Actual and unsolved problems of modern physics.

Theoretical problems Wikipedia entry. Psychedelic - August 2013 Below is a list of unsolved problems in modern physics. Some of these problems are theoretical, which means that existing theories fail to explain certain

CHAPTER 14 SOLUTION FINDING A PROBLEM OR MANY PROBLEMS WITH THE SAME SOLUTION? LASER APPLICATIONS In 1898, Wells imagined in his book The War of the Worlds that the Martians would take over the Earth, using death rays that could easily pass through bricks, burn forests, and

II. social side Problems This side of the problem is, without a doubt, the most important and most interesting. In view of its great complexity, we confine ourselves here to only the most general considerations.1. Changes in world economic geography. As we saw above, the cost

1.2. Astronomical aspect of the ACH problem solar system small bodies, especially those that can collide with the Earth. Such knowledge is provided by astronomy.

New Problems of Cosmology Let us return to the paradoxes of nonrelativistic cosmology. Recall that the reason for the gravitational paradox is that either there are not enough equations to uniquely determine the gravitational effect, or there is no way to correctly set

Chapter 9 Problems of Unification In 1947, fresh graduate student Bryce DeWitt met Wolfgang Pauli and told him that he was working on quantizing the gravitational field. Devitt did not understand why the two great concepts of the 20th century - quantum physics and general theory

Over the past 200 years, science has been able to answer great amount questions concerning nature and the laws to which mankind is subject. Today people explore galaxies and atoms, create machines, problem solving which a person cannot solve on his own. However, there are still quite a few questions that scientists cannot yet answer. These unresolved issues modern science make scientists scratch their heads in puzzlement and make even more colossal efforts to find answers to their questions as soon as possible.

Everyone knows Newton's discovery of gravity. After this discovery, the world has changed significantly. The research of Albert Einstein, the great physicist, allowed us to take a fresh and deeper look at this phenomenon. Thanks to Einstein's theory of gravity, mankind even managed to understand the phenomena associated with the curvature of light. However, scientists still have not been able to understand the work of subatomic particles, the principle of operation of which is based on the laws of quantum mechanics.

Today, there are several theories about quantum gravity, but so far none of them has been experimentally proven. Of course, the solution of this problem is unlikely to have a significant impact on everyday life human, but perhaps it will help unravel the mysteries associated with black holes and time travel.

Universe expansion

Despite the fact that at present scientists already know quite a lot about common device Universe, there are still a huge number of questions related to its development, for example, what the Universe is made of.

Relatively recently, scientists discovered that our universe is constantly expanding, and the rate of its expansion is increasing. This gave them the idea that perhaps the expansion of the universe will be infinite. In this regard, the question arises: what causes the expansion of the Universe and why does its expansion rate increase?

Video about one of the unsolved problems of science - the expansion of the Universe

Turbulence in a liquid medium

Probably everyone knows that turbulence is a sudden shaking during a flight. However, in fluid mechanics this word has a completely different meaning. The occurrence of flight turbulence is explained by the meeting of two air bodies that move at different speeds. But it is still quite difficult for physicists to explain the phenomenon of turbulence in liquid medium. Mathematicians are also quite puzzled by this problem.

Turbulence in a liquid environment surrounds a person everywhere. As classic example such turbulence can be cited as an example of water flowing from a faucet, completely disintegrating into chaotic liquid particles that differ from the general flow. In nature, turbulence is a very common phenomenon, it occurs in various oceanic and geophysical flows.

Despite the huge number of experiments carried out, as a result of which some empirical data were obtained, a convincing theory of what exactly causes turbulence in liquids, how it is controlled, and how it is possible to streamline this chaos, has not yet been created.

The aging process is understood as a gradual violation and loss of important functions by the body, including the ability to regenerate and reproduce. When the body ages, it can no longer adapt so well to the conditions. environment, it is much less resistant to injury and disease.

• The science that studies issues related to the aging of the body is called gerontology.
• The use of the term "aging" is possible when describing the process of destruction of any non-living system, for example, metal, as well as when describing the aging process. human body. Also, scientists have not yet found answers to the questions why plants age and what factors initiate the aging program.

The first attempt at a scientific explanation of such a process as aging was made in the second half of the 19th century by Weismann. He suggested that aging is a property that arose as a result of evolution. Weisman believed that organisms that do not age are not only not useful, but also harmful. Their death is necessary in order to make room for the young.

Currently, many scientists have put forward quite a lot of hypotheses about what causes aging in organisms, however, all theories have so far enjoyed limited success.

How do tardigrades survive?

Tardigrades are microorganisms that are quite common in nature. They populate everything climatic zones and all continents, can live at any height and in any conditions. Their extraordinary ability to survive haunts many scientists. It is curious that these first living organisms manage to survive even in the dangerous vacuum of space. So, several tardigrades were taken into orbit, where they were exposed to various types cosmic radiation, but by the end of the experiment, almost all of them remained unharmed.

These organisms are not afraid of the boiling point of water, they survive at a temperature slightly higher than absolute zero. Tardigrades feel normal at a depth of 11 kilometers, in the Mariana Trench, calmly enduring its pressure.

Tardigrades are distinguished by their incredible ability to anhydrobiosis, that is, drying. In this state, there is an extreme slowdown in their metabolic activity. After drying, this creature practically stops its metabolic activity, and after gaining access to water, its original state is restored, and the tardigrade continues to live as if nothing had happened.

The study of this creature promises to yield interesting results. If cryonics is brought to life, their applications will be incredible. Thus, scientists claim that, having unraveled the secret of the survivability of the tardigrade, they will be able to create a spacesuit in which it will be possible to explore other planets, and the storage of medicines and pills will become possible at room temperature.

Astronomy, physics, biology, geology - these are the areas in which many scientists work. Thanks to their discoveries, new incredible theories appear, which seemed like science fiction a few decades ago and which, perhaps, will very soon make it possible to unravel some of the problems of science that have not been solved so far.

Which of the unsolved problems of science are of most interest to you? Tell about it in

• Translation

Our Standard Model of elementary particles and interactions has recently become as complete as one could ever wish for. Every single elementary particle - in all their possible types- created in the laboratory, measured, and determined the properties for everyone. The longest-held up quark, antiquark, tau neutrino and antineutrino, and finally the Higgs boson, fell victim to our capabilities.

And the last one, the Higgs boson, also solved the old problem of physics: finally, we can demonstrate where elementary particles get their mass from!

It's all cool, but science doesn't end when you finish solving this puzzle. On the contrary, it raises important questions, and one of them is "what's next?". As for the Standard Model, we can say that we don't know everything yet. And for most physicists, one of the questions is especially important - to describe it, let's first consider the following property of the Standard Model.

On the one hand, the weak, electromagnetic, and strong interactions can be very important, depending on their energies and the distances over which the interaction occurs. But gravity is not like that.

We can take any two elementary particles - any mass and subject to any interactions - and find that gravity is 40 orders of magnitude weaker than any other force in the universe. This means that the force of gravity is 10 40 times weaker than the three remaining forces. For example, although they are not fundamental, but if you take two protons and spread them a meter apart, the electromagnetic repulsion between them will be 10 40 times stronger than the gravitational attraction. Or, in other words, we need to increase the force of gravity by 10,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 times to equal it with any other force.

In this case, you cannot simply increase the mass of a proton by 1020 times, so that gravity pulls them together, overcoming the electromagnetic force.

Instead, in order for reactions like the one illustrated above to occur spontaneously when protons overcome their electromagnetic repulsion, you need to bring together 1056 protons. Only by coming together and succumbing to the force of gravity can they overcome electromagnetism. It turns out that 10 56 protons will just make up the minimum possible mass of a star.

This is a description of how the universe works - but why it is so, we do not know. Why is gravity so much weaker than the other forces? Why is the "gravitational charge" (i.e. mass) so much weaker than electric or color, or even weak?

This is the problem of hierarchy, and it is, for many reasons, the greatest unsolved problem in physics. We do not know the answer, but we cannot say that we are completely ignorant. Theoretically, we have some good ideas about finding a solution, and a tool for finding evidence for their correctness.

So far, the Large Hadron Collider – the highest-energy collider ever – has been reaching unprecedented levels of energy in the lab, collecting tons of data, and recreating what happens at impact points. This includes the creation of new, hitherto unseen particles (such as the Higgs boson), and the appearance of old, all known particles Standard Model (quarks, leptons, gauge bosons). It is also able, if they exist, to produce any other particles that are not included in the Standard Model.

There are four possible ways known to me - that is, four good ideas– solution of the problem of hierarchy. The good news is that if nature chose one of them, the LHC will find it! (And if not, the search will continue).

Apart from the Higgs boson, found a few years ago, no new fundamental particles have been found at the LHC. (Moreover, no intriguing new particle candidates are observed at all.) And yet, the found particle fully corresponded to the description of the Standard Model; no statistically significant hints of new physics were seen. Not for composite Higgs bosons, not for multiple Higgs particles, not for non-standard decays, nothing like that.

But now we've started getting data from even higher energies, twice the previous ones, up to 13-14 TeV, to find something else. And what are the possible and reasonable solutions to the problem of hierarchy in this vein?

1) Supersymmetry, or SUSY. Supersymmetry is a special symmetry that can cause the normal masses of any particles large enough for gravity to be comparable to other forces to cancel each other out with a great degree of precision. This symmetry also assumes that every particle in the Standard Model has a superparticle partner, and that there are five Higgs particles and five of their superpartners. If such a symmetry exists, it must be broken, or superpartners would have the same masses as ordinary particles and would have been found long ago.

If SUSY exists on a scale suitable for solving the hierarchy problem, then the LHC, having reached energies of 14 TeV, should find at least one superpartner, as well as a second Higgs particle. Otherwise, the existence of very heavy superpartners would in itself lead to another hierarchy problem that would not have good decision. (Interestingly, the absence of SUSY particles at all energies will disprove string theory, since supersymmetry is necessary condition for string theories containing the standard model of elementary particles).

Here's your first Possible Solution hierarchy problem, for which there is currently no evidence.

It is possible to create tiny super-cooled brackets filled with piezoelectric crystals (which generate electricity when deformed), with distances between them. This technology allows us to impose limits of 5-10 microns on "large" measurements. In other words, gravity works according to the predictions of general relativity on scales much smaller than a millimeter. So if there are large extra dimensions, they are at energy levels that the LHC cannot reach, and more importantly, do not solve the hierarchy problem.

Of course, a completely different solution can be found for the hierarchy problem, which cannot be found on modern colliders, or there is no solution to it at all; it just might be a property of nature without any explanation for it. But science won't advance without trying, and that's what these ideas and quests are trying to do: push our knowledge of the universe forward. And, as always, with the beginning of the second run of the LHC, I look forward to what may appear there, in addition to the already discovered Higgs boson!

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• fundamental interactions
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Actual problems mean important for this time. Once upon a time, the relevance of the problems of physics was quite different. Questions such as “why it gets dark at night”, “why the wind blows” or “why the water is wet” were solved. Let's see what scientists are racking their brains over these days.

Although we can explain more fully and in greater detail the world more and more questions over time. Scientists direct their thoughts and devices into the depths of the Universe and the jungle of atoms, finding there such things that still defy explanation.

Unsolved problems in physics

Some of the topical and unresolved issues of modern physics are purely theoretical. Some problems of theoretical physics simply cannot be verified experimentally. Another part is questions related to experiments.

For example, the experiment does not agree with the previously developed theory. There are also applied tasks. Example: environmental problems physics associated with the search for new sources of energy. Finally, the fourth group is purely philosophical problems modern science, looking for an answer to " main question the meaning of life, the universe and all that."

Dark energy and the future of the universe

According to today's ideas, the Universe is expanding. Moreover, according to the analysis of relic radiation and supernova radiation, it expands with acceleration. Expansion occurs through dark energy. dark energy is an indefinite form of energy that was introduced into the model of the universe to explain the accelerated expansion. Dark energy doesn't interact with matter in ways we know of, and its nature is a big mystery. There are two ideas about dark energy:

• According to the first one, it fills the Universe evenly, that is, it is a cosmological constant and has a constant energy density.
• According to the second, the dynamic density of dark energy varies in space and time.

Depending on which of the ideas about dark energy is correct, one can assume the future fate of the Universe. If the density of dark energy grows, then we are waiting for big gap in which all matter falls apart.

Another option - Big squeeze, when the gravitational forces win, the expansion will stop and be replaced by contraction. In such a scenario, everything that was in the Universe first collapses into separate black holes, and then collapses into one common singularity.

Many unanswered questions are related to black holes and their radiation. Read a separate one about these mysterious objects.

Matter and antimatter

Everything we see around us matter, consisting of particles. antimatter is a substance composed of antiparticles. An antiparticle is the counterpart of a particle. The only difference between a particle and an antiparticle is the charge. For example, the charge of an electron is negative, while its counterpart from the world of antiparticles, the positron, has the same positive charge. You can get antiparticles in particle accelerators, but no one has met them in nature.

When interacting (collising), matter and antimatter annihilate, resulting in the formation of photons. Why it is matter that prevails in the Universe is a big question of modern physics. It is assumed that this asymmetry arose in the first fractions of a second after the Big Bang.

After all, if matter and antimatter were equal, all particles would annihilate, leaving only photons as a result. There are suggestions that distant and completely unexplored regions of the Universe are filled with antimatter. But whether this is so remains to be seen, having done a lot of brain work.

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Theory of everything

Is there a theory that can explain absolutely everything physical phenomena at the elementary level? Maybe there is. Another question is whether we can think of it. Theory of everything, or the Grand Unified Theory is a theory that explains the values ​​of all known physical constants and unifies 5 fundamental interactions:

• strong interaction;
• weak interaction;
• electromagnetic interaction;
• gravitational interaction;
• Higgs field.

By the way, you can read about what it is and why it is so important in our blog.

Among the many proposed theories, not one has passed experimental verification. One of the most promising directions in this matter is the unification of quantum mechanics and general relativity in theory of quantum gravity. However, these theories are different areas applications, and so far all attempts to combine them lead to a divergence that cannot be removed.

How many dimensions are there?

We are accustomed to the three-dimensional world. We can move forward and backward, up and down in the three dimensions we know, feeling comfortable. However, there is M-theory, according to which there is already 11 measurements, only 3 of which are available to us.

It's hard enough, if not impossible, to imagine. True, for such cases there is a mathematical apparatus that helps to cope with the problem. In order not to blow our minds and you, we will not give mathematical calculations from M-theory. Here is a quote from the physicist Stephen Hawking:

We are just advanced apes on a small planet with an unremarkable star. But we have a chance to comprehend the Universe. This is what makes us special.

What to say about distant space, when we know far from everything about our home. For example, there is still no clear explanation for the origin and periodic inversion of its poles.

There are many mysteries and puzzles. There are similar unsolved problems in chemistry, astronomy, biology, mathematics, and philosophy. Solving one mystery, we get two in return. This is the joy of knowing. Recall that with any task, no matter how difficult it is, they will help you cope. The problems of teaching physics, like any other science, are much easier to solve than fundamental scientific questions.

Below is a list unsolved problems of modern physics. Some of these problems are theoretical. This means that existing theories are unable to explain certain observed phenomena or experimental results. Other problems are experimental, which means that there are difficulties in creating an experiment to test a proposed theory or to study a phenomenon in more detail. The following problems are either fundamental theoretical problems or theoretical ideas for which there is no experimental data. Some of these issues are closely related. For example, extra dimensions or supersymmetry can solve the hierarchy problem. It is believed that a complete theory of quantum gravity is capable of answering most of these questions (except for the problem of the island of stability).

• 1. quantum gravity. Can quantum mechanics and general relativity be combined into a single self-consistent theory (perhaps this is quantum field theory)? Is spacetime continuous or is it discrete? Will a self-consistent theory use a hypothetical graviton, or will it be entirely a product of the discrete structure of space-time (as in loop quantum gravity)? Are there deviations from the predictions of general relativity for very small scales, very large scales, or other extreme circumstances that follow from the theory of quantum gravity?
• 2. Black holes, disappearance of information in a black hole, Hawking radiation. Do black holes produce thermal radiation, as the theory predicts? Does this radiation contain information about their internal structure, as suggested by the gravity-gauge invariance duality, or not, as follows from Hawking's original calculation? If not, and black holes can continuously evaporate, then what happens to the information stored in them (quantum mechanics does not provide for the destruction of information)? Or the radiation will stop at some point, when from black hole little left? Is there any other way to explore their internal structure, if such a structure exists at all? Does the law of conservation of baryon charge hold inside a black hole? The proof of the principle of cosmic censorship is unknown, as well as the exact formulation of the conditions under which it is fulfilled. There is no complete and complete theory of the magnetosphere of black holes. The exact formula for calculating the number of different states of a system is unknown, the collapse of which leads to the appearance of a black hole with a given mass, angular momentum and charge. The proof in the general case of the "no-hair theorem" for a black hole is unknown.
• 3. Dimension of space-time. Are there additional dimensions of space-time in nature, in addition to the four known to us? If yes, what is their number? Is the 3+1 dimension (or higher) an a priori property of the Universe, or is it the result of other physical processes, as suggested, for example, by the theory of causal dynamical triangulation? Can we experimentally "observe" higher spatial dimensions? Is the holographic principle correct, according to which the physics of our "3 + 1" -dimensional space-time is equivalent to the physics on a hypersurface with a dimension of "2 + 1"?
• 4. Inflationary model of the Universe. Is the theory correct? space inflation, and if so, what are the details of this stage? What is the hypothetical inflaton field responsible for rising inflation? If inflation occurred at one point, is this the beginning of a self-sustaining process due to the inflation of quantum mechanical oscillations, which will continue in a completely different place, remote from this point?
• 5. Multiverse. Are there physical reasons for the existence of other universes that are fundamentally unobservable? For example: are there quantum mechanical "alternative histories" or "many worlds"? Are there "other" universes with physical laws, which are the result alternative ways violations of the apparent symmetry of physical forces at high energies, located perhaps incredibly far away due to cosmic inflation? Could other universes influence ours, causing, for example, anomalies in the temperature distribution of the CMB? Is it justified to use the anthropic principle to solve global cosmological dilemmas?
• 6. The principle of cosmic censorship and the hypothesis of protection of chronology. Can singularities not hidden behind the event horizon, known as "naked singularities", arise from realistic initial conditions, or can one prove some version of Roger Penrose's "cosmic censorship hypothesis" that suggests this is impossible? Recently, facts have appeared in favor of the inconsistency of the cosmic censorship hypothesis, which means that bare singularities should occur much more often than just as extreme solutions of the Kerr-Newman equations, however, conclusive evidence for this has not yet been presented. Likewise, will the closed timelike curves that arise in some solutions to the equations of general relativity (and which suggest the possibility of time travel in reverse direction) are excluded by the theory of quantum gravity, which combines general relativity with quantum mechanics, as Stephen Hawking's "Chronology Defense Hypothesis" suggests?
• 7. Axis of time. What can tell us about the nature of time phenomena that differ from each other by going forward and backward in time? How is time different from space? Why are violations of CP invariance observed only in some weak interactions and nowhere else? Are violations of CP invariance a consequence of the second law of thermodynamics, or are they a separate time axis? Are there exceptions to the causality principle? Is the past the only possible one? Is the present moment physically different from the past and the future, or is it simply the result of the peculiarities of consciousness? How did people learn to negotiate what is the present moment? (See also below Entropy (time axis)).
• 8. Locality. Are there non-local phenomena in quantum physics? If they exist, do they have limitations in transmitting information, or: can energy and matter also move along a non-local path? Under what conditions are non-local phenomena observed? What does the presence or absence of non-local phenomena imply for the fundamental structure of space-time? How does this relate to quantum entanglement? How to interpret this in terms of correct interpretation fundamental nature of quantum physics?
• 9. Future of the Universe. Is the Universe heading towards a Big Freeze, Big Rip, Big Crunch or Big Rebound? Is our universe part of an endlessly repeating cyclical pattern?
• 10. Hierarchy problem. Why is gravity such a weak force? It becomes large only on the Planck scale, for particles with an energy of the order of 10 19 GeV, which is much higher than the electroweak scale (in low energy physics, an energy of 100 GeV is dominant). Why are these scales so different from each other? What prevents quantities on the electroweak scale, such as the mass of the Higgs boson, from getting quantum corrections on scales of the order of Planck's? Is supersymmetry, extra dimensions, or just anthropic fine-tuning the solution to this problem?
• 11. Magnetic monopole. Have there been particles - carriers of "magnetic charge" in any past epochs with higher energies? If so, are there any to date? (Paul Dirac showed that the presence of certain types of magnetic monopoles could explain charge quantization.)
• 12. The decay of the proton and the Grand Unification. How can three different quantum mechanical fundamental interactions be combined quantum theory fields? Why is the lightest baryon, which is a proton, absolutely stable? If the proton is unstable, then what is its half-life?
• 13. Supersymmetry. Is the supersymmetry of space realized in nature? If so, what is the mechanism of supersymmetry breaking? Does supersymmetry stabilize the electroweak scale, preventing high quantum corrections? Is it dark matter from light supersymmetric particles?
• 14. Generations of matter. Are there more than three generations of quarks and leptons? Is the number of generations related to the dimension of space? Why do generations even exist? Is there a theory that could explain the presence of mass in some quarks and leptons in individual generations on the basis of first principles (Yukawa's theory of interaction)?
• 15. Fundamental symmetry and neutrinos. What is the nature of neutrinos, what is their mass, and how did they shape the evolution of the Universe? Why is there more matter than antimatter in the universe now? What invisible forces were present at the dawn of the universe, but disappeared from view in the process of the development of the universe?
• 16. Quantum field theory. Are the principles of relativistic local quantum field theory compatible with the existence of a nontrivial scattering matrix?
• 17. massless particles. Why don't massless particles without spin exist in nature?
• 18. Quantum chromodynamics. What are the phase states of strongly interacting matter and what role do they play in space? What is internal organization nucleons? What properties of strongly interacting matter does QCD predict? What governs the transition of quarks and gluons into pi-mesons and nucleons? What is the role of gluons and gluon interaction in nucleons and nuclei? What determines key features QCD and what is their relation to the nature of gravity and space-time?
• 19. Atomic nucleus and nuclear astrophysics. What is the nature of nuclear forces that binds protons and neutrons into stable nuclei and rare isotopes? What is the reason for the connection simple particles into complex nuclei? What is the nature of neutron stars and dense nuclear matter? What is the origin of the elements in space? What are the nuclear reactions that move stars and cause them to explode?
• 20. Island of stability. What is the heaviest stable or metastable nucleus that can exist?
• 21. Quantum mechanics and the correspondence principle (sometimes called quantum chaos). Are there any preferred interpretations of quantum mechanics? How does a quantum description of reality, which includes elements such as quantum superposition of states and wave function collapse or quantum decoherence, lead to the reality we see? The same can be stated with the measurement problem: what is the "dimension" that causes the wave function to fall into a certain state?
• 22. physical information. Are there physical phenomena such as black holes or wave function collapse that irretrievably destroy information about their previous states?
• 23. Theory of everything ("Great Unification Theories"). Is there a theory that explains the values ​​of all fundamental physical constants? Is there a theory that explains why the standard model's gauge invariance is the way it is, why the observed spacetime has 3 + 1 dimensions, and why the laws of physics are the way they are? Do “fundamental physical constants” change over time? Are any of the particles in the standard model of particle physics actually made up of other particles so strongly bound that they cannot be observed at current experimental energies? Are there fundamental particles that have not yet been observed, and if so, what are they and what are their properties? Are there unobservable fundamental forces that the theory suggests that explain other unsolved problems in physics?
• 24. Gauge invariance. Are there really non-Abelian gauge theories with a gap in the mass spectrum?
• 25. CP symmetry. Why is CP symmetry not preserved? Why does it persist in most observed processes?
• 26. Physics of semiconductors. The quantum theory of semiconductors cannot accurately calculate any of the semiconductor constants.
• 27. The quantum physics. The exact solution of the Schrödinger equation for multielectron atoms is unknown.
• 28. When solving the problem of scattering of two beams by one obstacle, the scattering cross section is infinitely large.
• 29. Feynmanium: What will happen to chemical element, whose atomic number will be higher than 137, as a result of which the 1s 1 electron will have to move at a speed exceeding the speed of light (according to the Bohr model of the atom)? Is "Feynmanium" the last chemical element capable of existing physically? The problem may show up around element 137, where the expansion of the nuclear charge distribution reaches its final point. See article Extended periodic table elements and the Relativistic effects section.
• 30. Statistical physics. There is no systematic theory of irreversible processes, which makes it possible to carry out quantitative calculations for any given physical process.
• 31. Quantum electrodynamics. Are there gravitational effects caused by zero oscillations electromagnetic field? It is not known how the conditions of finiteness of the result, relativistic invariance and the sum of all alternative probabilities, equal to one, can simultaneously be satisfied in the calculations of quantum electrodynamics in the high-frequency region.
• 32. Biophysics. There is no quantitative theory for the kinetics of conformational relaxation of protein macromolecules and their complexes. There is no complete theory of electron transfer in biological structures.
• 33. Superconductivity. It is impossible to theoretically predict, knowing the structure and composition of matter, whether it will pass into the superconducting state with decreasing temperature.