Greek metodos - way of presentation.

The activity of the teacher is mainly aimed at the formation of pedagogical tasks, the effectiveness of which is ensured by the methods of including children in the planned type of work.

That's why, teaching method, can be considered as organized system interactions between the teacher and students in the process of implementing educational goals. Therefore, the paramount importance of the method is its focus on the optimal solution of pedagogical problems.

Along with the term "method" the term "reception" is used.

Reception is an elementary act pedagogical process, which is part of various teaching methods. (For example, “gestures” are a technique of a visual method. “Insurance” is a technique of a practical method).

There is a close relationship between methods and methodological techniques. So, during the story, the teacher can demonstrate the exercise.

Showing transparencies, in this case, is a technique.

The technique is a "mirror" display of exercises.

The teaching method establishes the activities of the teacher and students, determines how the learning process should go, what actions the teacher and the child should perform.

Under methodology one should also understand the totality of means, methods and methodological techniques that characterize the way of implementing educational and educational tasks.

The use of a particular method entails compliance with a number of requirements:

1. Scientific validity of the method, from the point of view of the theory of knowledge and the doctrine of higher nervous activity.

2. Correspondence to the task of learning. Here, first of all, one should take into account the specificity of the tasks, since only a specific task can determine the method (for example: education of strength not by the method of the same word, but by practical).

3. Providing an educational character, i.e. the method should not only ensure the effectiveness of the learning process, but also meet the requirements for solving the problems of education.

4. Reliance on the entire system of teaching principles, compliance with the individual preparedness of students, compliance with the conditions of classes.

It should be noted that none of the methods can be considered universal. Methods complement and enrich one another. Therefore, it is necessary to use a system of teaching methods, taking into account their strengths and weaknesses in each case.

Physical education methods are ways of applying exercise. In physical education, two groups of methods are used (Fig. 1): specific methods of physical education (characteristic only for the process of physical education) and general pedagogical methods of physical education (used in all cases of training and education).

None of the methods can be limited in the methodology of physical education as the best. Only the optimal combination of these methods in accordance with methodological principles can ensure the successful implementation of a complex of tasks of physical education.

Rice. 1. The system of specific and general methodological methods used in physical education

2. General pedagogical methods of physical education:

General pedagogical methods include:

1) verbal methods;

2) methods of visual influence.

Verbal Methods.Feature of these methods is the impact through the second signal system, the mediated reconstruction of reality in the concepts, conclusions of the child.

In addition, with the help of the word, relationships with children are established, tasks are set, results are evaluated, commands are given.

The word carries not only a semantic function, with the help of which the content of the object is expressed, but also an emotional function that allows influencing the feelings of the child.

Using verbal methods it is necessary to strictly take into account their features and use the following recommendations:

The word must correspond to the learning objectives. So, in elementary education, they use the word for a preliminary acquaintance with the exercise.

In the process of in-depth learning, the word helps to describe the details of the technique of this exercise.

The word helps to reveal the relationship between individual motor actions and to activate attention on individual moments, the main efforts during the exercise.

IN this case apply (both once and twice), separate exclamations such as “Hands!”, “Hip!” etc. The word must be figurative. This increases visibility and builds a bridge from the child's existing life experience to the essence of the exercise or action being performed. Here, however, it is necessary to take into account the age characteristics of children and their life experience.

Almost all varieties of methods of using the word are general pedagogical, although they have some specific feature when mastering motor actions.

In physical education, the teacher largely implements his general pedagogical and specific functions with the help of the word: sets tasks for students, manages their educational and practical activities in the classroom, communicates knowledge, evaluates the results of mastering educational material, and has an educational influence on students.

The following verbal methods are used in physical education.

1. Didactic story. It is a presentation of educational material in narrative form. Its purpose is to provide a general, fairly broad idea of ​​any motor action or integral motor activity. It is most widely used in the process of physical education of children of primary and secondary school age. In elementary school, especially in grades I-II, physical exercises are interesting (emotionally) if they are carried out in the form of "motor, didactic stories": individual actions-episodes are sequentially deployed according to the teacher's story. These actions are united by some common plot story, which children accompany with actions that are accessible to their imagination and motor experience.

The older the students, the wider the description, explanation of the educational material and the lecture are used instead of the story.

2. Description. This is a way of creating an idea about the action in the trainees. The description provides for a clear, expressive, figurative disclosure of the signs and properties of objects, their size, location in space, forms, a message about the nature of the flow of phenomena and events. With the help of the description, students are mainly informed of factual material, it is said what should be done, but it is not indicated why it should be done. It is used mainly when creating an initial representation or when studying relatively simple actions, when students can use their knowledge and motor experience.

3. Explanation. The method is a consistent, logically strict presentation by the teacher of complex issues, such as concepts, laws, rules, etc. In practice, the explanation is characterized by the proof of the statements, the soundness of the put forward provisions, the strict logical sequence of the presentation of facts and generalizations.

In physical education, an explanation is used to familiarize students with what and how they should do when performing a learning task. When explaining, sports terminology is widely used, which is typical for this section of the program (athletics, gymnastics, etc.). The use of terms makes the explanation more concise.

For children of primary school age, the explanation should be figurative, vivid comparison and specific.

4. Conversation. Question-answer form of mutual exchange of information between the teacher and students.

What does the teacher do

What do students do

Logically correctly formulates questions, determines their sequence. Monitor student responses and make adjustments. Summarizes the conversation. Formulates conclusions

They comprehend questions, delve into their content. Recall the facts and generalizations necessary for answers. Correctly logically and competently formulate answers and generalizations. Make sense of the conclusions

5. Debriefing - a form of conversation conducted by a teacher with students after completing any motor task, participating in competitions, playing activities, etc., in which the analysis and evaluation of the achieved result are carried out and ways for further work to improve the achieved are outlined.

6. The lecture is a systematic, comprehensive, consistent coverage of a particular topic (problem).

7. Instructing - an accurate, specific presentation by the teacher of the task proposed by the student.

8. Comments and remarks. The teacher in the course of the assignment or immediately after it briefly evaluates the quality of its implementation or points out the mistakes made. Comments can apply to all students, to one of the groups or to one student.

9. Orders, commands, instructions - fixed assets operational management activities involved in the classroom.

The order is understood as a verbal instruction of the teacher in the lesson, which does not have a specific form (standard phrases that are unchanged in the selection of phrases). Orders are given to perform some action (“turn to face the windows”, “line up along the wall”, etc.), exercises, to prepare training areas, equipment for cleaning the gym, etc. The regulations apply primarily to elementary schools.

The team has a certain form, an established order of submission and exact content. Command language is a special form of verbal influence on those involved in order to induce them to immediately unconditionally perform or stop certain actions.

An indication is a verbal influence with the aim of making appropriate corrections in case of incorrect performance of motor actions (for example, “faster”, “higher stroke”, etc.). Instructions are most often used in elementary school.

Depending on how the teacher gives commands, how he gives instructions and instructions, it is possible to draw an almost unmistakable conclusion about his professional readiness. The word method is used for the purpose of self-learning in the form of self-orders, self-calculation, self-pronunciation, self-thinking of the results and the progress of motor activity.

Visual teaching methods. Visual perception contributes to rapid, deep and lasting assimilation, increasing interest in the studied motor actions.

In view of the highly developed ability to imitate, visibility is especially important when teaching children.

At the same time, it is necessary to know that visual perception is effective only when what is perceived is understood, consciously by children and encourages them to take active actions.

Otherwise, visualization may turn out to be only an entertaining illustration, turning students into passive spectators.

Visualization methods are divided into methods:

1. Natural clarity

2. Indirect visibility

3. Figurative clarity

Natural display is aimed mainly at learning by imitation, where the following factors should be taken into account:

The child's readiness to imitate, i.e. availability of opportunities to perform the indicated action (presence of preliminary skills and development of physical qualities)

Completeness of ideas about the object of imitation

Interest in movement

Desire and desire to perform the observed action

Natural display is a demonstration of the action as a whole, in parts, at a normal and slow pace.

Along with a fairly complete content side, a natural display has a high emotionality (a beautifully and effectively executed element remains in the memory for a long time, a careless one causes a negative reaction).

The first demonstration should give a holistic view of the technique of performing exercises.

In a natural demonstration, students can be used in the following cases:

1. For health reasons, the teacher cannot demonstrate the exercise, and the student has a sufficiently high level of training.

2. Remove the fear of those involved in the action being performed

3. Show significant errors

4. When it is inconvenient for the teacher to show and explain at the same time

The following requirements apply to demonstration, whether natural or indirect:

1. The selection of material should be carried out in accordance with the goals and objectives of the lesson. It is necessary to determine when natural and when indirect visibility is needed. The material should be given out gradually, and not all at once, so that interest in the demonstration does not fall.

2. Check the status of the demonstrated funds

3. It is necessary to clarify the purpose of the demonstration by explaining its content

4. Control the clarity of perception of the action by those involved

5. Formulate conclusions (preferably by the students themselves)

Types of mediated visibility.

1. Drawings, photographs - the action as a whole, and its phases. In the preparation of such manuals, it is necessary to take into account the age characteristics of schoolchildren.

2. Subject-modeling - dummies, models. - allows you to view the exercise in slow motion.

3. Film and video recording - allows you to see the action in slow motion.

4. Light and sound signaling - create the necessary visual reference points (for example, about the beginning and end of work, etc.)

They can make a program of "feedback" about the movement being performed, i.e. testify to the accuracy of the execution of individual elements, their quality.

In addition, various means can be used to create a muscular feeling (these are restraints, forced simulators).

Guided Feeling Methods motor actions are aimed at organizing the perception of signals from working muscles, ligaments or individual parts of the body. These include:

1) guiding assistance of the teacher during the performance of a motor action (for example, the teacher holding the hands of the trainees while teaching the final effort in throwing a small ball at a distance);

2) performing exercises at a slow pace;

3) fixing the positions of the body and its parts at certain moments of the motor action (for example, fixing the position of the body links before performing the final effort in throwing);

4) the use of special training devices that allow you to feel the position of the body at various moments of the movement.

Urgent Information Methods. Designed to provide the teacher and students with the help of various technical devices (strain platform, electrogoniometers, photoelectronic devices, light and sound leaders, electric targets, etc.) urgent and prelaminar information after or during the execution of motor actions, respectively, with the aim of their necessary correction or to save set parameters(tempo, rhythm, effort, amplitude, etc.). So, for example, at present, various training devices are widely used in physical education and sports (bicycle ergometers, Treadmills, rowing machine, etc.), equipped with built-in computers that control the load control system

ORGANIZATIONAL DESIGN, ITS PURPOSE AND METHODS

Tymchik Tatyana Alexandrovna
Plekhanov Russian University of Economics

annotation
In order for an organization to be successful or to work more effectively, its proper organization and planning of activities are required.
The scientific substantiation of the formation of organizational management structures is an urgent task at the present stage of adapting economic entities to the conditions market economy. Under these conditions, it is necessary to widely use the principles and methods of organizational design. Without modernization of organizational design methods, it is difficult to improve management and increase production efficiency.

ORGANIZATIONAL DESIGN, ITS PURPOSE AND METHODS

Tymchik Tatiana Alexandrovna
Plekhanov Russian University of Economics

Abstract
In order that the organization can succeed or began to work with greater efficiency requires proper organization and planning of activities.
Scientific substantiation of formation of organizational management structures is an actual task at the modern stage adaptation of economic entities to the market economy. In these conditions is the need for widespread use of the principles, methods and organizational design. Without the modernization of the methods of organizational design is difficult for management improvement and production efficiency.

It's no secret that any model of effective management sets as its ultimate and main goal - the solution of certain managerial tasks. Today, one can observe globalization, as well as ever-increasing competition, and in these conditions, any company needs to be able to transform not only functionally, but also structurally, because its stable position in the market will depend on this.

To adapt to modern realities, organizational structures are undergoing a number of changes, and accordingly, the methodology of organizational design is being improved.

The formation of organizational management structures is a very important and extremely urgent task of the current stage of adaptation of economic entities to a market economy. In today's realities, there is a need to more widely use the principles, as well as methods for designing a management organization based on a systematic approach.

It should be noted that if you do not develop ways to design management structures, then it will significantly complicate the improvement of management and increase the efficiency of production in general. This is facilitated by a number of circumstances, namely, in the new conditions, for the most part, it is not possible to operate with outdated organizational forms, which, in turn, do not meet the requirements of market relations, and also create a danger of deformation of the management tasks themselves.

In the very general view organizational design may well be qualified as the process of streamlining the organizational and structural characteristics of a system in order to achieve or improve their performance, adaptability and effectiveness.

The main goal of organizational design is to ensure the highest level of organization of the company. In order to ensure this very level, it is necessary that the activity be designed, targeted, regulated, standardized, provided with important instructions, information and resources, carried out according to a technology that is reasonable for these conditions.

The objects of organizational design include not only the organization itself as a whole, but also all those processes that take place in it.

Organizational design is necessary when creating new organizations, as well as developing investment projects, especially those associated with the restructuring of enterprises, the introduction of new equipment and technology, the release of new products. In both cases, it is possible to draw up a real document: a section of a business plan, an organizational project as component technical project reconstruction, etc.

We also note that as a function of management, organizational design is usually applied in an existing organization in order to improve it. In this case, the design of organizational relationships, as practice shows, is preceded by an analysis of the functioning of the existing system.

The need for organizational design is due to the following factors:

1. The conditions are changing very quickly, and therefore it is no longer possible to use those organizational forms that were effective before, because they absolutely do not meet the requirements in the conditions of market relations.

2. In addition, today it is no longer possible to use a mechanistic approach in the management of organizations, because he is ineffective.

3. The creation of new organizations, or the improvement of old ones, should be based not only on experience, analogy, intuition, volitional approach, but also on scientific methods of organizational design.

There are several methods of organizational design. Let's consider each of them in detail.

So, the first method is the method of analogies. It represents the implementation of the experience of designing management structures in similar organizations and takes into account the development of typical management structures in various types of organizations, the definition of different frameworks, conditions and mechanisms for application.

The second method is the expert method, which is based on the study of recommendations and proposals of experts, including experienced practitioners. The main task of the method should include the identification of specific distinctive features of the work of the management apparatus, possible defects in the activities of various parts of organizational structures, sound advice on their improvement. This method, which is more flexible and comprehensive, is used in a narrow combination with others and has various forms of implementation.

Expert methods include, among other things, the development and use of scientific principles for the formation of organizational management structures.

Another method is the goal structuring method. It is contained in the development of a system of organization goals and its further combination with the developed organizational structure.

This method takes into account the development of a system (“tree”) of goals, expert analysis of the proposed types of organizational structure from the standpoint of organizational security, and also the formation of maps of rights and responsibilities for achieving goals.

And finally, the last method is the method of organizational modeling. The essence of the method is to develop various representations of the distribution of powers and responsibilities in the organization. This, in turn, is the basis for building, analyzing and evaluating a variety of options for organizational structures according to the relationship of their variables.

It is also necessary to note the factors of organizational design, the main of which is the corporate culture, the basic component of which is corporate values ​​that determine the structure of the organization, the principles of its functioning, "perform the role of a backbone factor" making it possible for the team to be successful in the long term. It is “corporate values ​​that ensure the unified behavior of employees of various departments and business units”, contributing to the unification of employees of the organization on the basis of a common understanding of the goals of the enterprise. Accordingly, the style of management and leadership style should correspond to the corporate culture of the enterprise and the formed set of values, ideas, norms and rules of conduct adopted in the organization.

Thus, summing up, it should be noted that the process of designing the organizational structure of management should be based on the application of all those methods that were given a brief description of above, as well as taking into account the principles corporate culture and corporate values. Only under these conditions can a decent result be obtained.

We also note that a very important element in the development of both planned and design decisions is the evaluation of their effectiveness. It is it that makes it possible to most accurately and clearly qualify the level of progressiveness of the current structure, developed projects, as well as those that are in the process of being developed. Thanks to the evaluation of efficiency, it becomes possible to choose the most reasonable and competent version of the structure or the method of its improvement.

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Greek metodos - way of presentation.

The activity of the teacher is mainly aimed at the formation of pedagogical tasks, the effectiveness of which is ensured by the methods of including children in the planned type of work.

Therefore, the teaching method can be legitimately considered as an organized system of interaction between the teacher and those involved in the process of implementing educational goals. Therefore, the paramount importance of the method is its focus on the optimal solution of pedagogical problems.

Along with the term "method" the term "reception" is used.

Admission is an elementary act of the pedagogical process, which is part of various teaching methods. (For example, “gestures” are a technique of a visual method. “Insurance” is a technique of a practical method).

There is a close relationship between methods and methodological techniques. So, during the story, the teacher can demonstrate the exercise.

Showing transparencies, in this case, is a technique.

The technique is a "mirror" display of exercises.

The teaching method establishes the activities of the teacher and students, determines how the learning process should go, what actions the teacher and the child should perform.

Under the methodology, one should understand the totality of means, methods and methodological techniques that characterize the way of implementing educational and educational tasks.

Requirements for the choice of methods

The use of a particular method entails compliance with a number of requirements:

1. Scientific validity of the method, from the point of view of the theory of knowledge and the doctrine of higher nervous activity.

2. Compliance with the task of learning. Here, first of all, one should take into account the specificity of the tasks, since only a specific task can determine the method (for example: education of strength not by the method of the same word, but by practical).

3. Ensuring an educative nature, i.e. the method should not only ensure the effectiveness of the learning process, but also meet the requirements for solving the problems of education.

4. Reliance on the entire system of teaching principles, compliance with the individual preparedness of students, compliance with the conditions of classes.

It should be noted that none of the methods can be considered universal. Methods complement and enrich one another. Therefore, it is necessary to use a system of teaching methods, taking into account their strengths and weaknesses in each case.

Classification of methods

In science, at present, there are various approaches to the classification of teaching methods. So, if the sources of cognitive information (a word, a sensual image, a practical action) are taken as a basis, then the methods are divided into three groups - verbal, visual, practical. If we take into account the activities of the teacher and the activities of the student, then we distinguish:

Teaching Methods

teaching methods

Methods are classified according to didactic purposes:

Methods for communicating new knowledge

Fixing methods, etc.

Depending on the conditions and forms of organization of educational work, there are:

Individual

Collective

In physical education

Outside of physical education (walks, excursions).

However, it should be noted that the classification, which is based on some one feature, suffers from one-sidedness and is therefore unsatisfactory.

A truly scientific classification requires a systematic approach, a holistic one.

1. Methods of organization and self-organization of educational and cognitive activity.

Perceptual methods (sensory), i.e. verbal, visual, practical.

Logical - methods that reflect the logic of the presentation of educational material and its perception by students.

Gnostic - i.e. explanatory-reproductive, research, search.

Cybernetic - i.e. methods of management and self-management of teaching.

There is a relationship between the methods of this group. And when choosing a particular method, the teacher cannot miss one of the other indicated approaches.

2. Methods for stimulating and motivating learning, i.e. methods of formation of cognitive interests, duty, responsibility.

3. Methods of control and self-control of the effectiveness of training (oral, written, machine, programmed, etc. survey).

When choosing one or another method, you should know that the choice depends on:

Lesson goals

Features of the subject

Age and preparation of children

Conditions of study work

Personal qualities of a teacher

The stereotypical actions of the teacher, as well as the excessive inclusion of an abundance of techniques in classes, are equally dangerous.

4. Verbal methods

A feature of these methods is the impact through the second signal system, the mediated reconstruction of reality in the concepts, conclusions of the child.

In addition, with the help of the word, relationships with children are established, tasks are set, results are evaluated, commands are given.

The word carries not only a semantic function, with the help of which the content of the object is expressed, but also an emotional function that allows influencing the feelings of the child.

When using verbal methods, it is necessary to strictly take into account their features and use the following recommendations:

The word must correspond to the learning objectives. So, in elementary education, they use the word for a preliminary acquaintance with the exercise.

In the process of in-depth learning, the word helps to describe the details of the technique of this exercise.

The word helps to reveal the relationship between individual motor actions and to activate attention on individual moments, the main efforts during the exercise.

In this case, they use (both once and twice), separate exclamations such as “Hands!”, “Hip!” etc. The word must be figurative. This increases visibility and builds a bridge from the child's existing life experience to the essence of the exercise or action being performed. Here, however, it is necessary to take into account the age characteristics of children and their life experience.

Almost all varieties of methods of using the word are general pedagogical, although they have some specific feature when mastering motor actions.

So the story - the most common method, is an oral description of processes and phenomena, as well as an analysis of the actions of those involved. Most often used in the organization of gaming activities. It can be brief when getting acquainted with a new action and detailed when presented in detail.

Explanation and explanation, usually answer the question "Why?", "How?". They are used both during the demonstration of a motor action and during the performance of the action and are aimed at deepening perception, correcting movements.

Conversation - allows you to find out the thoughts and considerations of students, increase activity and evaluate the work done. The analysis differs from the conversation in that it is always carried out after the task is completed, it can be carried out both by the teacher and mutually - by the teacher and the child, effectively solving educational problems.

A command and an indication is a verbal influence that differs in an imperative form. They are among the main methods of indirect control, instructions often appear in the form of instructions.

Verbal assessments (in the form of approval or disapproval) are one of the methods for the current correction of actions, help to eliminate deviations from the correct performance of the action in time, and motivate the student.

Counting - allows you to set the required pace of movements for students. However, it is used at the initial stages of education to a limited extent, so as not to put the individual characteristics of children into a rigid framework. Counting teaches you to distinguish one pace from another and can be modified during the lesson.

The word method is used for the purpose of self-learning in the form of self-orders, self-calculation, self-pronunciation, self-thinking of the results and the progress of motor activity.

5. Visual teaching methods

Visual perception contributes to rapid, deep and lasting assimilation, increasing interest in the studied motor actions.

In view of the highly developed ability to imitate, visibility is especially important when teaching children.

At the same time, it is necessary to know that visual perception is effective only when what is perceived is understood, consciously by children and encourages them to take active actions.

Otherwise, visualization may turn out to be only an entertaining illustration, turning students into passive spectators.

Visualization methods are divided into methods:

Natural clarity

Indirect visibility

figurative clarity

Natural display is aimed mainly at learning by imitation, where the following factors should be taken into account:

The child's readiness to imitate, i.e. availability of opportunities to perform the indicated action (presence of preliminary skills and development of physical qualities)

Completeness of ideas about the object of imitation

Interest in movement

Desire and desire to perform the observed action

A natural display is a demonstration of the action as a whole, in parts, at a normal and slow pace.

Along with a fairly complete content side, a natural display has a high emotionality (a beautifully and effectively executed element remains in the memory for a long time, a careless one causes a negative reaction).

The first demonstration should give a holistic view of the technique of performing exercises.

In a natural demonstration, students can be used in the following cases:

the teacher, for health reasons, cannot demonstrate the exercise, and the student has a sufficiently high level of training.

Remove the fear of those involved in the action being performed

Show significant errors

When it is inconvenient for the teacher to show and explain at the same time

The following requirements apply to demonstration, whether natural or indirect:

The selection of material should be carried out in accordance with the goals and objectives of the lesson. It is necessary to determine when natural and when indirect visibility is needed. The material should be given out gradually, and not all at once, so that interest in the demonstration does not fall.

Check the status of the displayed funds

It is necessary to explain the purpose of the demonstration by explaining its content.

Control the clarity of perception of the action by those involved

Formulate conclusions (preferably by the students themselves)

Types of mediated visibility.

Drawings, photographs - the action as a whole, and its phases. In the preparation of such manuals, it is necessary to take into account the age characteristics of schoolchildren.

Subject-modeling - dummies, models. - allows you to view the exercise in slow motion.

Film and video recording - allows you to see the action in slow motion.

Light and sound signaling - create the necessary visual reference points (for example, about the beginning and end of work, etc.)

They can make a program of "feedback" about the movement being performed, i.e. testify to the accuracy of the execution of individual elements, their quality.

In addition, various means can be used to create a muscular feeling (these are restraints, forced simulators).

6. Practical teaching methods (strictly regulated exercise method and partially regulated exercise method)

Practical methods are directly related to active motor activity. These methods can be divided into two groups:

Methods aimed at mastering motor actions;

These include: the method of holistic learning of the exercise and the method of learning in parts (or it is also called the holistic-separate teaching method).

Methods, mainly contributing to the development of motor qualities.

This group includes methods of partially regulated exercise and strictly regulated exercise.

True, it is impossible to strictly divide the methods into these groups, since they are interrelated.

Practical methods in the process of learning movements.

I. The method of holistic learning of the exercise is applied:

If the action is just to perform

When complex actions cannot be separated without breaking its structure

It is used at the final stage of learning any motor action, (i.e. it follows the method of learning in parts).

When trying out a new action, if it is not associated with risk and high difficulty.

II. The method of learning in parts.

It is used when the action can be divided into independent elements.

With this method, the process of mastering the motor action is facilitated. Favorable conditions are created for controlling the quality of particular motor actions (elements) and, therefore, mastery as a whole proceeds under easier conditions. The study in parts creates the conditions for the timely detection and elimination of errors in movements and their connections.

The richness of the lead-up exercises, the appearance of gradual progress and the goal of learning causes a healthy emotional effect in the trainees.

However, it should be remembered that only competent, expedient dissection contributes to the real success of learning.

It must also be remembered that it is not advisable to bring each individual element of the studied exercise to the level of skill. This can lead to inertia of the studied action.

Methods contributing to the development of motor qualities

I . Strictly Regulated Exercise Methods

The methods of this group are characterized, first of all, by the repeated performance of exercises in conditions of strict regulation, namely:

Strict composition of movements and their interconnection;

Strictly normalized load;

In strict regulation of rest intervals and the order of alternation of rest and load.

Here are some examples of methods:

Standard exercise method (repetitive, continuous, interval)

Variable exercise method (progressive, descending, varying method)

Combined methods - re-variable

Circuit training method (continuous and interval)

Partially Regulated Exercise Techniques

These methods include gaming and competitive.

For game method characteristic:

The plot of actions

Variety of ways to achieve goals (win), as there are different ways to reach the goal during the game.

The possibility of complex application of various motor actions.

An important feature of the game is the emotionality and limited opportunity load dosages.

These facts should be especially taken into account when working with younger students.

During the game, students can easily endure a much greater load than that which can be given in ordinary classes.

In addition, the game provides great opportunities for initiative, resourcefulness, creativity and contributes to a significant development of dexterity, speed of orientation in space.

competitive method. Competition is essential as a way of organizing and stimulating various fields life, including sports.

An important feature of the competition is the comparison of forces in the struggle for superiority, for achieving a high result.

The factor of rivalry, rewards and encouragement of the winners create a high emotional background, which enhances the effect of physical exercises. Compared to other methods, the competitive one makes the highest demands on physical qualities and contributes to their highest development.

However, skillful pedagogical leadership is needed for the competition to play a moral role. Rudeness, arrogance and excessive ambition must be eliminated at the root.

2. Requirements for the choice of methods

3. Classification of methods

4. Verbal teaching methods

5. Visual teaching methods

6. Practical teaching methods (strictly regulated exercise method and partially regulated exercise method)

1. The concept of a method, its purpose and use

Greek metodos - way of presentation.

The activity of the teacher is mainly aimed at the formation of pedagogical tasks, the effectiveness of which is ensured by the methods of including children in the planned type of work.

Therefore, the teaching method can be legitimately considered as an organized system of interaction between the teacher and those involved in the process of implementing educational goals. Therefore, the paramount importance of the method is its focus on the optimal solution of pedagogical problems.

Along with the term "method" the term "reception" is used.

Admission is an elementary act of the pedagogical process, which is part of various teaching methods. (For example, “gestures” are a technique of a visual method. “Insurance” is a technique of a practical method).

There is a close relationship between methods and methodological techniques. So, during the story, the teacher can demonstrate the exercise.

Showing transparencies, in this case, is a technique.

The technique is a "mirror" display of exercises.

The teaching method establishes the activities of the teacher and students, determines how the learning process should go, what actions the teacher and the child should perform.

Under the methodology, one should understand the totality of means, methods and methodological techniques that characterize the way of implementing educational and educational tasks.

2. Requirements for the choice of methods

The use of a particular method entails compliance with a number of requirements:

1. Scientific validity of the method, from the point of view of the theory of knowledge and the doctrine of higher nervous activity.

2. Correspondence to the task of learning. Here, first of all, one should take into account the specificity of the tasks, since only a specific task can determine the method (for example: education of strength not by the method of the same word, but by practical).

3. Providing an educational character, i.e. the method should not only ensure the effectiveness of the learning process, but also meet the requirements for solving the problems of education.

4. Reliance on the entire system of teaching principles, compliance with the individual preparedness of students, compliance with the conditions of classes.

It should be noted that none of the methods can be considered universal. Methods complement and enrich one another. Therefore, it is necessary to use a system of teaching methods, taking into account their strengths and weaknesses in each case.

3. Classification of methods

In science, at present, there are various approaches to the classification of teaching methods. So, if the sources of cognitive information are taken as the basis (word, sensory image, practical action), then the methods are divided into three groups - verbal, visual, practical. If we take into account the activities of the teacher and the activities of the student, then we distinguish:

Teaching Methods

teaching methods

Methods are classified according to didactic purposes:

Methods for communicating new knowledge

Fixing methods, etc.

Depending on the conditions and forms of organization of educational work, there are:

Individual

Collective

In physical education

Outside of physical education (walks, excursions).

However, it should be noted that the classification, which is based on some one feature, suffers from one-sidedness and therefore is unsatisfactory.

A truly scientific classification requires a systematic approach, a holistic one.

1. Methods of organization and self-organization of educational and cognitive activity.

Perceptual methods (sensory), i.e. verbal, visual, practical.

Logical - methods that reflect the logic of the presentation of educational material and its perception by students.

Gnostic - i.e. explanatory-reproductive, research, search.

Cybernetic - i.e. methods of management and self-management of teaching.

There is a relationship between the methods of this group. And when choosing a particular method, the teacher cannot miss one of the other indicated approaches.

2. Methods for stimulating and motivating learning, i.e. methods of formation of cognitive interests, duty, responsibility.

3. Methods of control and self-control of the effectiveness of training (oral, written, machine, programmed, etc. survey).

When choosing one or another method, you should know that the choice depends on:

Lesson goals

Features of the subject

Age and preparation of children

Conditions of study work

Personal qualities of a teacher

The stereotypical actions of the teacher, as well as the excessive inclusion of an abundance of techniques in classes, are equally dangerous.

Course work

in the subject of organization theory

on the topic "ORGANIZATIONAL DESIGN, ITS PURPOSE AND METHODS"

introduction. 2

1. The concept of designing organizational systems .. 3

2. METHODOLOGY FOR DESIGNING ORGANIZATIONAL SYSTEMS 7

2.1 Method of analogies. 8

2.2 Expert method. 8

2.3 Method of structuring goals. nine

2.4 Method of organizational modeling. 10

3. The process of designing organizational systems .. 12

4. Evaluation of the methodology and effectiveness of the design of organizational systems .. 19

Conclusion. 23

There are different points of view regarding the concept of "design of organizational systems". Organizational design is a set of works on the creation of an enterprise (organization), the formation of a management structure, and the provision of its activities with everything necessary. The goal of organizational design is to ensure high level organization of the organization. To ensure a high level of organization of any activity, it is necessary that it be designed, targeted, regulated, standardized, provided with the necessary instructions, information and resources, carried out according to a technology that is rational for the given conditions.

Organizational design is used at the stage of creating new organizations and developing investment projects, especially those related to the restructuring of enterprises, the introduction of new equipment and technology, and the release of new products. In both cases, a real document can be drawn up: a section of a business plan, an organizational project as an integral part of a technical reconstruction project, etc. As a function of management, organizational design is most often used in an existing organization in order to improve it. In this case, the design of organizational relationships, as a rule, is preceded by an analysis of the functioning of the existing system.

Milner B.3. in his book "Theory of Organizations" gives the following definition: "Organizational design as a function of the organization consists in the development of such organizational elements and relationships in the created (modeled) system, in the implementation of which the resulting organizational whole would have the properties of high reliability, stability and economy" . However, the well-known American economist D. Galbraith (Galbraith J. K.) defined the design of an organization as "a constant search for the most effective combination of organizational variables." The need for change in the content and direction of the organization poses a real challenge for management. However, when changing the content and direction of activities, various complex problems and situations often arise. The factors influencing the process of organizational design are situational in nature. There are four groups of factors:

State external environment, i.e. everything that surrounds the organization;

Technology of work in the organization;

The strategic choice of the management of the organization in relation to its goals;

Employee behavior.

However, contextual variables as a system design set and limit the principles of functioning, the patterns of organization development (structural changes), the style and type of management, predetermine the parameters and type of organization structure. Contextual variables are a set of elements of the organization's internal environment (a set of situational variables) that determine the specifics of the situation in which it operates. The concept of contextual change is most often used in the study of factors influencing the logic of organizational development and the nature of structural changes.

The term contextual variables was introduced by representatives of the situational approach in the second half of the 60s. of the last century, although the search for factors influencing structural changes was carried out earlier. It is derived from the word "context", which is associated primarily with the emergence and spread of the situational approach to the analysis of the logic of the functioning of the organization and its structural changes. It is assumed that the structure of the organization arises as a result of the situation (context). The situation itself can be presented and explained on the basis of a limited list of objective variables.

The list of contextual variables is not constant. Different researchers include in it various characteristics of the internal environment:

The goals of the organization;

Subordinate to the goals of the organization's tasks;

Technology;

The size of the organization;

organization staff;

Strategic choice (strategy or goals of the organization);

Parameters of the external environment: the pace and predictability of changes, the level of uncertainty, etc.

IN modern theory organizations, most researchers focus on two basic contextual variables in the design of organizational systems - the size of the organization and technology, which determine the most important structural parameters of the organization.

Researchers who single out the size of an organization as a basic contextual variable note that large organizations, as a rule, are characterized by a more complex structure, a greater degree of differentiation (horizontally and vertically), and features in the field of communications. Given the high homogeneity of work carried out by different specialized units in large organizations, the "administrative ratio" (the proportion of administrative staff to total number employees of the organization) is lower than with the homogeneity of work, which affects the methods of coordination, communication and control. In addition, large organizations are usually more decentralized than small ones. At the same time, there is a direct relationship between the degree of formalization of relations in. organization and its size.

Researchers who single out technology as a basic contextual variable associate with it either the forms and methods of control, or the degree of centralization of management in terms of decision-making. So, depending on the type of technology, organizational structures are divided into several types: with an increase in technological complexity, the number of management levels and the organizational pyramid increase, the interval of control of the highest level of management increases; with a technology of medium complexity, the control interval of lower-level managers becomes the largest. Perhaps these changes are due to the fact that large-scale and mass production technologies require more workers than single and continuous technologies. Organizations with the most complexity (process continuity) and the least complexity (single and small batch production) tend to have more organic projects, while those with medium complexity technologies tend to prefer more mechanical projects.

Milner B.Z. believes that the scientifically substantiated formation of organizational management structures is an urgent task of the modern stage of adaptation of economic entities to a market economy. Under these conditions, it is necessary to widely use the principles and methods of designing a management organization based on a systematic approach. Without the development of methods for designing management structures, it is difficult to further improve management and increase production efficiency, since:

Firstly, in the new conditions, in a number of cases, it is impossible to operate with old organizational forms that do not meet the requirements of market relations and create a danger of deformation of the management tasks themselves;

Secondly, it is impossible to transfer the laws governing technical systems (for example, the use of automated control systems) into the sphere of economic management. The work itself on the creation of these systems is often carried out in isolation from the improvement of the management structure, is not sufficiently connected with organizational factors;

Thirdly, the creation of a structure should be based not only on experience, analogy, habitual schemes and, finally, intuition, but also on the scientific methods of organizational design;

Fourthly, the design of the most complex mechanism - the control mechanism - should be entrusted to specialists who own the methodology for the formation of organizational systems.

A significant drawback of organizational design, according to Milner, is an excessive passion for typical schemes, which leads to a mechanical transfer of the previously used organizational forms into new conditions. From a scientific point of view, the initial factors for the formation of structures themselves were interpreted too narrowly:

The number of personnel instead of the goals of the organization;

A permanent set of organs instead of changing their composition and combination in different conditions;

Emphasis on the performance of unchanged functions in isolation from changing tasks;

Outdated schemes and states as averages of existing organizations without analysis of their shortcomings and suitability.

However, in the conditions of market relations, the composition and content of management functions are subject to change. Therefore, for example, the goals and relationships of various parts of the management system become more important than the size and staff structure of the organization or its functional specialization. Sometimes well-founded studies of the norms for the size of the administrative apparatus of organizations in the real sector of the economy do not give positive results for solving the problems of forming organizational structures of financial and industrial groups, joint-stock companies, etc.

2. Methodology for designing organizational systems

When developing the principles and methodology for designing management structures, it is important to move away from the presentation of the organizational structure as a frozen set of bodies corresponding to each specialized management function. The organizational structure of management is a multilateral concept. First of all, it includes a system of goals and their distribution between various links, since the management mechanism should be focused on achieving goals. This also includes the composition of units that are in certain connections and relationships with each other; distribution of tasks and functions among all links; distribution of responsibility, powers and rights within the organization, reflecting the ratio of centralization and decentralization in the process of developing and making decisions.

Important elements of the management structure are communications, information flows and document flow in the organization. Finally, the organizational structure is a behavioral system, these are people and their groups constantly entering into various relationships to solve common problems.

Such versatility of the organizational mechanism is incompatible with the use of any unambiguous methods - either formal or informal. That is why it is necessary to proceed from a combination of scientific methods and principles for the formation of structures (system approach, program-targeted management, organizational modeling) with a large amount of expert and analytical work, the study of domestic and foreign experience, close interaction between developers and those who will practically implement and use the projected organizational mechanism. The entire methodology for designing structures should be based on a clear formulation of the goals of the organization. First, the goals, and then - the mechanism for achieving them. The main condition for the development of adequate organizational projects is the analysis and, if possible, compliance with the principles of rationalizing the structure of the organization. For individual sections or problems of an organizational project, different methods development. The layout of divisions can be designed using analogy methods and based on proven designs. Norms and standards of resource consumption, regulations, regulating the functioning of the elements of the organization, can be developed using experimental and statistical methods based on the use of the experience of employees, or using experimental (pilot) and calculation and analytical methods.

2.1 Method of analogies

The analogy method involves the use of experience in designing management structures in similar organizations and provides for the development of typical management structures in various types of organizations, determining various frames, conditions and mechanism of application. Typical organizational structures should be variant in nature, providing for the possibility of adjustment, deviation in case of changes in the conditions in which the organization operates.

The use of the analogy method is based on two complementary approaches:

The first of them is to identify for each type of production and economic organizations and for various industries values ​​and trends in the main organizational characteristics and their corresponding organizational forms and management mechanisms, which, based on specific experience or scientific justification, prove their effectiveness for a certain set of initial conditions;

The second approach is, in fact, a typification of the most general fundamental decisions about the nature and relationships of the links of the management apparatus and individual positions in clearly defined conditions for the work of organizations of this type in specific industries, as well as the development of individual regulatory characteristics of the management apparatus for these organizations and industries.

Typification of decisions is a means of raising the general level of organization of production management, aimed at standardizing and unifying organizational forms of management, accelerating the introduction of the most rational, progressive forms. Typical organizational solutions should be:

First, variant, not unambiguous;

Secondly, reviewed and adjusted at regular intervals and, finally, subject to deviations in cases where the operating conditions of the organization differ from the clearly stated conditions for which an appropriate type form organizational structure of management.

2.2 Expert method

The expert method is based on the study of the recommendations and suggestions of experts and experienced practitioners. The purpose of this method is to identify the specific features of the operation of the control apparatus, possible disadvantages in the activities of various parts of organizational structures, reasonable recommendations for their improvement. Based on a survey of experts, a diagnostic analysis of the organizational structures of operating organizations and their assessment is carried out. The main scientific principles for the formation of organizational structures are formulated, taking into account specific situations and conditions of the organization's activities (examples modern principles formation of an organizational structure - "building an organizational structure based on a system of goals", "a combination of functional and program-targeted management", etc.).

This method, which is the most flexible and comprehensive, is used in close combination with others (especially with the methods of analogy and goal structuring) and has a variety of forms of implementation. First of all, these include the implementation of a diagnostic analysis of the features, problems, bottlenecks in the management system of an existing production and economic organization or in organizations similar to a newly created one in order to provide for an organizational solution to the identified problems in the management structure being developed. This also includes conducting expert surveys of managers and members of the organization to identify and analyze individual characteristics of the construction and functioning of the management apparatus, processing the obtained expert assessments by statistical and mathematical methods ( rank correlation, factor analysis, list processing, etc.).

Expert methods should also include the development and application of scientific principles for the formation of organizational management structures. They are understood as the guiding rules derived from the best practices of management and scientific generalizations, the implementation of which directs the activities of specialists in developing recommendations for rational design and improvement of organizational management systems. The principles for the formation of organizational management structures are a specification of more general principles of management (for example, one-man management or collective leadership, specialization, etc.).

2.3 Goal structuring method

The goal structuring method provides for the development of a system of organization goals and its subsequent combination with the organizational structure being developed. The implementation of this method also involves linking all types of organizational activities based on the final results, regardless of the distribution of these activities among various departments of the organization. The goal structuring method provides for an expert analysis of the proposed options for organizational structures, drawing up tables of powers and responsibilities for achieving goals, both for departments and for complex multifunctional activities, where the boundaries of responsibility (material resources, production, information processes) are specified, the definition of specific results, for the achievement of which is established responsibility, the powers vested in the relevant management bodies. Using this method involves:

a) development of a system (“tree”) of goals, which is a structural basis for linking all types of organizational activities based on the final results, regardless of the distribution of these activities among organizational units and program-target subsystems in the organization;

b) expert analysis of the proposed options for the organizational structure in terms of organizational security for achieving each of the goals, observing the principle of homogeneity of the goals set for each unit, determining the relationship of leadership, subordination, cooperation of units based on the relationship of goals, etc.;

c) drawing up maps of rights and responsibilities for achieving goals both for individual divisions, and for complex cross-functional activities, where the scope of responsibility is regulated; concrete results, the achievement of which establishes responsibility; the rights that the unit is given to achieve results.

2.4 Organizational Modeling Method

The method of organizational modeling is the development of formalized mathematical, graphical, machine and other representations of the distribution of powers and responsibilities in an organization, which are the basis for building, analyzing and evaluating various options for organizational structures by the relationship of their variables. This method allows you to clearly formulate a criterion for assessing the degree of rationality of organizational decisions. With the help of an analog model-scheme of the organizational structure, one can, for example, more clearly imagine the goals of passing commands and the formal dependence between the subjects of management and officials, and see duplicate management links. In organizational design, simulation models are often used. Developers in the laboratory imitate planned organizational restructuring, conduct management games with the participation of employees in order to work out specific situations similar to real organizational conditions. After conducting such experiments, the organizational model is adjusted and implemented.

The process of designing the organizational structure of management should be based on the joint use of the methods described above. At the stages of composition and structuring, the goal structuring method, the expert method, as well as the identification and analysis of organizational prototypes are of the greatest importance. More formalized methods should be used for in-depth study of organizational forms and mechanisms of individual subsystems at the stage of regulation. For the design of organizational structures of new organizations, the role of formal analytical methods and models is higher, for the improvement of existing ones - diagnostic examination and expert study of the organizational system. The choice of the method of a particular organizational problem depends on its nature, as well as on the possibilities for conducting relevant research (the availability of a methodology, the necessary information, as well as the qualifications of the system developers and the timing of the recommendations).

3. The process of designing organizational systems

The organizational project of the structure of the management system may consist of the following sections:

The idea of ​​​​an organizational design of the structure, arising from the strategy of the organization;

The production structure of the organization;

Organizational structure of the organization;

organization staff;

Need in material resources organizations for the planned period;

Finance;

Information support of management;

Interaction of structures of the organization;

Project efficiency.

There are the following stages of organizational design:

1) the formation of the idea of ​​organizational design based on marketing research;

2) system analysis and structuring of the problem (object);

3) development of the production structure of the organization (the number and relationships of production units, forms of connections, layout of units, etc.);

4) development of the organizational structure of the organization;

5) development of provisions ( job descriptions) about services;

6) development of norms and standards;

7) recruitment and staffing of the organization;

8) calculation of the need for various types of resources (by their types, objects, etc.);

9) feasibility study of the organizational project;

10) coordination and approval of the project, its transfer for use (implementation).

The design of an organization is associated with the adoption by its management of decisions related to many areas of the organization's life. The organizational design process contains the following elements.

Division of labor and specialization:

horizontal;

Vertical.

Departmentalization and cooperation:

Linear departmentalization;

Functional departmentalization;

Departmentalization by product;

Departmentalization by consumer;

Departmentalization by market;

Matrix departmentalization.

Communications in the organization and coordination:

Vertical links (connect hierarchical levels in the organization and its parts);

Horizontal connections (connections between two or more equal positions in the hierarchy or status of parts or members of the organization);

Linear connections (relationships in which the boss exercises his power rights and exercises direct leadership of subordinates);

Functional connections (advisory form of relations, implemented through these connections, including information support for coordination);

Indirect links (usually limited to the answer to the question "how", sometimes to the question "when" and less often to the questions "where" or "who");

Formal communications (communications of coordination, regulated by the established or accepted goals, policies and procedures in the organization);

Informal ties (appear when formal ties do not fulfill their role: they do not serve either the interests of the employee or the interests of the organization).

Scale of manageability and control:

Narrow scale of manageability;

Wide range of control.

Hierarchy in the organization and its links (hierarchy in general terms means the arrangement of parts of the whole in order from highest to lowest, and for an organization it is just a power structure or links).

Distribution of rights and responsibilities (two systems apply):

The first system is built on the basis of the principle of unity of subordination, and its scheme is somewhat similar to the "herringbone";

The second system is the system of double or multiple subordination ("matryoshka").

Centralization and decentralization: The degree of centralization or decentralization in an organization or its divisions can be measured using the following variables:

The number of decisions made at each of the management levels;

The importance of the decision for the organization as a whole;

The degree of control over the execution of the decision.

When designing an organization, the choice between centralization and decentralization can be influenced by the following factors:

Capital intensity of decisions made;

Uniformity of policy (for example, in relation to consumers);

The size of the organization;

organizational culture;

Philosophy of management;

The striving of parts for independence;

Availability of appropriate personnel;

Development of control technology;

The degree of division of labor;

Type of business;

Changes in the external environment.

Differentiation and integration. To determine the degree of differentiation in the organization, Lawrence (Lawrence N.) and Lorsch (LorschJ.) suggested using four parameters:

Certainty in goals or objectives;

Structure (formal or flexible);

Level of interaction (interpersonal and intergroup communications and cooperation);

Temporary boundaries of feedback.

There are three stages in the organization design process.

The first stage is the analysis of the current organizational structure, which is designed to establish to what extent it meets the requirements for the organization, that is, how rational it is from the point of view of the established evaluation criteria. Evaluation criteria usually include management principles:

Relationship between centralization and decentralization;

The volume and assessment of the management apparatus (number of employees, the presence of duplication elements, the distribution of powers and responsibilities);

Analysis of management functions (methods and technology for making managerial decisions, principles and methods of motivating employees);

Evaluation of economic activity (change of technology, deepening of intercompany cooperation, introduction of innovations), etc.

As a result of the analysis, shortcomings are revealed, the reasons for the too slow increase in management efficiency are clarified.

The second stage is the design of organizational structures. In the process of designing organizational structures for managing an organization, as a rule, the following tasks are solved:

Determining the type of management structure;

Clarification of the composition and number of departments by organization levels;

Determining the number of management personnel;

Determination of the nature of subordination between the links of the organization;

Calculation of costs for the maintenance of the management apparatus.

Ultimately, managerial powers are established for each structural unit, information flows, document flow, powers and responsibilities.

The third stage is an assessment of the effectiveness of organizational structures based on the level of implementation of tasks, the reliability and organization of the management system, the speed and optimality of decisions made.

According to Milner, the content of the process of forming an organizational structure is largely universal. It includes the formulation of goals and objectives, determining the composition and location of units, their resource support (including the number of employees), the development of regulatory forms, methods, processes that are carried out in the organizational management system. This whole process can be organized in three stages.

The first stage - the formation of a general structural diagram of the management apparatus - in all cases is of fundamental importance, since this determines the main characteristics of the organization, as well as the directions in which a more in-depth design of both the organizational structure and other critical aspects of the system (intraorganizational economic mechanism, ways of processing information, staffing). The principal characteristics of the organizational structure, which are determined at this stage, include:

The goals of the production and economic system and the problems to be solved;

General specification of functional and program-target subsystems that ensure their achievement;

Number of levels in the control system;

The degree of centralization and decentralization of powers and responsibilities at different levels;

The main forms of the relationship of this organization with the environment;

Requirements for the economic mechanism, forms of information processing, staffing of the organizational system.

The second stage - the development of the composition of the main units and the links between them - consists in the fact that it is provided:

Implementation of organizational decisions not only in general for large linear-functional and program-target blocks, but also up to independent (basic) divisions of the management apparatus;

Distribution specific tasks between them and building intra-organizational relationships.

Under the basic divisions are understood in this case independent structural units (departments, departments, bureaus, sectors, laboratories), into which linear-functional and program-targeted subsystems are organizationally divided. Base units may have their own internal structure.

The third stage - the regulation of the organizational structure - provides for the development of quantitative characteristics of the management apparatus and procedures management activities. It includes:

Determining the composition of the internal elements of the basic units (bureaus, groups and positions);

Determination of the design number of units, the complexity of the main types of work and the qualifications of performers;

Distribution of tasks and work between specific performers;

Establishing responsibility for their implementation;

Development of procedures for performing managerial work in departments, including on the basis of automated information processing;

Development of a procedure for interaction between departments in the performance of interrelated work packages;

Calculations of management costs and performance indicators of the management apparatus in the conditions of the projected organizational structure.

A set of documents developed at all stages of design, together with an explanatory note, constitutes a project of the organizational structure of management.

There is a point of view according to which the process of designing organizational systems can be carried out using:

Instrumentation of transaction costs, taking them into account when making decisions of this nature;

The method of allocation of financial units.

Transactional costs are those that arise in the process of establishing relations between economic entities in the market. They “do not intersect with all previously known types of costs (in production, in connection with the sale of products, etc.). Transaction costs supplement all known types of costs if the organization (market subject) does not trust the transaction to the free market. There are four types of transaction costs:

1) the costs associated with the search for information;

2) costs associated with the conclusion of contracts;

3) the costs of monitoring the implementation of the contract transaction;

4) costs associated with the legal protection of the contract (judicial, etc.).

All presented costs cannot be considered purely accounting, since a significant part of them is probabilistic or expected. However, they are just as real as those costs that are supported by accounting documents. At least it is hardly possible to make an adequate managerial decision. One more type of costs, transactional in nature, should be specially singled out - these are the so-called internal transaction costs (as opposed to external ones).

They arise due to the fact that the entrepreneur (or organization) not only chooses between the market and the contract system, but also takes into account the possibility of making this transaction part of the intraorganizational hierarchy. The entrepreneur chooses a specific form of transaction protection, correlating costs and results:

An alternative that he prefers and which provides him with a significant (compared to others) excess of the result over the costs;

When the income after comparing the result and costs in both compared cases are the same, the choice will be determined by the option that gives greater guarantees for the protection of transactions;

A transaction that has become part of the intra-organizational hierarchy, which gives maximum guarantees when it comes to production. When it comes to sales, the maximum security of the transaction is the conclusion of a long-term contract with a wholesaler.

Based on the ratio of costs (including transaction costs) and the guarantees that this or that form of economic organization gives to a particular transaction, a choice is made between three forms of economic organization: the market, the contract system, and the intraorganizational hierarchy. The algorithm for using internal transaction costs to determine the ordering structure of organizational elements can be represented by the following rules:

1) it is necessary to divide the organization horizontally into broad blocks corresponding to the most important areas of activity for the implementation of the strategy (the costs of coordinating more units of the management structure and the costs associated with the distribution of activities (duties) in a smaller number of larger structural units). As a result, decisions are made to assign certain functions to line or headquarters units;

2) the ratio of the powers of various positions is established (the costs of specializing a larger number of small units and the costs of coordinating them within the organization are correlated);

3) are determined official duties(at the level of a particular workplace, the costs of specialization and the costs of coordination are correlated).

The next method of organizational design is accounting for financial flows within the organization (firm) on the basis of the allocation of appropriate financial units. Usually, to solve the problem of organizational design, the following types of financial structural units are distinguished:

Financial accounting centers - structural units that carry out a certain set of business operations and are able to have a direct impact on the profitability of this activity;

Financial responsibility centers - structural units that carry out operations whose ultimate goal is to maximize profits that can have a direct impact on profitability, as well as be responsible to higher management for the implementation of their goals and compliance with spending levels within established limits;

Profit centers - structural units whose activities are directly related to the implementation of one or more business projects of the organization that provide profit (each of the largest American companies in the real sector has on average more than 25 profit centers);

Cost centers - structural units that, as a rule, provide support and maintenance for the functioning of profit centers or innovation centers, but do not directly generate profit;

Innovation centers are structural divisions that are directly related to the organization of new business projects, the profit from which is expected in the future.

For the theory of organization and organizational design, two types of financial structural units are of direct interest: financial accounting centers and financial responsibility centers.

The meaning of such a selection and such a grouping of financial centers for organizational design is that this is due to the possibility, based on the use of this method, to change the organizational structure of the company, to make it more rational and efficient. The regrouping itself, carried out with the help of financial accounting centers, allows, for example, to enlarge some units by eliminating smaller ones (this should save on management costs and on coordination within the entire company). The allocation of centers of financial responsibility, for example, allows solving the problem of preventing monopolistic tendencies in the internal environment of the organization.

However, the financial structure of the organization has another opportunity to make the structure of the company more efficient. It is connected with the rationing of financial flows within the organization. It is possible to imagine the structure of the organization as a system of communicating vessels, where either the structural divisions of the company, or the centers of financial accounting and centers of financial responsibility (depending on the stage of organizational design) act as such. Putting in order the existing structure of the company, it is worth considering from the point of view of financial flows exactly the existing financial and technological units (workshops, departments, services, sections, etc.). When solving the problem of improving the existing structure of the company, one should analyze the financial flows between the centers of financial accounting and the centers of financial responsibility. This will make it possible to develop an adequate decision on improving the organizational structure of the company.

4. Evaluation of the methodology and effectiveness of the design of organizational systems

In methodological terms, it is important to determine the methodology by which the effectiveness of the organizational management structure is assessed. One of the main shortcomings of the assessment methods used was their functional orientation, strict regulation of management processes, and not their results. Even the most reasonable development of functional characteristics and standards, for example, the size of the management apparatus production organizations, do not give constructive recommendations for solving the problems of the formation of territorial production complexes, the organization of targeted programs.

A systematic approach, attaching great importance to the scientifically based definition of management functions and headcount standards as part of the overall process of forming an organizational and managerial structure, orients researchers and developers towards more general principles for designing organizations. First of all, it involves the initial definition of the system of goals of the organization, which determine the structure of tasks and the content of the functions of the management apparatus. However, in relation to the implementation of systemic principles for the formation of the internal structure of the management apparatus, it should be taken into account that the organizational structure is a complex characteristic of the management system.

From the standpoint of system methodology, the following fundamental shortcomings are noticed in the hierarchy of organizational structures:

Most of them are built according to the graphic principle of the "grape brush". Here the hierarchy prevails over the management function. In fact, of all types of organizational management relationships, only vertical “management-subordination” relationships are visible on the graph of the hierarchical construction of the structure. Connections for the implementation of other key management functions are not indicated: planning, organization, control, regulation. Even if they are assumed as components of vertical connections, there are no links of coordination, coordination, communication between the elements of the system;

In multistage hierarchical constructions, both in linear and functional structures, the chains of passage of commands or chains of connections are significantly lengthened. All this reduces the adaptability of the system to changes in the external environment.

However, a systematic approach allows us to formulate some principles for the analysis and design of management structures:

1) the function is primary - the structure is secondary;

2) building a management structure as a structure of links (direct and reverse) for the implementation of the main management functions;

3) completeness of compliance, which means that each of the main tasks must correspond to a certain link (department or official) in the management structure;

4) reduction of the chain of serial connections, or the chain of passage of commands;

5) manageability and delegation of authority;

7) the limit of autonomization (independence). The effectiveness of building an organizational structure cannot be assessed by any one indicator. On the one hand, it should be taken into account to what extent the structure ensures that the organization achieves results that correspond to its production and economic goals, on the other hand, to what extent its internal structure and functioning processes are adequate to the objective requirements for their content, organization and properties.

The ultimate criterion of effectiveness when comparing different options for an organizational structure is the most complete and sustainable achievement of the goals set in the field of production - the economy, technological progress and social development. However, as a rule, it is extremely difficult to bring this criterion to practically applicable simple indicators, to link each specific organizational decision with its final results. Therefore, it is advisable to use a set of regulatory characteristics of the control apparatus:

Productivity in information processing;

Efficiency in making managerial decisions;

Reliability of the management apparatus, expressed in the quality of execution of decisions within the established deadlines and resources;

Adaptability and flexibility, characterized by the ability to identify organizational problems in a timely manner and restructure work accordingly.

The efficiency of the control apparatus is especially significant. However, the economic criterion should not necessarily be reduced to a reduction in the number of personnel. It is necessary to formulate it as a criterion of economic efficiency, in accordance with which the maximization of results in relation to management costs should be ensured.

In the theory of organization, especially in terms of the design of organizational systems, when studying the relationship between the structure, goals and technology of an organization, two approaches are distinguished:

1) comparative analysis, carried out mainly by sociologists of natural orientation in the theory of organization;

2) system design, developed by adherents of the concept of the organization as an artificial socio-technical system and supporters of the administrative management theory.

At comparative analysis it is always not one organization that is being investigated, but a group. At the same time, a separate organization is considered as a systemic integrity, which acts as a unit of analysis. The analysis does not pay much attention to the structural and technical diversity of the elements that make up the organization. A less influential wing in this approach sometimes singles out additional components of the analysis (divisions and working groups) within the framework of organizational integrity. One of the main tasks of comparative analysis is to establish the types of organizations under study. An organizational system is usually described in terms of some general structural and technological characteristics:

The level of complexity and formalization of relations;

Degree of centralization;

Workflow integration level, etc.

The structural and technological variables selected for analysis are considered as conceptually different, but causally related. A particular organization (system) is described as a point in multidimensional space, whose coordinates are fixed through the location of the characteristics on the corresponding coordinate axis. The result is a typology of organizations. Within the framework of the selected types, attention is focused on typical models (patterns) of the behavior of social elements. The process of finding this sample is facilitated by the use of linear statistical methods (correlation, regression analysis, etc.).

In a comparative analysis, an intensive study of several systems is carried out, which allows one to draw a general conclusion about various systems. At the same time, its weakness is that detailed insight into the essence is not taken into account. The specificity of the approach lies in the fact that existing models of the relationship between variables are investigated, and new ones are not invented.

Systems engineering is fundamentally different from comparative analysis.

First, it assumes that the organizational system cannot be understood without a precise definition of the intra-organizational components and their interrelationships. In particular, structure and technology are considered as interdependent aspects of a single designed socio-technical system. Special attention is given to the relationship between variables and the specifics of the situation in the system. This method contributes to the penetration into the mechanisms of the organization, but at the same time does not allow for comparative theorizing, since the study is always carried out in one specific organization and in a certain period.

Secondly, in systems engineering, structural and technological variables are not measured and their relationship is not determined by statistical analysis.

Systems engineering is the process by which an organization's configuration is generated from information about a process workflow. The organizational goal or strategy is considered as the basis for the formation of the organizational structure and a complex of interdependent technical actions. To create a hierarchical structure, various administrative rules are applied in order to process information on different types activities. There is no single methodology for operationalizing variables, collecting data, or evaluating results within this approach. The conclusions are based on personal consulting experience. Finally, systems engineering mainly invents new organizational relationships rather than explaining existing ones.

From a methodological point of view, various methods of forming organizational management structures should also be considered in a single system. The approach to evaluating the effectiveness of various options for the organizational structure is determined by its role as a characteristic of the management system. A comprehensive set of criteria for the effectiveness of the management system is formed taking into account two areas for assessing its functioning:

According to the degree of compliance of the results achieved with the established goals of the production and economic organization (starting from the level of fulfillment of planned targets);

According to the degree of compliance of the process of functioning of the system with objective requirements for its content, organization and results.

The indicators used in assessing the effectiveness of the management apparatus and its organizational structure can be divided into the following three interrelated groups:

A group of indicators that characterize the effectiveness of the management system, expressed through the final results of the organization's activities and management costs;

A group of indicators that characterize the content and organization of the management process, including the immediate results and costs of managerial work;

A group of indicators that characterize the rationality of the organizational structure and its technical and organizational level, which can be used as normative in the analysis of the effectiveness of the designed options for organizational structures.

Important requirements that must be implemented when forming a system of indicators to assess the effectiveness of the organizational structure are ensuring the structural and hierarchical correspondence of indicators to the system of goals of the organization, the ability to adequately reflect the dynamism of managed processes, the balance and consistency of indicators.

Conclusion

Organizational design as a process is the ordering of organizational and structural characteristics of a system in order to achieve or improve their efficiency, adaptability and effectiveness.

The subject of organizational design at the enterprise, in the institution is the system of organization of production, labor and management in the organization as a whole, in its divisions or individual activities.

The purpose of organizational design is to develop new organizational systems or proposals for change. existing systems, and the result is a set of technical, organizational and planning and economic documentation necessary for the creation and implementation in practice of an organizational, production system. Design is seen as the process of compiling the description necessary to create an object that does not yet exist; algorithm of its functioning; anticipation of the consequences to which the appearance of the object will lead; determination of measures for the implementation of the project.

Methodological approaches to the design of organizational management structures can be conditionally combined into four groups: the analogy method, the expert method, the goal structuring method, and the organizational modeling method.

The process of organizational design consists of three main stages: analysis of the current organizational structure, design of organizational structures, evaluation of the effectiveness of organizational structures.

Efficiency evaluation is an important element in the development of design and planning decisions, which makes it possible to determine the level of progressiveness of the current structure, projects under development or planned activities, and is carried out in order to select the most rational variant of the structure or method of improvement.

Having considered the basic concepts of organizational design; basic approaches and methodological principles for building organizational structures; having studied the main stages and methods of organizational design; focusing on evaluating the effectiveness of organizational projects, we can conclude that organizational design is a complex process consisting of various stages, stages and developments, and having great importance for the development of the organizational, production system.

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