXPERIENCES, WINDING, regardless of theory, sooner or later covered by theory and become knowledge, conclusions from it.

On the other hand, scientific theories, arising on its special theoretical basis, are constructed relatively independently, outside the tough and unambiguous dependence on empirical knowledge, but subordinate to them, submitting ultimately generalization of the data of experience.

Violation of the unity of empirical and theoretical knowledge, the absolutization of any of these levels leads to erroneous one-sided conclusions - empiricalism or scholastic theorization. Examples of the latter are the concept of building communism in the USSR in 1980, the theory of developed socialism, the antigenetical teaching of Lysenko. Empirism absolutes the role of facts and underestimates the role of thinking, denies its active role and relative independence. The only source of knowledge is the experience, sensual knowledge.

Methods of scientific knowledge

Consider the essence of general scientific methods of knowledge. These methods arise in the lap of one science, and then used in a number of others. Such methods include mathematical methods, experiment, modeling. The general scientific methods are divided into knowledge used on the empirical level and on theoretical level. The methods of empirical research include observation, comparison, measurement, experiment.

Observation - systematic targeted perception of reality phenomena, during which we get knowledge about the external parties, properties and their relationships. Observation is an active cognitive process based primarily to the work of human senses organs and its subject material activities. This, of course, does not mean that human thinking is excluded from this process. The observer is consciously looking for objects, guided by a certain idea, hypothesis or former experience. The results of the observation always require a certain interpretation in the light of existing theoretical provisions. The interpretation of the observation data makes it possible to separate the essential facts from insignificant, notice that a non-specialist may not pay. Therefore, now in science, it rarely happens that the discoveries are made by non-specialists.

Einstein in a conversation with Heisenberg noted that the ability to observe this phenomenon or not, depends on the theory. It is the theory that should be established that it is possible to observe and what is impossible.

Progress of observation as a method of scientific knowledge inseparable from the progress of observation means (for example, a telescope, microscope, spectroscope, radar). The devices not only enhance the power of the senses, but also give us any additional perception authorities. So, the devices allow you to "see" the electric field.

In order for the observation to be effective, it should meet the following requirements:

Deliberation or focus,

Sparation,

Activity,

Systemativity.

Observation may be directly when the object affects the organs of the researcher's senses, and indirect when the subject uses technical means, instruments. In the latter case, scientists make conclusion through the objects under study, through the perception of the results of the interaction of unobservable objects with observed objects. Such a conclusion is based on a specific theory that establishes a certain relationship between the observed and unobservable objects.

The necessary side of the observation is the description. It is a fixation of observation results with the help of concepts, signs, schemes, graphs. The basic requirements that are presented to the scientific description are aimed at ensuring that it is possible to be more complete, accurate and objective. The description should give a reliable and adequate picture of the object itself, to accurately display the studied phenomenon. It is important that the concepts used to describe themselves have a clear and unambiguous meaning. The description is divided into two types: high-quality and quantitative. A qualitative description involves fixing the properties of the object being studied, it gives the most common knowledge of it. Quantitative description involves the use of mathematics and numerical characteristics of the properties, parties and links of the object being studied.

In a scientific study, observation performs two main functions: ensuring empirical information about the object and testing of hypotheses and theories of science. Often, observation can play and an important heuristic role, contributing to the nomination of new ideas.

Comparison - This is the establishment of similarities and differences in the objects and phenomena of reality. As a result of comparison, it is established that inherent in several objects, and this leads to the knowledge of the law. Only those objects between which there may be an objective generality be compared. In addition, the comparison should be carried out according to the most important, essential features. The comparison is based on conclusions by analogy, which play a big role: the properties of the phenomena known to us can be distributed to unknown phenomena with among themselves something in common.

Comparison is not only an elementary operation used in a specific area of \u200b\u200bknowledge. In some sciences, the comparison has grown to the level of the main method. For example, comparative anatomy, comparative embryology. This indicates an ever-increasing role of comparison in the process of scientific knowledge.

Measurehistorically, the method developed from the comparison operation, but in contrast to it is a more powerful and universal cognitive means.

Measurement is a procedure for determining the numerical value of a certain amount by means of a comparison with the value adopted per unit of measurement. In order to measure, it is necessary to have an object of measurement, units of measurement, measuring instrument, a certain method of measurement, observer.

Measurements are straight and indirect. With direct measurement, the result is obtained directly from this process itself. With indirect measurement, the desired value is determined by the mathematical way based on the knowledge of other values \u200b\u200bobtained by a direct dimension. For example, determining the mass of stars, measurements in the micrometer. Measurement allows you to find and formulate empirical laws and in some cases serves as a source of formulation of scientific theories. In particular, the measurements of the atomic weights of the elements was one of the prerequisites for creating a periodic system D.I. Mendeleev, which is the theory of properties of chemical elements. The famous measurements of May-Catchson speed subsequently led to a radical breaking of ideas established in physics.

The most important indicator of the quality of measurement, its scientific value is accuracy. The latter depends on the quality and diligence of the scientist, from the methods used by them, but mainly from the available measuring instruments. Therefore, the main ways to increase the measurement accuracy are:

Improving the quality of measuring instruments operating
Based on some of the affirmative principles,

Creating instruments operating on the basis of new principles.
Measurement is one of the most important prerequisites for use in science of mathematical methods.

Most often, the measurement is an elementary method that enters the component into the experiment.

Experiment - The most important and complex method of empirical knowledge. Under the experiment it is understood as the method of studying the object when the researcher actively affects it by creating artificial conditions necessary to identify the relevant properties of this object.

The experiment involves the use of observation, comparisons and measurements as more elementary research methods. The main feature of the experiment in the intervention of the experimenter during natural processes, which necessitates the active nature of the method of knowledge.

What advantages flow from the specific features of the experiment compared with the observation?

In the process of the experiment, it becomes possible to study this
phenomena in "pure form", i.e. various side factors are excluded,
Darling the essence of the main process.

The experiment allows to investigate the properties of objects of reality in extreme conditions (with ultra-low or ultrahigh
temperatures, with the highest pressure). This can lead to unexpected effects, resulting in new properties of objects. Such a method were, for example, the properties of superfluidity and
superconductivity.

The most important advantage of the experiment is its repeatability, and the conditions can be systematically modified.

The classification of experiments is carried out on various reasons.

Depending on the purposes, several types of experiment can be distinguished:

- Research - is carried out in order to detect the property
previously known properties (classic example - Refordford experiments on

the scattering of A-particles, as a result of which the planetary
Atom structure);

- check- It is conducted to verify those or other science statements (an example of a test experiment can be the test of a hypothesis on the existence of the Neptune Planet);

- Measuring - It is carried out to obtain accurate values \u200b\u200bof certain properties of objects (for example, prototypes of metals, alloys; experiments on the study of structural strengths).

According to the nature of the object under study, physical, chemical, biological, psychological, social experiments differ.

According to the method and results of the study, experiments can be divided into high-quality and quantitative. The first of them are rather carrying research, search in nature, the second ensure accurate measurement of all essential factors affecting the course of the process being studied.

The experiment of any type can be carried out both directly with the object you are interested in and with its deputy model. Accordingly, experiments are there satural and model.Model are used in cases when the experiment is impossible or inexpedient.

The experiment received the greatest application in natural science. Modern science began with the experiments of Galilee. However, it is currently becoming increasingly developed in the study of social processes. Such an extension of the experiment in an increasing number of sectors of scientific knowledge speaks of the growing importance of this research method. With it, the tasks of obtaining the values \u200b\u200bof the properties of certain objects are solved, an experimental test of hypotheses and theories is carried out, great and the heuristic meaning of the experiment in finding new aspects of the studied phenomena. The effectiveness of the experiment increases and in connection with the progress of experimental techniques. This feature is observed: the more the experiment is used in science, the faster it develops. It is not by chance that the textbooks of the experimental sciences are aging much faster than sciences descriptive.

Science is not limited to an empirical level of research, it goes further, revealing essential connections and relationships in the test object, which, drawing out in the law, made by a person, acquire a certain theoretical form.

Other means and methods of knowledge are used on theoretical level of knowledge. The methods of theoretical study include: idealization, formalization, the method of climbing from the abstract to a specific, axiomatic, mental experiment.

The method of climbing from the abstract to a specific. The concept of "abstract" is used mainly to characterize human knowledge. Under the abstract is understood to be one-sided, incomplete knowledge, when only those properties that are interested in the researcher are allocated.

The concept of "concrete" in philosophy can be used in two meanings: a) "concrete" - the reality itself, taken in all the variety of properties, links and relations; b) "concrete" - the designation of a multifaceted, comprehensive knowledge of the object. Concrete in this sense acts as opposed to abstract knowledge, i.e. Knowledge, poor in content, unilateral.

What is the essence of the method of climbing from abstract to a specific? Climbing from the abstract to concrete is the universal form of knowledge of knowledge. According to this method, the process of cognition is divided into two relative to independent stages. At the first stage, a transition from sensually-specific to its abstract definitions is carried out. The object itself in the process of this operation, as it were, "evaporates", turning into a set of abstractions recorded by thinking, one-sided definitions.

The second stage of the process of knowledge is actually climbing from the abstract to a specific one. Its essence is that the thought is moving from the abstract definitions of the object to a comprehensive, multifaceted knowledge about the object, to a specific in knowledge. It should be noted that these are two sides of a single process that only have relative independence.

Idealization - mental design of objects that do not really exist. Such ideal objects include, for example, absolutely black body, material point, point electric charge. The process of designing an ideal object necessarily implies the abstraction activity of consciousness. So, speaking about absolutely black body, we abstract from the fact that all real bodies have the ability to reflect the light falling on them. Other mental operations have great importance for the formation of ideal objects. This is due to the fact that when creating ideal objects, we must achieve the following goals:

Deprive the real objects of some properties inherent in them;
- Mentally put these objects with certain unreal properties. This requires a mental transition to the ultimate event in developing any property and discard some real properties of objects.

Ideal objects play a big role in science, they allow you to significantly simplify complex systems, thereby it is possible to apply mathematical research methods to them. Moreover, science knows a lot of examples when the study of ideal objects led to outstanding discoveries (the opening of the Galileum of the Inertia principle). Any idealization is legitimate only within certain limits, it serves to scientific solutions only certain problems. Otherwise, the use of idealization can lead to some delusions. Only, given this, it is possible to correctly appreciate the role of idealization in knowledge.

Formalization - The method of studying the most diverse objects by displaying their content and structure in a sign form and the study of the logical structure of the theory. The advantage of formalization is as follows:

Ensuring completeness of overviewing a certain area of \u200b\u200bproblems, the generalization of the approach to solving them. A general problem solving algorithm is created, such as calculating the areas of various figures using integral calculus;

The use of a special symbolism, the introduction of which ensures the brevity and clarity of the fixation of knowledge;

Attribution of certain symbols or their systems of certain values, which avoids the meaningfulness of terms, which is characteristic of natural languages. Therefore, when operating with formalized argument systems, they differ in clarity and rigor, and the conclusions of evidence;

The ability to form iconic object models and replace the study of real things and processes to study these models. This achieves simplifying cognitive tasks. Artificial languages \u200b\u200bhave relatively large independence, the independence of the character form in relation to the content, therefore, in the process of formalization, it is possible to temporarily distract from the content of the model and explore only the formal side. Such a distraction from the content can lead to paradoxical, but truly ingenious discoveries. For example, with the help of formalization, the existence of a positron P. Dirak was predicted.

Axiomation Found a wide application in mathematics and mathematic sciences.

Under the axiomatic method of constructing theories, such an organization is understood when a number of statements are introduced without proof, and all other are derived from them for certain logical rules. The provisions taken without proof are called axioms or postulates. For the first time this method was applied to construct elementary geometry by Euclide, then it was used in various sciences.

A number of requirements are presented to an axiomatic knowledge system. According to the requirement of consistency in the Axiom system, simultaneously should be displayed any offer and its denial. According to the requirement of completeness, any suggestion that can be formulated in this system by axiom, you can prove in it or refute. According to the independence requirement, any of them should not be derived from other axioms.

What are the advantages of an axiomatic method? First of all, the axiomatization of science requires an accurate determination of the concepts used and compliance with the rigor of the conclusions. In empirical knowledge, the other is not achieved, by virtue of which the use of an axiomatic method requires the progress of the field of knowledge in this regard. In addition, axiomatization streamlines knowledge, excludes unnecessary elements from it, eliminates ambiguity and contradictions. In other words, axiomatization rationalizes the organization of scientific knowledge.

At present, attempts are made to apply this method in non-imagined sciences: biology, linguistics, geology.

Mind experiment It is not carried out with material objects, but with perfect copies. A mental experiment acts as an ideal form of a real experiment and can lead to important discoveries. It was a mental experiment that allowed Galilean to open the physical principle of inertia, the most important of all classical mechanics. This principle could not be opened in any experiment with real objects, in real-life environments.

The methods applied both on empirical and theoretical levels of the study include a generalization, abstraction, analogy, analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, modeling, historical and logical methods, mathematical methods.

Abstraction Wears in mental activity the most universal nature. The essence of this method consists in mental distraction from insignificant properties, links and simultaneous allocations of one or more of the subject of the parties to the subject matter of the subject. The abstraction process has a two-stage character: a separation of a significant, detection of the most important; Implementation of abstraction opportunities, i.e., actually an act of abstraction or distraction.

The result of abstraction is the formation of various kinds of abstractions - both separately taken concepts and their systems. It should be noted that this method includes an integral part into all other methods, more complex in structure.

When we abstract some property or relationship of a number of objects, thereby creating the basis for their association into a single class. In relation to the individual features of each of the objects included in this class, which combines their sign is acting as a common.

Generalization - Method, acceptance of knowledge, as a result of which general properties and features of objects are established. The overall operation is carried out as a transition from a private or less general concept and judgment to a more general concept or judgment. For example, such concepts as "pine", "larch", "spruce" are primary generalizations, from which you can go to a more general concept of "coniferous tree". Then you can go to such concepts as "tree", "plant", "living organism".

Analysis - The method of cognition, the content of which is a set of methods for the dismemberment of the subject into components in order to comprehensively study them.

Synthesis - The method of cognition, the content of which is a set of techniques for the connection of individual parts of the subject in a single whole.

These methods are complemented mutually, determine and accompany each other. In order to become possible an analysis of things, it must be fixed as a whole, for which its synthetic perception is necessary. And on the contrary, the latter suggests its subsequent dismemberment.

Analysis and synthesis are the most elementary methods of cognition that lie in the very foundation of human thinking. At the same time, they are the most universal techniques characteristic of all its levels and forms.

The ability to analyze the object in principle is limitless, which logically follows from the provision on the inexhaustibility of matter. However, the elementary component of the object is always selected, the purpose of the study.

Analysis and synthesis are closely interconnected with other methods of knowledge: experiment, modeling, induction, deduction.

Induction and deduction. The separation of these methods is based on the allocation of two types of conclusions: deductive and inductive. With deductive conclusion, there is a conclusion about a certain element of the set on the basis of knowledge of the common properties of the entire set.

All fish breathe gills.

Okun - Fish

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Consequently, the perch breathes with gills.

One of the parcels of deduction is necessarily a general judgment. Here there is a movement of thought from the common to the private. Such a movement of thought is very often used in a scientific study. Thus, Maxwell of several equations expressing the most common laws of electrodynamics, successively deployed the full theory of the electromagnetic field.

Especially a great cognitive value of the deduction is manifested in the case when a new scientific hypothesis appears as a common parcel. In this case, the deduction is the starting point for the emergence of a new theoretical system. The knowledge created by this way determines the further course of empirical studies and directs the construction of new inductive generalizations.

Consequently, the content of deduction as the method of knowledge is the use of general scientific provisions in the study of specific phenomena.

Induction is a conclusion from private to a common one when, on the basis of knowledge about part of the class items, it is concluded about the class as a whole. Induction as a method of cognition is a set of cognitive operations, as a result of which the movement of thought is carried out from less general provisions to more general. Thus, induction and deduction are directly opposed to the movement of the thoughts. The direct basis of inductive conclusion is the repeatability of reality phenomena. Receiving similar features from many subjects of a certain class, we conclude about the ability of these features to all objects of this class.

The following types of induction are distinguished:

- full induction In which the general conclusion about the class of items is made on the basis of the study of all class items. Full induction gives
reliable conclusions and can be used as evidence;

- incomplete induction in which the total conclusion is obtained from the parcels,
Do not cover all class items. Distinguish three types of incomplete
Induction:

Induction through a simple listing or popular induction, in which the general conclusion about the class of objects is made on the grounds that there was not a single contrary to the generalization;

Induction through the selection of facts is carried out by selecting them from a total mass according to a certain principle that reduces the likelihood of random coincidences;

Scientific induction in which the general conclusion about all objects of the class
is done on the basis of knowledge of the necessary signs or causals
bonds of part of class items. Scientific induction can give not only
Probable, but also reliable conclusions.

Reasonable links can be established by scientific induction methods. The following canons of induction are distinguished (inductive research rules of Bekon Mill):

The only similarity method: if two or more cases of the studied phenomenon have only one circumstance, but all the others
circumstances are different, this is the only similar circumstance and
there is a reason for this phenomenon;

Method of the only difference: if cases in which the phenomenon
It comes or does not occur, they differ only in one previous circumstance, and all other circumstances are identical, then this circumstance is the cause of this phenomenon;

The connected method of similarity and difference is
Combination of the first first methods;

The method of related changes: if the change in one circumstance always causes a change in the other, then the first circumstance
There is a reason for the second;

Method of residues: if it is known that the cause of the studied phenomenon
Do not serve the circumstances necessary for it, except one, then this is one circumstance and is the cause of this phenomenon.

The attractiveness of induction consists in a close connection to it with facts, with practice. It plays a large role in a scientific study - in nomination hypotheses, in the opening of empirical laws, in the process of introducing new concepts into science. Noting the role of induction in science, Louis de Broglie wrote: "Induction, since it seeks to avoid the already taught paths, as it is unreasonably trying to push the existing borders of thought, is a true source of truly scientific progress" 1.

But induction cannot lead to universal judgments in which regularities are expressed. Inductive generalizations cannot transition from empiric to theory. Therefore, absolutize the role of induction, as Bacon did, it would be wrong to the damage to the deduction. F. Engels wrote that deduction and induction are related to each other as as required as analysis and synthesis. Only in mutual communication each of them can fully show their advantages. Deduction is the main method in mathematics, in theoretically developed sciences, inductive conclusions are dominated in empirical sciences.

Historical and logical methods Closely interrelated. They apply to the study of complex developing objects. The essence of the historical method is that the history of the development of the object being studied is reproduced in all the multifaceted, taking into account all laws and accidents. It is used primarily for the study of human history, but a big role plays in the knowledge of the development of inanimate and wildlife.

The history of the object is reconstructed by a logical path on the basis of the study of certain traces of the past, remnants of past epochs captured in material entities (natural or created by humans). For historical research is characterized by chronological after

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1 Brogl L. on the paths of science. M., P. 178.

treatment of material consideration, analysis of the stages of development of research objects. With the help of the historical method, the entire evolution of the object is traced from its origin and to the current state, the genetic relationship of the developing object is investigated, the forces and conditions for the development of the object are investigated.

The content of the historical method is revealed by the structure of the study: 1) the study of the "traces of the past" as the results of historical processes; 2) comparison them with the results of modern processes; 3) recreation of the events of the past in their space-time relations on the basis of the interpretation of "traces of the past" with the help of knowledge of modern processes; 4) allocating the main stages of development and the reasons for the transition from one stage of development to another.

The logical research method is reproduction in thinking of a developing object in the form of historical theory. With a logical study, distracted from all historical accidents, reproducing the history in general, freed from everything insignificant. The principle of unity of historical and logical requires that the logic of thought should be followed by the historical process. This does not mean that the thought is passive, on the contrary, its activity consists in exhausting from the history of the essential, the very essence of the historical process. It can be said that the historical and logical methods of knowledge are not only different, but also largely coincide. Not by chance F. Engels noted that the logical method is, in essence, the same historical, but freed from the historical form. They mutually complement each other.