Peeling skin can be caused by a variety of factors. To deal with ...
To help the graduate: "Preparation for the Unified State Exam in Social Studies."
Social studies is one of the most chosen subjects by school graduates, because he is profiling in many universities in Russia. To successfully pass the USE in social studies, you need not only knowledge, but also the ability to apply it in practice (solving test tasks).
Without part C, there can be no high score. Complete correct fulfillment of the tasks of part 3 (C) is estimated from 2 to 5 points, C1, C2, C5 - 2 points each, tasks C3, C4, C6, C7, C8 - 3 points each, tasks C9 - 5 points, in total for the part С - 26 points.
To help those guys who decided to take social studies this year, the same type of tasks from part C.
Task C5 - the task of an increased level for the enumeration of signs, phenomena or for the use of a concept in a given context. There are two models of this task:
The first model assumes enumeration of a certain number of specified elements (properties, manifestations, etc.);
The second model involves the definition of a concept and the compilation of two informative sentences with it, reflecting certain theoretical or factual social science data.
Part C5 assignments
C5. 1. What is the meaning of social scientists in the concept of "scientific knowledge"? Drawing on knowledge of the social science course, make two sentences containing information about scientific knowledge.
C5.2 List any three features that characterize society as an open dynamic system.
C5.3. What is the meaning of social scientists in the concept of "school education"? Drawing on your knowledge of your social studies course, compose two sentences containing information about school education.
C5.4. What is the meaning of social scientists in the concept of "economic resources"? Drawing on knowledge of the social science course, make two sentences containing information about economic resources.
C5.5. Name three features of a presidential republic that distinguish it from a parliamentary republic.
C5.6. Name any three functions of politics in the state.
C5.7. What is the meaning of social scientists in the concept of "political behavior"? Drawing on your knowledge of social studies, make two sentences containing information on political behavior.
C5.8. Give three reasons for grouping people.
C5.9. What is the meaning of social scientists in the concept of "socialization of the individual"? Drawing on the knowledge of the social science course, make two sentences containing information on the socialization of the individual.
C5.10. What is the meaning of lawyers in the concept of "civil marriage"? Drawing on knowledge of the social science course, make two sentences containing information about civil marriage.
C5.11. Scientists have determined that the choice of a voter during voting is determined by a significant number of factors. List any three factors that influence a voter's decision.
C5.12. What is the meaning of social scientists in the concept of "labor market"? Drawing on knowledge of the social science course, compose two sentences containing information about the labor market.
C5.13. What is the meaning of social scientists in the concept of "social group"? Drawing on knowledge of the social science course, make two sentences containing information about social groups in society.
C5.14. What is the meaning of social scientists in the concept of "world religions"? Drawing on your knowledge of the social studies course, compose two sentences containing information on the world's religions.
C5.15. What is the meaning of social scientists in the concept of "political elite"? Drawing on knowledge of the social science course, make two sentences containing information about the political elite.
C5.16. What is the meaning of social scientists in the concept of "citizenship"? Drawing on your knowledge of your social studies course, compose two sentences containing information on citizenship.
C5. 17. It is known that many democratic countries are faced with the problem of low voter turnout in elections. Some countries impose special sanctions (for example, fines) on such voters, while others consider turnout to be a voter's right, which he may not use. Suggest what could be the reasons for the low voter turnout in the elections? What are three reasons.
C5.18. What is the meaning of social scientists in the concept of "social control"? Drawing on your knowledge of your social studies course, compose two sentences containing information on social control.
C5.19. Form four judgments that reveal the different functions of political parties in modern society.
C5.20. What is the meaning of social scientists in the concept of "education"? Drawing on your knowledge of your social studies course, compose two sentences containing information about education.
C5.21. Name three functions of modern science.
C5.22. What is the manifestation of the limited economic resources? Give at least three sentences.
C5. 23. Name three historical types of society.
C5. 24. Name any three groups of human needs.
C5. 25. Name any three global problems of our time.
C5.26. Name three social institutions that contribute to the socialization of the individual.
C5. 27. What is the meaning of social scientists in the concept of "dialogue of cultures"? Drawing on knowledge of the social science course, make two sentences containing information on the dialogue of cultures
C5. 28. What are three reasons for grouping people?
C5. 29 ... Name three property rights of spouses.
C5. thirty. List any three conditions that promote economic freedom in a market economy.
C5. 31. Name any three factors of personality socialization.
C5. 32 ... List any three traits that characterize education as a social institution
C5.33. List any three functions of government that are characteristic of a democratic state.
C5.34. What is the meaning of social scientists in the concept of "political party"? Drawing on knowledge of social studies, make two sentences containing information about the political party.
C5.35. What is the meaning of social scientists in the concept of "social group"? Drawing on knowledge of the social science course, compose two sentences containing information about social groups in society.
C5.36. What is the meaning of social scientists in the concept of "world religions"? Drawing on your knowledge of your social studies course, compose two sentences containing information on the world's religions.
C5.37. Name two reasons for the emergence of global problems of our time.
C5.38. What is the meaning of social scientists in the concept of "civilization"? Drawing on knowledge of the social science course, make two sentences containing information about civilization.
C5.39. What is the meaning of social scientists in the concept of "international division of labor"? Drawing on knowledge of the social science course, make two sentences containing information on the international division of labor.
C5.40. Name any three types of alignment.
C5.41.What is the meaning of social scientists in the concept of "personality"? Drawing on knowledge of the social science course, make two sentences containing information about the person's personality.
C5.42... Name three actors in the economic system that benefit from unexpected inflation.
C5.43. Name any three factors that increase the supply of goods.
C5.44. What is the meaning of social scientists in the concept of "counterculture"? Drawing on knowledge of the social science course, make two sentences containing information about the counterculture.
C5.45. What is the meaning of social scientists in the concept of "social relations"? Drawing on your knowledge of your social studies course, compose two sentences containing information about public relations.
C5.46. What is the meaning of social scientists put into the concept of "knowledge". Drawing on knowledge of the social science course, make two sentences containing information about cognition.
C5.47. What is the meaning of social scientists in the concept of "producer"? Drawing on knowledge of the social science course, make two sentences containing information about the manufacturer.
C5.48. What is the meaning of social scientists in the concept of "revolution"? Drawing on knowledge of the social science course, make two sentences containing information about the revolution.
C5.49. What is the meaning of social scientists in the concept of "unemployment"? Drawing on your knowledge of your social studies course, compose two sentences containing information about unemployment.
C5.50. What is the meaning of social scientists in the concept of "political ideology"? Drawing on knowledge of the social science course, make two sentences containing information on political ideology.
ANSWERS to tasks C5.
1). "Scientific knowledge is knowledge acquired through special methods in science."
Offers:
Scientific knowledge includes hypothesis.
One of the methods for revealing scientific knowledge is experiment.
The connection between society and nature;
The presence of subsystems;
The interrelation of parts and elements of the social structure;
Constant changes in the life of society.
C5.3."School education is a stage of the educational system of the state, covering children and adolescents, aged 7-17"
Offers:
School education is the most important stage in the socialization of a person.
One of the tasks of school education is to prepare the younger generation for work (admission to higher educational institutions).
C5.4."Economic resources are those factors by which services and goods are created in the production process."
Offers:
Most economic resources are limited.
Labor is one of the most important economic resources.
C5.5.- strict separation of the legislative branch from the executive;
Exclusion of combining government posts and seats of deputies in parliament;
The president is elected in elections, separate from parliamentary elections;
The executive branch is less dependent on the will of parliament members.
C5.6.- ensuring the stability of the state;
Mobilization;
Management;
Humanitarian.
C5.7."Political behavior is a person's actions that characterize his interaction with political institutions."
Offers:
The political behavior of an individual is explained by his value attitudes.
One of the forms of political behavior is participation in demonstrations and rallies.
C5.8.- groups satisfy the needs of a person in social belonging;
In a group, a person satisfies one or another interest;
In a group, a person carries out those activities that he cannot carry out alone;
A person belongs to a particular interest group;
A person belongs to a certain group by age, gender, social status.
C5.9."The socialization of the individual is the assimilation of the basic knowledge accumulated by society and the norms of social life."
Offers:
The family is the institution of primary socialization.
Socialization of the individual helps her to adapt to the conditions of social life.
C5.10.« A civil marriage is a marriage legally registered with the registry office. "
Offers:
Only a civil marriage gives rise to legal relations between spouses.
Along with a civil marriage, fictitious, church marriages are distinguished.
C5.11.- the level of income and education of the voter;
The influence of the social sphere;
Media position;
National, religious factors.
C5.12.“The labor market is a set of economic and legal procedures that allow people to exchange their labor services for money and other material benefits.
Offers:
- The labor market is characterized by mobility.
The labor market reflects the structure and general state of the economy of the region and the country as a whole.
C5.13."A social group is a set of people who have any common significant social feature" or "A social group is any set of people singled out according to socially significant criteria."
Offers:
Social groups are subdivided by size, character, age, sex.
In social groups, a person can realize himself as a person.
In social groups, a person realizes his interests.
C5.14. concept: "World religions are a group of religions that are widespread in all regions of the Earth, addressed to all people, regardless of ethnic and political affiliation, by the largest number of believers."
Two suggestions:
The youngest of the world's religions is Islam.
- "The world religions include Buddhism, Christianity, Islam."
- "One of the very first world religions was Buddhism, which originated in Ancient India."
C5.15."The political elite is a group of people occupying the highest positions in the political hierarchy" or "The political elite is a relatively small social group that concentrates in their hands a significant amount of political power."
Offers:
The political elite is a minority of society with leadership qualities.
The political elite is renewed in the course of the electoral campaign.
C5. 16."Citizenship is a stable legal relationship between a person and the state" or "Citizenship is a person's belonging to any state."
Offers:
Citizenship can be acquired by a person from birth.
Citizenship is not only belonging to the state, but also the mutual obligations of a person and the state to which he belongs.
Low activity can be associated with political stability in society;
Voters do not trust the authorities;
People are busy with their lives, there is no interest in politics;
Crisis phenomena in society, the inability of the authorities to find a way out.
C1... Name any three characteristics of society as a dynamic system.
C2. What socio-economic formations do Marxists distinguish?
SZ. Name three historical types of society. What are the characteristics they are distinguished by?
C4... There is a statement: “Everything is for a person. It is necessary to produce as many goods for him as possible, and for this it is necessary to "invade" nature, violating the natural laws of its development. Either man, his well-being, or nature and her well-being. There is no third".
What is your attitude to this judgment? Justify your answer based on knowledge of social science course, facts of social life and personal experience.
C5... Give three examples of the interconnection of the global problems of humankind.
C6
Gaining more and more strength, civilization often revealed a clear
tendency to impose ideas through missionary work or direct
violence coming from religious, in particular Christian, traditions ... So
civilization steadily spread across the planet, using all
possible ways and means - migration, colonization, conquest, trade,
industrial development, financial control and cultural influence. Few-
little by little all countries and peoples began to live according to its laws or created them according to
the pattern she established ...
The development of civilization, however, was accompanied by the flourishing of bright hopes and illusions that could not be realized ... Elitism has always been at the heart of its philosophy and its actions. And the Earth, no matter how generous it is, is still unable to accommodate the continuously growing population and satisfy more and more of its needs, desires and whims. That is why a new, deeper split has emerged now - between the overdeveloped and underdeveloped countries. But even this rebellion of the world proletariat, which seeks to join the riches of its more prosperous fellows, is taking place within the framework of the same dominant civilization ... ailments. The scientific and technological revolution is becoming more and more obstinate, and it is more and more difficult to pacify it. Having endowed us with unprecedented strength and instilling a taste for such a level of life that we did not even think about, NTR sometimes does not give us the wisdom to keep our capabilities and needs under control. And it's time for our generation, finally, to understand that now depends only on us ... the fate of not individual countries and regions, but of all mankind as a whole.
A. Peccei
1) What global problems of modern society does the author highlight? Indicate two or three problems.
2) What does the author mean when he asserts: "Having endowed us with unprecedented strength and instilling a taste for such a standard of living that we did not even think about, the scientific and technological revolution sometimes does not give us the wisdom to keep our capabilities and needs under control"? Make two assumptions.
3) Illustrate with examples (at least three) the author's statement: "The development of civilization ... was accompanied by the flourishing of bright hopes and illusions that could not come true."
4) Is it possible, in your opinion, in the foreseeable future to overcome the contrast between rich and poor countries. Justify the answer.
C7. Choose one of the suggested statements and state your thoughts on the issue raised in the form of a short essay.
1. "I am a citizen of the world."
(Diogenes of Sinop)
2. "I am too proud of my country to be a nationalist."
(J. Volfrom)
3. “Civilization is not more or less refinement. But in the consciousness common to the whole people. And this consciousness is never refined. On the contrary, it is quite healthy. To represent civilization as the creation of the elite means to identify it with culture, while these are completely different things. " (A. Camus)
C8... Read the text and complete the assignments to it.
“Human society is the highest stage in the development of living systems, the main elements of which are people, the forms of their joint activity, primarily labor, products of labor, various forms of property and the age-old struggle for it, politics and the state, the totality of various institutions, the refined sphere of the spirit. Society can also be defined as a self-organized system of behavior and relationships between people of arcs with a friend and with nature ...
The concept of society covers not only living people, but also all past and future generations, i.e. all of humanity in its history and perspective. The unification of people into an integral system occurs and is reproduced independently of the will of its members ...
The life of a society is not limited to the life of its constituent people. Society creates material and spiritual values that cannot be created by individuals ... Society is a single social organism, the internal organization of which is a set of specific, characteristic for a given system, diverse connections, which are ultimately based on human labor. The structure of human society is formed by: production and the production, economic, social relations that develop on its basis, including class, national, family relations; political relations and, finally, the spiritual sphere of the life of society - science, philosophy, art, morality, religion, etc.
People constantly carry out the process of social production of their lives: the production of material goods, the production of people as social beings, the production of the corresponding type of relations between people, the very form of communication and the production of ideas. In society, economic, economic, state, family relations, as well as a number of ideological phenomena are intertwined in the most intricate way ...
It is society that is the main condition for a more or less normal life and development of people ... "
1) Find in the text and write down two sentences in which the author lists the main elements of society.
2) Scientists call society a dynamic system. Find three other words in the text that the author uses to characterize society as a system.
4) Based on the content of the text and knowledge of the social science course, give three proofs that the basis of society "ultimately lies in human labor."
C9... Read the text and complete the assignments to it.
It seems to me that today, when humanity has come close to an ecological catastrophe, when all the terrible consequences of utopian claims to total control of social processes are extremely clear, the fate of the humanistic ideal is associated with the rejection of the idea of mastery, suppression and domination. The new understanding of the relationship between nature and humanity corresponds not to the ideal of anthropocentrism, but to the idea of coevolution, the joint evolution of nature and humanity, developed by a number of modern thinkers, in particular, by our well-known scientist N.N. Moiseev, which can be interpreted as the relationship of equal partners, if you like, interlocutors in an unprogrammed dialogue ...
This can and should be understood more broadly. Freedom as an integral characteristic of the humanistic ideal is not thought of as mastery and control, but as the establishment of equal partnerships with what is outside of a person: with natural processes, with another person, with the values of a different culture, with social processes, even with non-reflective and “ opaque "processes of my own psyche.
In this case, freedom is understood not as an expression of a projective-constructive attitude to the world, not as the creation of such an objective world that is controlled and controlled, but as such an attitude when I accept the other, and the other accepts me. (It is important to emphasize that acceptance does not mean simply being content with what is, but presupposes interaction and interchange.) This is ... about free acceptance based on understanding as a result of communication. In this case, we are dealing with a special kind of activity. This is not an activity to create an object in which a person tries to capture and express himself, that is, an object that seems to belong to the subject. This is a mutual activity, the interaction of equal partners freely participating in the process, each of which reckons with the other and as a result of which both of them change.
(V.A. Lektorsky)
1) What two realities of modern society require, according to the author, a new understanding of the humanistic ideal? Where does he see the essence of this new understanding?
2) Give any two phrases that reflect the author's understanding of freedom.
3) Explain why anthropocentrism (the idea of mastery and domination) has ceased to correspond to the humanistic ideal at the present stage. Give three explanations based on social science knowledge and facts of social life.
4) The author writes about the need to "establish equal partnership relations with what is outside of the person." Based on the content of the text and knowledge of the social science course, guess what this relationship might be with any three of the partners named by the author. (First name the partner you are partnering with, and then state your guess.)
Answers
Part 1 Level A
| Job No. | answer |
Part 2 Level B
| Job No. | answer |
| natural | |
| regression | |
| A B C D | |
| C; A; D; B | |
| C; G; F | |
| C; A; B; D | |
| spiritual | |
| 2,3,4 | |
| spiritual | |
| 1,3,4,5,6 | |
| 1,2,4,6 | |
| manual | |
| 1,2,4,6 | |
| 3,5,6 | |
| VVABG | |
| Public | |
| BVA | |
| 3,4,2,1,5 | |
| Spheres, spheres | |
| Social progress | |
| B; A; D; C | |
| 1-a, b, d, h, k, l, o, p, t, c, y, i; 2-v, e, i, m, n, s, y, f; 3d, w, r, f, x, h, w, u, e | |
| D; C; B; D; A | |
| 1)2,3,7,8,9,12; 2)4,6,8,11; 3)1,5,10 | |
| 1,3,4.7,9 | |
| 5,10,12,13,14 | |
| 3,4,5,7,8,9 |
Part 3. Level C
C1 The correct answer may contain the following characteristics:
Integrity;
Consists of interconnected elements;
Items change over time;
The nature of the relationship between systems is changing;
The system as a whole is changing.
Other characteristics may be given.
C2. Correct answer:
Primitive
Slave
Feudal
Capitalist (bourgeois)
Socialist (communist)
SZ... Traditional (pre-industrial), industrial, post-industrial.
Signs:
Pre-industrial society: the basis is agriculture;
Industrial society: the basis is large-scale industry;
Postindustrial (technotronic, technological) society: the basis is information.
C4. The correct answer may contain the following positions:
Society and nature are interconnected;
Nature is the natural habitat of society;
The purpose of production is to meet the fundamental human needs for food, clothing;
For centuries, people have used the riches of nature, polluting the atmosphere, cutting down forests, extracting minerals, contaminating water, destroying the soil;
As a result, there was a threat of a global ecological catastrophe - irreversible changes in the natural conditions of life on Earth, threatening degradation and even death of a person;
The current Criminal Code of the Russian Federation provides for serious liability for such environmental crimes as violation of environmental protection rules during work, water pollution, illegal hunting, etc.
Other items may be listed.
C5... Any three examples of the interconnection of global problems of our time can be given, for example:
The threat of an environmental crisis is reflected in the economy: developed countries are trying to transfer “harmful” industries to the countries of the “third world”, which exacerbates the “North-South” problem;
The threat of international terrorism is intertwined with the problem of the threat of nuclear war in connection with the desire of terrorists to gain access to technologies for the production of weapons of mass destruction;
The demographic problem in the modern world acts primarily as a problem of the rapid demographic growth of the third world countries, which increases the gap in economic terms with developed countries.
C6... The content of the correct answers to the tasks to the text.
1) Problems highlighted:
- limited resources;
Uneven development (North-South problem);
Demographic;
Consequences of scientific and technological revolution.
2) Assumptions can be made:
Humanity's scientific knowledge and technical means for global transformations pose a threat to life itself on Earth;
The formation of a consumer society makes speed and comfort a priority value.
Other assumptions can be made without distorting the meaning of the judgment.
3) Can be specified, for example:
communist utopias;
Belief in the omnipotence of scientific and technological progress;
Belief in the ideals of freedom and justice as understood by the leaders of the Enlightenment.
Other examples can be given that do not distort the meaning of the judgment.
4) If a negative answer is given, then the arguments are given:
the demographic situation in poor countries aggravates their lag behind rich countries;
as a result - weak participation in the global division of labor;
as a result - one-sided economic development and dependence on rich countries. Other arguments could be given.
C8... Text.
1) The correct answer should contain the following elements:
1) realities modern society:
- "humanity has come close to an ecological catastrophe";
- “all the terrible consequences of utopian claims to total control of social processes are extremely clear”;
2) essence of new understanding humanistic ideal:
"The idea of coevolution, the joint evolution of nature and humanity, which can be interpreted as the attitude of equal partners, if you like, interlocutors in an unprogrammed dialogue."
These elements can be given in other, similar in content formulations.
2) The response may contain the following phrases:
1) “Freedom as an integral characteristic of the humanistic ideal is thought of ... as the establishment of equal partnerships with what is outside of a person: with natural processes, with another person, with the values of another culture, with social processes, even with non-reflective and“ opaque ”processes my own psyche ”;
2) "freedom is understood ... as such an attitude when I accept the other, and the other accepts me";
3) "free acceptance based on understanding as a result of communication."
3) The following explanations can be given:
1) The installation of human domination over nature has led to irreversible changes in the external environment.
2) Irreversible changes in the external environment negatively affect human health, the functioning of society.
3) The amount of resources that the rapidly growing numerically growing humanity can use for its development has significantly decreased.
4) The attitude of domination extended to the attitude of a person to his own kind, public interests.
Other explanations may be given.
4) The correct answer may contain the following assumptions:
1) "relationship with natural processes": human use of nature-saving and resource-saving technologies, limiting consumption;
2) "relationship with another person": recognition of the unconditional value of the personality of another person, respect for his freedom;
3) "relations with the values of another culture": a tolerant attitude towards the values of another culture and the bearers of these values;
4) "relations with social processes": rejection of the installation of personal and group egoism, consumerism, striving for the social world;
5) “relations with non-reflective and“ opaque ”processes of my own psyche”: attentive attitude to my own psychological state, sparing its correction in necessary cases, maximum use of my own mental capabilities and states in the activity.
Other assumptions could be made.
C9.Text.
1) The correct answer should contain the following positions:
1) "people, the forms of their joint activity, primarily labor, products of labor, various forms of property and the age-old struggle for it, politics and the state, the totality of various institutions, the refined sphere of the spirit";
2) “production and the production, economic, social relations formed on its basis, including class, national, family relations; political relations and, finally, the spiritual sphere of the life of society - science, philosophy, art, morality, religion, etc. ”.
2) The correct answer may contain the following characteristics:
1) living system;
2) an integral system;
3) self-organized system.
3) The correct answer may contain the following arguments:
1) only in relations with other people can a person reveal and develop his qualities (socially significant) that distinguish him from animals;
2) society performs numerous functions that ensure physical survival and a relatively comfortable existence of a person;
3) only in society are social and spiritual needs of a person satisfied.
Other valid arguments are possible.
4) The correct answer may contain, for example, the following explanations:
in the process of labor
1) according to the theory of evolution, human ancestors acquired and developed their human qualities;
2) many social and prestigious human needs are realized;
3) the material needs of society are met;
4) a certain social organization is being formed;
5) spiritual institutions are formed.
Therefore, a person is a universal element of all social systems, since he is certainly included in each of them.
Like any system, society is an ordered integrity. This means that the components of the system are not in a chaotic disorder, but, on the contrary, occupy a certain position within the system and are connected in a certain way with other components. Hence. the system has an integral quality that is inherent in it as a whole. None of the system components. considered in isolation, it does not have this quality. It, this quality, is the result of the integration and interconnection of all components of the system. Just as individual organs of a person (heart, stomach, liver, etc.) do not possess human properties. and the economy, the health care system, the state and other elements of society do not have the qualities that are inherent in society as a whole. And only thanks to the diverse connections that exist between the components of the social system, it turns into a single whole. that is, into society (as through the interaction of various human organisms there is a single human body).
Various examples can be used to illustrate the connections between subsystems and elements of society. The study of the distant past of mankind has allowed scientists to conclude that. that the moral relations of people in primitive conditions were built on collectivist principles, i.e. That is, in modern terms, priority has always been given to the team, and not to the individual. It is also known that the moral norms that existed among many tribes in those archaic times allowed the killing of weak members of the clan - sick children, old people - and even cannibalism. Have these ideas and views of people about the limits of the morally permissible influenced the real material conditions of their existence? The answer is clear: undoubtedly, they did. The need to jointly obtain material wealth, the doom of a quick death of a person who has broken away from his family, and laid the foundations of collectivist morality. Guided by the same methods of struggle for existence and survival, people did not consider it immoral to free themselves from those who could become a burden for the collective.
Another example would be the relationship between legal norms and socio-economic relations. Let's turn to the well-known historical facts. One of the first codes of laws of Kievan Rus, called Russkaya Pravda, provides for various punishments for murder. At the same time, the measure of punishment was determined primarily by the place of a person in the system of hierarchical relations, his or her belonging to a particular social stratum or group. Thus, the penalty for killing a tiun (steward) was enormous: it amounted to 80 hryvnia and was equal to the cost of 80 oxen or 400 rams. The life of a stinker or a slave was estimated at 5 hryvnia, that is, 16 times cheaper.
Integral, that is, general, inherent in the entire system, the qualities of any system are not a simple sum of the qualities of its components, but represent a new quality that has arisen as a result of the relationship, the interaction of its components. In its most general form, this is the quality of society as a social system - the ability to create all the necessary conditions for its existence, to produce everything necessary for the collective life of people. In philosophy, self-sufficiency is seen as the main difference between society and its constituent parts. Just as human organisms cannot exist outside the integral organism, so none of the subsystems of society can exist outside the whole - society as a system.
Another feature of society as a system is that this system is self-governing.
The administrative function is performed by the political subsystem, which gives consistency to all the components that form social integrity.
Any system, whether technical (unit with an automatic control system), or biological (animal), or social (society), is in a certain environment with which it interacts. The environment of the social system of any country is both nature and the world community. Changes in the state of the natural environment, events in the world community, in the international arena are a kind of "signals" to which society must respond. Usually it seeks to either adapt to changes in the environment, or adapt the environment to its needs. In other words, the system reacts to "signals" in one way or another. At the same time, it implements its main functions: adaptation; goal achievement, that is, the ability to maintain its integrity, ensuring the implementation of its tasks, influencing the natural and social environment; maintaining the image - the ability to maintain its internal structure; integration - the ability to integrate, that is, to include new parts, new social formations (phenomena, processes, etc.) into a single whole.
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
The most important component of society as a system is social institutions.
The word "institute" translated from the Latin instituto means "establishment". In Russian, it is often used to refer to higher education institutions. In addition, as you know from the course of basic school, in the field of law, the word "institution" means a set of legal norms governing one social relationship or several relationships related to each other (for example, the institution of marriage).
In sociology, social institutions are historically established stable forms of organizing joint activities regulated by norms, traditions, customs and aimed at satisfying the fundamental needs of society.
We will consider this definition, to which it is advisable to return, having read the training material on this issue to the end, relying on the concept of “activity” (see - 1). In the history of society, stable types of activity have developed, aimed at satisfying the most important vital needs. Sociologists identify five such social needs:
the need for the reproduction of the genus;
the need for safety and social order;
the need for livelihoods;
the need for knowledge, socialization
the younger generation, training;
- the need for solving spiritual problems of the meaning of life.
In accordance with the named needs in society, there were also types of activities, which, in turn, required the necessary organization, ordering, the creation of certain institutions and other structures, the development of rules that ensure the achievement of the expected result. Historically established social institutions met these conditions for the successful implementation of the main types of activity:
the institution of family and marriage;
- political institutions, especially the state;
- economic institutions, primarily production;
- institutes of education, science and culture;
- Institute of Religion.
Each of these institutions brings together large masses of people to meet a particular need and achieve a specific goal of a personal, group or social nature.
The emergence of social institutions led to the consolidation of specific types of interaction, made them permanent and obligatory for all members of a given society.
So, a social institution is, first of all, a collection of persons engaged in a certain type of activity and ensuring, in the process of this activity, the satisfaction of a certain need that is significant for society (for example, all employees of the education system).
Further, the institution is enshrined in a system of legal and moral norms, traditions and customs that regulate the corresponding types of behavior. (Think, for example, what social norms govern the behavior of people in the family).
Another characteristic feature of a social institution is the presence of institutions supplied with certain material resources necessary for any kind of activity. (Think about which social institutions the school, factory, militia belong to. Give your examples of institutions and organizations related to each of the most important social institutions.)
Any of these institutions is integrated into the socio-political, legal, value structure of society, which makes it possible to legitimize the activities of this institution and exercise control over it.
A social institution stabilizes social relations, brings coherence to the actions of members of society. A social institution is characterized by a clear delineation of the functions of each of the subjects of interaction, the consistency of their actions, a high level of regulation and control. (Consider how these features of a social institution are manifested in the education system, in particular in the school.)
Let us consider the main features of a social institution using the example of such an important institution of society as the family. First of all, every family is a small group of people based on intimacy and emotional attachment, connected by marriage (spouse) and blood relationship (parents and children). The need to create a family is one of the fundamental, that is, fundamental, human needs. At the same time, the family performs important functions in society: the birth and upbringing of children, economic support for minors and the disabled, and many others. Each family member occupies his own special position in it, which presupposes appropriate behavior: parents (or one of them) provide a livelihood, do household chores, and raise children. Children, in turn, study, help around the house. Such behavior is governed not only by intra-family rules, but also by social norms: morality and law. Thus, public morality condemns the lack of care of the older family members for the younger ones. The law establishes the responsibility and obligations of spouses in relation to each other, to children, adult children to elderly parents. The creation of a family, the main milestones of family life are accompanied by traditions and rituals established in society. For example, in many countries the marriage ritual involves the exchange of wedding rings between spouses.
The presence of social institutions makes people's behavior more predictable, and society as a whole, more stable.
In addition to the main social institutions, there are also non-main ones. So, if the main political institution is the state, then the non-main ones are the institution of the judiciary or, as in our country, the institution of presidential representatives in the regions, etc.
The presence of social institutions reliably ensures regular, self-renewing satisfaction of vital needs. A social institution makes connections between people not random and not chaotic, but permanent, reliable, stable. Institutional interaction is a well-oiled order of social life in the main spheres of human life. The more social needs are met by social institutions, the more developed society is.
Since new needs and conditions arise in the course of the historical process, new types of activity and corresponding connections appear. Society is interested in giving them orderliness, normative character, that is, in their institutionalization.
In Russia, as a result of the reforms of the late twentieth century. appeared, for example, such a type of activity as entrepreneurship. The streamlining of this activity led to the emergence of various types of firms, required the publication of laws regulating entrepreneurial activity, and contributed to the formation of appropriate traditions.
Institutions of parliamentarism, a multiparty system, and the institution of the presidency have emerged in the political life of our country. The principles and rules of their functioning are enshrined in the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the corresponding laws.
In the same way, the institutionalization of other types of activity that have arisen over the past decades took place.
It happens that the development of society requires the modernization of the activities of social institutions, historically formed in previous periods. So, in the changed conditions, it became necessary to solve in a new way the problems of familiarizing with the culture of the younger generation. Hence the steps taken to modernize the institution of education, as a result of which the institutionalization of the Unified State Examination, the new content of educational programs, may occur.
So, we can return to the definition given at the beginning of this part of the paragraph. Think about what characterizes social institutions as highly organized systems. Why is their structure stable? How important is the deep integration of their elements? What is the diversity, flexibility, dynamism of their functions?
PRACTICAL CONCLUSIONS
1 Society is a super-complex system, and in order to live in harmony with it, it is necessary to adapt (adapt) to it. Otherwise, you cannot avoid conflicts, failures in your life and work. The condition for adaptation to modern society is knowledge about it, which is given by the course of social studies.
2 It is possible to understand society only if its quality is revealed as an integral system. To do this, it is necessary to consider various sections of the structure of society (the main spheres of human activity; a set of social institutions, social groups), systematizing, integrating connections between them, the features of the management process in a self-governing social system.
3 In real life, you will have to interact with various social institutions. To make this interaction successful, you need to know the goals and nature of the activity that has taken shape in the social institution you are interested in. This will help you study the legal rules governing this type of activity.
4 in the subsequent sections of the course, characterizing individual areas of human activity, it is useful to re-refer to the content of this paragraph in order, based on it, to consider each area as part of a holistic system. This will help to understand the role and place of each sphere, each social institution in the development of society.
Document
From the work of the modern American sociologist E. Shils "Society and Societies: Macrosociological Approach."
What is included in societies? As already mentioned, the most differentiated of them consist not only of families and kindred groups, but also of associations, unions, firms and farms, schools and universities, armies, churches and sects, parties and numerous other corporate organizations or organizations that, in in turn, they have boundaries that define the circle of members over which the corresponding corporate authorities - parents, managers, chairmen, etc., etc. - exercise a certain measure of control. This also includes systems that are formally and informally organized according to a territorial principle - communities, villages, neighborhoods, cities, districts - and all of them also have some features of society. Further, this includes unorganized groups of people within society - social classes or strata, occupations and professions, religions, linguistic groups - who have a culture that is more inherent in those who have a certain status or occupy a certain position than everyone else.
So, we became convinced that society is not just a collection of united people, primordial and cultural collectives, interacting and exchanging services with each other. All these collectives form a society by virtue of their existence under a common authority, which exercises its control over the territory defined by boundaries, maintains and implants a more or less common culture. It is these factors that transform the aggregate of relatively specialized primordial corporate and cultural collectives into a society.
Questions and tasks to the document
1. What components, according to E. Shils, are included in society? Indicate which spheres of society each of them belongs to.
2. Select from the listed components those that are social institutions.
3. Based on the text, prove that the author views society as a social system.
QUESTIONS FOR SELF-TEST
1. What does the concept "system" mean?
2. How are social (social) systems different from natural ones?
3. What is the main quality of society as an integral system?
4. What are the connections and relationships of society as a system with the environment?
5. What is a social institution?
6. Oxapterize major social institutions.
7. What are the main features of a social institution?
8. What is the significance of institutionalization?
TASKS
1. While changing the systemic approach, analyze the Russian society at the beginning of the 20th century.
2. Describe all the main features of a social institution on the example of the institution of education. Use the material and recommendations of the practical conclusions of this paragraph.
3. The collective work of Russian sociologists says: "... society exists and functions in various forms ... The really important question comes down to not losing society itself behind special forms, and forests behind the trees." How is this statement related to the understanding of society as a system? Give reasons for your answer.
Compared to natural systems, human society is more susceptible to qualitative and quantitative changes. They happen faster and more frequently. This characterizes society as a dynamic system.
A dynamic system is a system that is constantly in a state of motion. It develops, changing its own features and characteristics. One of these systems is society. A change in the state of society can be caused by outside influence. But sometimes it is based on the internal need of the system itself. The dynamic system has a complex structure. It consists of many sublevels and elements. On a global scale, human society includes many other societies in the form of states. States are social groups. The unit of a social group is a person.
Society constantly interacts with other systems. For example, with nature. It uses its resources, potential, etc. Throughout the history of mankind, the natural environment and natural disasters have not only helped people. Sometimes they hindered the development of society. And even became the cause of his death. The nature of interaction with other systems is formed due to the human factor. It is usually understood as the totality of such phenomena as the will, interest and conscious activity of individuals or social groups.
Characteristic features of society as a dynamic system:
- dynamism (change of the whole society or its elements);
- a complex of interacting elements (subsystems, social institutions, etc.);
- self-sufficiency (the system itself creates conditions for existence);
- integration (interconnection of all components of the system); - self-control (the ability to react to events outside the system).
Society as a dynamic system consists of elements. They can be tangible (buildings, technical systems, institutions, etc.). And intangible or ideal (actually ideas, values, traditions, customs, etc.). So, the economic subsystem is made up of banks, transport, goods, services, laws, etc. A special system-forming element is a person. He has a choice, he has free will. As a result of the activity of a person or a group of people, large-scale changes can occur in society or its individual groups. This makes the social system more mobile.
The pace and quality of changes taking place in society can be different. Sometimes the established order exists for several hundred years, and then changes occur quickly enough. Their scope and quality can vary. Society is constantly evolving. It is an ordered integrity in which all elements are in a certain relationship. This property is sometimes called the non-additivity of the system. Another feature of society as a dynamic system is self-control.
society as a complex dynamic system(select)
The most common understanding of society is associated with the idea of it as a group of people united by certain interests. So, we are talking about a society of philatelists, about a society for the protection of nature, often by society we mean the circle of friends of this or that person, etc. Not only the first, but even scientific ideas of people about society were similar. However, the essence of society cannot be reduced to the totality of human individuals. It must be sought in the connections and relationships that arise in the process of joint activities of people, which are of a non-individual nature and acquire a strength that is not subject to individual people. Social relations are stable, constantly repeat themselves and underlie the formation of various structural parts, institutions, organizations of society. Social connections and relationships turn out to be objective, dependent not on a specific person, but on other, more fundamental and fundamental forces and principles. So, in antiquity, such a force was supposed to be the cosmic idea of justice, in the Middle Ages - the personality of God, in modern times - a social contract, etc. They sort of order and cement diverse social phenomena, give their complex totality movement and development (dynamics).
Due to the variety of social forms and phenomena, society is trying to explain the economic sciences, history, sociology, demography and many other sciences about society. But the identification of the most general, universal connections, fundamental foundations, primary causes, leading patterns and trends is the task of philosophy. It is important for science to know not only what is the social structure of a given concrete society, what classes, nations, groups, etc., operate, what are their public interests and needs, or what economic orders dominate in a given period of history. Social science is also interested in identifying what unites all existing and possible societies in the future, what are the sources and driving forces of social development, its leading tendencies and basic laws, its direction, etc. It is especially important to consider society as a single organism or systemic integrity, the structural elements of which are in more or less ordered and stable relationships. In them, one can even single out relations of subordination, where the leading is the connection between material factors and ideal formations of social life.
In social science, several fundamental views on the essence of society are known, the differences between which are in the selection in this dynamic system as the leading various structural elements. The sociopsychological approach in understanding society is composed of several postulates. Society is a collection of individuals and a system of social actions. The actions of people are comprehended and determined by the physiology of the organism. The origins of social action can be found even in instincts (Freud).
Naturalistic concepts of society proceed from the leading role in the development of society of natural, geographic and demographic factors. Some determine the development of society by the rhythms of solar activity (Chizhevsky, Gumilev), others - by the climatic environment (Montesquieu, Mechnikov), and still others - by the genetic, racial and sexual characteristics of a person (Wilson, Dokkins, Scheffle). Society in this concept is considered somewhat simplified, as a natural continuation of nature, which has only biological specificity, to which the features of the social are reduced.
In the materialist understanding of society (Marx), people are linked into a social organism by productive forces and production relations. The material life of people, social being determine the entire social dynamics - the mechanism of the functioning and development of society, the social actions of people, their spiritual and cultural life. Social development in this concept acquires an objective, natural-historical character, appears as a natural change of socio-economic formations, certain stages of world history.
All of these definitions have something in common. Society is a stable association of people, the strength and consistency of which lies in the power of power that permeates all social relations. Society is a self-sufficient structure, the elements and parts of which are in a complex relationship, giving it the character of a dynamic system.
In modern society, qualitative changes are taking place in social relations and social ties between people, expanding their space and compressing the time of their course. An increasing number of people are covered by universal laws and values, and events taking place in a region or a remote province influence world processes, and vice versa. The emerging global society simultaneously destroys all borders and, as it were, "compresses" the world.
The existence of people in society is characterized by various forms of life and communication. Everything that is created in society is the result of the combined joint activity of many generations of people. Actually, society itself is a product of the interaction of people, it exists only where and then where people are connected with each other by common interests.
In philosophical science, many definitions of the concept of "society" are proposed. In a narrow sense society can be understood as a certain group of people united for communication and joint performance of any activity, and a specific stage in the historical development of any people or country.
In a broad sense society - it is a part of the material world, isolated from nature, but closely related to it, which consists of individuals with will and consciousness, and includes ways of interaction of people and the forms of their association.
In philosophical science, society is characterized as a dynamic self-developing system, that is, a system that is capable, while seriously changing, to preserve its essence and qualitative definiteness. In this case, the system is understood as a complex of interacting elements. In turn, an element is a further indecomposable component of the system that is directly involved in its creation.
For the analysis of complex systems, such as the one that represents society, scientists have developed the concept of "subsystem". Subsystems are called "intermediate" complexes, more complex than the elements, but less complex than the system itself.
1) economic, the elements of which are material production and relations that arise between people in the process of production of material goods, their exchange and distribution;
2) social, consisting of such structural formations as classes, social strata, nations, taken in their relationship and interaction with each other;
3) political, which includes politics, state, law, their relationship and functioning;
4) spiritual, covering various forms and levels of social consciousness, which, being embodied in the real process of the life of society, form what is commonly called spiritual culture.
Each of these spheres, being an element of the system called "society", in turn, turns out to be a system in relation to the elements that make it up. All four spheres of social life not only interconnect, but also mutually condition each other. The division of society into spheres is somewhat arbitrary, but it helps to isolate and study individual areas of a truly integral society, a diverse and complex social life.
Sociologists offer several classifications of society. Societies are:
a) pre-written and written;
b) simple and complex (the criterion in this typology is the number of levels of management of society, as well as the degree of its differentiation: in simple societies there are no leaders and subordinates, rich and poor, and in complex societies there are several levels of government and several social strata of the population, located from top to bottom in descending order of income);
c) a society of primitive hunters and gatherers, a traditional (agrarian) society, an industrial society and a post-industrial society;
d) primitive society, slave society, feudal society, capitalist society and communist society.
In Western scientific literature in the 1960s. the division of all societies into traditional and industrial ones became widespread (while capitalism and socialism were considered as two types of industrial society).
A great contribution to the formation of this concept was made by the German sociologist F. Tennis, the French sociologist R. Aron, and the American economist W. Rostow.
Tradidion (agrarian) society represented the pre-industrial stage of civilizational development. All societies of antiquity and the Middle Ages were traditional. Their economy was characterized by the dominance of subsistence agriculture and primitive handicrafts. Extensive technology and hand tools prevailed, which in the beginning ensured economic progress. In his production activities, man tried to adapt to the environment as much as possible, obeying the rhythms of nature. Property relations were characterized by the domination of communal, corporate, conditional, state forms of ownership. Private property was neither sacred nor inviolable. The distribution of material goods, the product produced depended on the position of a person in the social hierarchy. The social structure of traditional society is corporate, stable and motionless. Social mobility was virtually absent: a person was born and died, remaining in the same social group. The main social units were the community and the family. Human behavior in society was regulated by corporate norms and principles, customs, beliefs, unwritten laws. In the public consciousness, providentialism prevailed: social reality, human life were perceived as the implementation of divine providence.
The spiritual world of a person in a traditional society, his system of value orientations, a way of thinking are special and noticeably different from modern ones. Individuality and independence were not encouraged: the social group dictated the norms of behavior to the individual. One can even speak of a “group person” who has not analyzed his position in the world, and indeed rarely analyzed the phenomena of the surrounding reality. Rather, he moralizes, evaluates life situations from the standpoint of his social group. The number of educated people was extremely limited ("literacy for the few") oral information prevailed over written. In the political sphere of traditional society, the church and the army dominate. Man is completely alienated from politics. Power seems to him to be of greater value than law and law. On the whole, this society is extremely conservative, stable, impervious to innovations and impulses from the outside, being a “self-sustaining self-regulating immutability”. Changes in it occur spontaneously, slowly, without the conscious intervention of people. The spiritual sphere of human existence is a priority over the economic one.
Traditional societies have survived to this day, mainly in the countries of the so-called "third world" (Asia, Africa) (therefore, the concept of "non-Western civilizations" is often synonymous with "traditional society", which also claims to be well-known sociological generalizations). From the Eurocentric point of view, traditional societies are backward, primitive, closed, unfree social organisms, which Western sociology opposes with industrial and post-industrial civilizations.
As a result of modernization, understood as a complex, contradictory, complex process of transition from a traditional society to an industrial one, the foundations of a new civilization were laid in the countries of Western Europe. They call her industrial, technogenic, scientific and technical or economic. The economic base of an industrial society is a machine-based industry. The volume of fixed capital increases, the long-term average cost per unit of production decreases. In agriculture, labor productivity rises sharply, natural isolation is destroyed. An extensive economy is replaced by an intensive one, and simple reproduction is replaced by an expanded one. All these processes take place through the implementation of the principles and structures of a market economy, based on scientific and technological progress. Man is freed from direct dependence on nature, partially subordinates it to himself. Stable economic growth has been accompanied by growth in real per capita income. If the pre-industrial period is filled with fear of hunger and disease, then the industrial society is characterized by an increase in the well-being of the population. In the social sphere of an industrial society, traditional structures and social barriers are also crumbling. Social mobility is significant. As a result of the development of agriculture and industry, the proportion of the peasantry in the population is sharply reduced, and urbanization occurs. New classes are emerging - the industrial proletariat and the bourgeoisie, the middle strata are strengthening. The aristocracy is declining.
In the spiritual sphere, there is a significant transformation of the value system. The man of the new society is autonomous within a social group, guided by his own personal interests. Individualism, rationalism (a person analyzes the world around him and makes decisions on this basis) and utilitarianism (a person acts not in the name of some global goals, but for a certain benefit) are new systems of personality coordinates. There is a secularization of consciousness (liberation from direct dependence on religion). A person in an industrial society strives for self-development, self-improvement. Global changes are also taking place in the political sphere. The role of the state is sharply increasing, and a democratic regime is gradually taking shape. In society, law and law dominate, and a person is involved in power relations as an active subject.
A number of sociologists somewhat specify the above scheme. From their point of view, the main content of the modernization process is in changing the model (stereotype) of behavior, in the transition from irrational (characteristic of a traditional society) to rational (characteristic of an industrial society) behavior. The economic aspects of rational behavior include the development of commodity-money relations, which determines the role of money as a general equivalent of values, the displacement of barter transactions, a wide range of market operations, etc. The most important social consequence of modernization is the change in the principle of distribution of roles. Previously, society imposed sanctions on social choice, limiting the possibility of a person taking certain social positions, depending on his belonging to a certain group (origin, birth, nationality). After the modernization, a rational principle of distribution of roles is approved, in which the main and only criterion for taking a particular position is the candidate's readiness to perform these functions.
Thus, industrial civilization opposes traditional society in all directions. Industrial societies include most of the modern industrialized countries (including Russia).
But modernization gave rise to many new contradictions, which over time turned into global problems (environmental, energy and other crises). Solving them, progressively developing, some modern societies are approaching the stage of post-industrial society, the theoretical parameters of which were developed in the 1970s. American sociologists D. Bell, E. Toffler and others. This society is characterized by the advancement of the service sector, individualization of production and consumption, an increase in the share of small-scale production with the loss of dominant positions by the mass, the leading role of science, knowledge and information in society. In the social structure of post-industrial society, there is an erasure of class differences, and the convergence of the incomes of various groups of the population leads to the elimination of social polarization and an increase in the proportion of the middle class. The new civilization can be characterized as anthropogenic, in the center of it is a man, his individuality. Sometimes it is also called informational, which reflects the ever-increasing dependence of the daily life of society on information. The transition to a post-industrial society for most countries of the modern world is a very distant prospect.
In the course of his activity, a person enters into a variety of relationships with other people. Such diverse forms of human interaction, as well as the connections that arise between different social groups (or within them), are usually called social relations.
All social relations can be conditionally divided into two large groups - material relations and spiritual (or ideal) relations. Their fundamental difference from each other lies in the fact that material relations arise and develop directly in the course of a person's practical activity, outside of a person's consciousness and independently of him, and spiritual relations are formed, previously "passing through the consciousness" of people, are determined by their spiritual values. In turn, material relations are subdivided into production, environmental and office-work relations; spiritual to moral, political, legal, artistic, philosophical and religious social relations.
Interpersonal relations are a special type of social relations. Interpersonal relationships mean the relationship between individuals. At In this case, individuals, as a rule, belong to different social strata, have a different cultural and educational level, but they are united by common needs and interests in the sphere of leisure or everyday life. The famous sociologist Pitirim Sorokin singled out the following types interpersonal interaction:
a) between two individuals (husband and wife, teacher and student, two comrades);
b) between three individuals (father, mother, child);
c) between four, five or more people (the singer and his listeners);
d) between many and many people (members of a disorganized crowd).
Interpersonal relations arise and are realized in society and are social relations even if they are of the character of purely individual communication. They act as a personified form of social relations.
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