Spelling principles of Russian spelling briefly. Principles of Russian spelling

Modern Russian spelling is based on certain principles. To understand the principle of spelling means to see its system and perceive each of its individual rules as part of the system, to understand the spelling rule and each spelling in the interrelations of grammar, etymology, and the history of the language. The theory of Russian spelling specifies morphological, phonetic, traditional principles, as well as differentiating spellings.

Morphological the principle of spelling presupposes uniform, identical spelling of morphemes - roots, prefixes, suffixes, endings, regardless of phonetic changes in the sounding word that occur during formation related words or word forms, that is, regardless of positional alternations and other traditional inconsistencies of writing and pronunciation. Such inconsistencies include: all cases of unstressed vowels in different morphemes - root, prefix, suffix, ending, deafening of voiced consonants and voicing of voiceless consonants before paired deaf and voiced consonants, deafening at the absolute end of a word; orthoepic, traditional pronunciation of many words and combinations.

Checking spellings written according to morphological characteristics includes: firstly: understanding the meaning test word or phrase, without which it is impossible to select a related test word, determine case form, given name and so on.; Secondly: analysis morphological composition of the word, the ability to determine the location of the spelling, which is important for choosing and applying the rule; third: phonetic analysis, definitions syllabic composition, stressed and unstressed syllables, highlighting vowels and consonants, understanding weak and strong positions of phonemes, positional alternations and their reasons; fourthly, grammatical analysis words (phrases) – definition of a part of speech, form of a word, for example: a noun, first declension, in d.p., singular, etc.

The leading position of the morphological principle of Russian orthography also determines the methodology of teaching spelling: the latter is based on a conscious, analytical approach to language, on understanding the meanings of words and their combinations, text, grammatical categories and forms, and the phonemic composition of a word.

The following correspond to the morphological principle: spelling topics, studied in primary school: spelling of unstressed vowels, voiced and voiceless consonants, unpronounceable consonants, except for unverified words that are written according to a different principle; spelling of unstressed vowels, voiced and unvoiced consonants in prefixes and suffixes, at the junctions of morphemes (except for certain cases, for example, prefixes with “-z”, which are written according to a different principle; this case is not studied in primary grades); spelling of unstressed vowels in the endings of word forms: in the case endings of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd declension of nouns, in the case endings of adjectives, in the personal endings of verbs of the 1st and 2nd conjugations of the present and future tense; transferring words from line to line, since when transferring, not only syllabic, but also morphemic division of words is observed; to a certain extent, the morphological principle also operates in combined and separate spellings of words, in particular, in distinguishing prefixes and prepositions, as well as in the use of “Ъ” after prefixes, since the application of the corresponding rules requires morphemic analysis of words and their definition morphological characteristics.

Even such spelling topics as indicating soft consonants in writing, capitalizing names, and double consonants also rely on children's morphological knowledge and skills.

So, the morphological principle is the basic principle of Russian orthography. As mentioned above, its essence lies in the fact that all significant parts of the word (roots, prefixes, suffixes, inflections) repeated in in different words and forms are always written the same way, regardless of how they are pronounced in one position or another (see Appendix 1).

The unity of the orthographic appearance of morphemes is achieved by the fact that the letter indicates not the pronunciation in one case or another, but the phonemic composition of the morpheme, formed by strong phonemes. Therefore, the basic principle of Russian orthography can also be called phonetic, meaning by this the principle of transmitting the phonemic composition of a morpheme in writing.

Deviations from the basic principle of Russian spelling are phonetic And traditional-historical principles.

Let's consider further phonetic principle. It is assumed that it originally arose in different nations sound-letter writing has always been phonetic: each sound of speech was recorded as it sounds, as the writer hears it. And in modern Russian writing there are many such spellings where there are no discrepancies between sound and writing: “moon”; “chair”, “we”, “cancer” and many others. In most words, along with verifiable or unverifiable spellings, other sounds are designated by letters, essentially on a phonetic basis. Thus, in the word “car” the sound [a] is unstressed and is considered unverifiable, the letter -a- is written according to tradition, but the other letters of the word are written in accordance with the sound. In essence, all these spellings should be called not phonetic, but phonetic-graphic.

Phonetic-graphic spellings do not cause difficulties for writers, so they are usually simply not noticed; but in the primary grades their role is very important. Phonetic-graphic spellings do not contradict the morphological principle of Russian orthography, since they do not lead to unequal spelling of morphemes. But their danger is that they still create in students the illusion of well-being, the illusion that letters correspond to sounds, which in fact is not always the case.

Cases such as “table”, “hand”, “lamp” (phonetic spellings) reflect the phonemic composition of these words and do not oppose the morphological principle of spelling. So, the phonetic principle of Russian orthography is that sounds are written in words as they are heard, i.e. the spelling conveys the sound of the word. Appendix B discusses spellings based on the phonetic principle.

In the system of spelling rules, there are also those that are based on the phonetic principle and are in sharp contradiction with the leading, morphological principle. The contradiction is that morphemes (in in this case– prefixes with - -з) are not written uniformly, but depending on pronunciation, reflecting positional alternation. The prefixes from-, is-, time-, race-, vz-, vs-, through-, through- and others do not obey the morphological principle. According to the rule, these prefixes are written with the letter Z before vowels or voiced consonants, and in other cases with the letter C: “unnamed, but “infinite.” It is easy to notice that the spelling Z- (S- in this example corresponds to the pronunciation, i.e., is subject to the phonetic principle.

Rules based on the phonetic principle and contradicting the morphological one cause difficulties for students, destroy their ideas about the spelling system that have just begun to form, and contradict general principle checking vowels and consonants in weak positions.

Since the rules based on the phonetic principle contradict the understanding of the Russian spelling system that is developing in children and are generally difficult to master, we are aware primary school they are not studied. But younger schoolchildren encounter words containing such spellings in written speech and write them, learning them on a practical basis through memorization.

It can be emphasized that cases similar to the spelling of prefixes with -з- are few in number: other principles of spelling generally do not contradict, but, on the contrary, support the morphological principle of Prussian spelling. This is the third principle - traditional(historical). According to this principle, many words are written according to tradition, without checking the rules.

Words that are not verified by the rules are very numerous: in the text typical of the written speech of primary schoolchildren, their number reaches 20% (many of these words will later, in high school, become verifiable for students). These are mostly words borrowed from other languages. Many of them entered the Russian language relatively recently: “bath” - German, “suitcase” - Persian, others in ancient times: “watermelon”, “balyk”, “tulup” - Turkic. and etc.

Many spellings considered traditional can in fact be verified based on the source language: “cardboard” is from Latin; “suit” – from French, etc.

Sometimes a spelling considered traditional can be verified on the basis of knowledge of the history of the etymology of words and historical changes in the phonetics of the Russian language: “rooster” - from the Old Russian “peti”, “peas” - contains the full vowel –oro-, in which there is no –a- . Appendix B describes spelling variations based on traditional historical principles.

So, traditional-historical writings are those writings that do not depend on either morphemes or pronunciations, and writing according to tradition is preserved.

Within the framework of the traditional principle, which generally does not contradict the general rules of Russian writing and the leading principle of Russian orthography - morphological, there are several cases that contradict the general system.

The traditional spelling of the combinations ZHI, SHI, with the letter “i”, CHA, ShCHA, with the letter “a”, CHU, SHU with the letter “u” contradicts the general rule of Russian orthography, according to which after hard consonants one should write not “and”, but “y”, after soft ones - not “u”, “a”, but “yu”, “ya”.

In the elementary grades, the spelling of these combinations is learned by heart without any explanation, and, of course, cannot but cause damage to the formation of the concept of a spelling system in the minds of students.

The morphological principle is contradicted by the traditional spelling of individual words: “kalach” (according to the morphological principle, one should write “kolach”).

If morphological spellings are checked and learned on the basis of phonetic, word-formation and grammatical analysis of words and their combinations, then traditional spellings are mainly based on memorization, in the order of the so-called dictionary-spelling work. Memorization in the elementary grades plays an important role; it cannot be neglected; on the contrary, it is necessary to develop a deep system of motivations and game techniques that make it easier for children to memorize words with difficult spellings.

With the development of phonology, with the introduction of the concept of phoneme into scientific use, a new phonemic principle was proposed, which some linguists define as the basic principle of Russian orthography. But, as mentioned above, the leading role in checking spellings belongs to the morphological approach: you need to know whether the spelling is in the root, suffix, prefix or ending. And without a morphological approach, the phonemic method of verification is blind and is applicable only in the simplest, obvious cases such as “water” - “water” or “meadow” - “meadows”.

It is impossible to check the spelling of the words [r shot], [long], [shyt] and many other spellings without resorting to morphological analysis. The morphological principle explains all these cases; in other words, the morphological principle is wider than the phonemic one; it covers significantly large quantity orthograms than phonetic. Most authors teaching aids for universities, the morphological and phonemic principles are considered in close connection, but however not equal, since the phonetic principle is part of the morphological one.

Both pedagogical science and school practice in last years has made significant progress in identifying rational ways to develop educational skills in schoolchildren. Data from studies conducted by psychologists and methodologists confirm that only a system of exercises ensures that students master the skills of competent writing.

Non-state educational institution

Parochial school "Kosinskaya"

Moscow

Article
“Basic principles of Russian spelling”

prepared

teacher of Russian language and literature

Ganeeva Victoria Nikolaevna

Moscow 2014

Basic principles Russian spelling.

Spelling (Greek o rthos – correct, grapho – I write) literally means 'spelling', i.e. correct writing that complies with the norms. But the meaning of the words “spelling” and “spelling” are not the same; the second word has more broad meaning, including punctuation.

Russian orthography is a system of rules for writing words. It consists of five main sections: transmission of the phonemic composition of words in letters; continuous, separate and hyphenated (semi-continuous) spellings of words and their parts; use of uppercase and lowercase letters; ways to transfer words from one line to another; graphic abbreviations of words.

Representation of the phonemic composition of a word by letters.

This is the main section of spelling. It is directly related to graphics. Graphics establish rules for matching letters and phonemes in significatively strong positions. The area of ​​orthography is significatively weak positions of phonemes. In some cases, spelling “interferes” in the area of ​​graphics – an area of ​​strong positions. Graphics determine the meanings of letters in their combinations with each other, regardless of specific words. Orthography gives rules for writing letters in words and morphemes.

The basic rule for spelling unstressed vowels: the same vowels are written in unstressed syllables as under stress in the same morpheme. We are writing o in the word water (although we pronounce [vada]) because under the stress in this root we hear [o] and write o: water, aquatic. We will write down the word pronounced [l`isa] fox, if we check the first vowel with a word foxes, and write down the forests , if we check with a word forest. This is how we determine which phoneme the sound of the weak position corresponds to, and write the letter denoting this phoneme.

The same general rule valid for voiced and voiceless consonants. At the end of a word and before a noisy consonant, the same consonant is written as before a vowel and a voiced consonant in the same morpheme. We are writing b in words tooth, teeth , although we pronounce [zup], [zupk`i], because before the vowel and before the sonorant consonant in this root we pronounce [b] and write b: teeth, dental. We are writing a request , although we pronounce [proz`ba], since before the vowel in this root we pronounce [s`] and write ask.

The principle of checking here is the same as for vowels: the sound of a weak position is checked by a strong position; In this way, the phoneme to which a given sound belongs is determined, and it is designated by the corresponding letter. The same letter denotes a phoneme in strong and weak positions - this is the phonemic principle, the basic principle of Russian orthography.

The phonemic principle also determines the writing of hard and soft consonants: ь does not indicate the softness of the sound, but the softness of the phoneme, that is, softness that does not depend on position. For example, in the word climb pronounced [s`] before [t`], but the softness of [s`] here is due to the following [t`] (the same position before [t`] also determines the deafness of [s`]). In a position that is strong in terms of hardness ~ softness - at the end of a word - this softness is not present: climbed The phoneme here is hard, so in the form climb is not written after s . In the form of the imperative mood climb is also pronounced [s`t`], but the phoneme is soft, since the softness of the sound is preserved at the end of the word: lez - le [s`]. The softness of a phoneme is indicated by a soft sign. In a word go to sleep pronounced [s`n`], but when [n`] is replaced with [n], [s`] is also replaced with [s]: y [sn] y . Therefore, softness [s`] is not independent here; it is not indicated in writing. In a word ice floe pronounced [l`d`], when replacing [d`] with [d], the softness of [l`] is preserved: [l`d] s . Here the softness of the phoneme is indicated in writing by a soft sign.

The phonemic principle determines the spelling of all morphemes of a word: prefixes, roots, suffixes, endings. In a word approach pronounced [pts-], but the prefix is ​​written under- , since the check shows phonemes: p [o] access, along [d] steer . In the suffix of wordsbirch, aspenpronounced [ъ], but written O, since in the same suffix in a strong position [o] is pronounced: oak. In words on a chair and from a bullet the final vowel is the same - [and], but in the first case it refers to the phoneme (cf. per hundred [l`e`]), and in the second - to the phoneme (cf. from the earth [l`i`]). After soft consonants, the phoneme is indicated by the letter e, phoneme – and.

The phonemic principle ensures uniform spelling of the same morpheme in different forms the same word and in different words. Yes, in a word city as part of different word forms it is written the same, although it is pronounced differently: [gor't], [gor'd] a, [grad] a, [garat] ki, at [gart], at [gard], foreign [garod']niy, [garats] skoy. Writing city- in all these cases reflects the phonemic composition of this root – . Spelling the same morphemes the same way makes it easy to recognize words with those morphemes, which promotes quick comprehension and reading.

The basic principle of Russian orthography is also defined as morphological. The morphological principle consists in the requirement of uniform spelling of the same morphemes. In fact, the same morphemes in writing are often conveyed differently: the historical alternations reflected in writing destroy the unity of the writing of morphemes. Yes, in words city ​​and citizen the same root is written differently. In roots and in many affixes such non-phonetic alternations are common; Wed : burn - burning - burning - ignite - arson; mouse onok - mouse onk and - mouse onok.

Historical alternations are transmitted in writing (hence, a single spelling of the same morphemes is not preserved), but phonetic alternations are not transmitted in writing (hence, the same letter denotes the entire series of positionally alternating sounds, i.e., a phoneme in the understanding of the Moscow Phonological schools). Thus, uniform spellings of the same morphemes are usually a manifestation of the phonemic principle of orthography.

In some cases, our orthography is built on a morphological principle that operates contrary to the phonemic one. Thus, graphic uniformity of morphemes is maintained when writing her) under stress after sibilants:yellow - turn yellow, acorn - acorns, bakes - cries, shuttle - shuttle, cheeks - cheek.In these cases, after the sibilants, the phoneme appears under stress, but it is written her) to maintain uniformity with the same morphemes, where it alternates with or may be in unstressed position: whisper () – whisper () – whisper ().

The spellings also correspond to the morphological principledisinformation, counterplay, pedagogical institute, super-ideal– with and after consonants corresponding to hard phonemes. Here the appearance of the root is preserved, contrary to the rule of writing graphics s after such consonants (cf.:unprincipled, background).

The phonemic principle operates when the phoneme is in a strong position (this is, in fact, the principle of graphics), and when the phoneme is in a weak position and can be determined by a strong position. 80% of such writings.

In some cases, verification is impossible, since in this morpheme the phoneme does not occur in a strong position: dog, axe, boot, barn, passage, picky, young, to the hall, football, table, health, sit, sit t. In this case, a hyperphoneme appears: from tank, from pog, fu ball etc. The phonemic principle here limits the choice of letters, but does not provide an unambiguous solution: you can write dog and dog, football and fudball . Writing in such cases is carried out on the basis of phonemic and traditional principles.

The traditional principle of spelling is that the spelling fixed by tradition is used. The choice of letter is not motivated by modern linguistic patterns. From the point of view of sound correspondences, for example, it makes no difference o or a write in the pre-stressed syllable in words boot, dog . Traditional spellings must be memorized.

The traditional principle comes into play not only in cases where a phoneme cannot be placed in a strong position, but also when there is an alternation of phonemes in the strong position of the same morpheme: glow - dawn . In the unstressed position there is also a hyperphoneme: for good reason. Choosing a letter in words z arya, to ripen determined by tradition. Vowels in the root clone- – clan- can be shock: bows, bows. Choice about for unstressed syllables is based on tradition:inclination, incline.

In most cases, the traditional principle does not contradict the phonemic one, but complements it; 15% of such writings. But in a number of cases the traditional principle contradicts the phonemic one. In a strong position this is written u in the word assistant, h in the words of course, boring etc. In a weak position this is, for example, spelling rootsmountains- – gar-, swim- – swim-, in which only [a] is stressed, and without stress is written and o, and a.

In contrast to the phonemic principle is also the phonetic principle, which is that a letter denotes not a phoneme, but a sound. This principle is used to write final consonants in prefixes.without-/bes-, from-/res-, from-/is-, bottom-/nis-, once-/ras-, through-/through-: cloudless, joyless, boundless – useless; find, cut, publish – redeemetc. The final phoneme of the prefix is ​​here, this is evidenced by the pronunciation [z] before vowels and sonorant consonants, but the letter is written h , if pronounced [z], and With , if pronounced [s]. The phonetic principle is not applied quite consistently here: in wordsbad taste, tastelessat the end of the prefix it is pronounced [s]; in wordssilent, frypronounced [sh, zh]; in wordsto become generous, to split on site with zero sound. Thus, the phonetic principle here is complicated by the traditional one.

Spelling o or a in the prefix once-/time- – rose-/grown-also meets the phonetic principle - O written under stress when pronounced [o], A written without accent:sledge, search, placer; collapse, search, scatter. And here the phonetic principle is complicated by the traditional one (cf.: wanted ). It is written phonetically s after c: gypsies, cucumbers, Kuritsyn, pale-faced.

Differential spellings are based on the differentiation in writing of words or forms that match in phonemic composition: burn - burn, arson - arson, cry - cry, rye - rye, carcass - carcass, coccyx - coccyx, company - campaign, o rel - Eagle.

Also in the Russian language there are rules for continuous, separate and hyphenated spellings.

List of used literature

1. Granik G.G. Secrets of spelling. – M.: Education, 1991.
2. Kustareva V. A. History of the Russian language. – M.: Education, 1982.
3. Rozhdestvensky N. S. Properties of Russian spelling as the basis of its teaching methods. – M., 1960.
4. Modern Russian literary language. / Ed. P. A. Lekanta. – M.: Higher. school, 1988.
5. Totsky P.S. Spelling without rules. – M., 1991.
6. Filina L.V. Russian language. Encyclopedia. – M.: Education, 1979.

The basic principles of spelling, taking into account which the rules for writing words are formulated, are morphological-phonemic, phonetic, traditional and the principle of differentiated writing. Writing words that do not have spelling patterns, for example, house, floor, hold, does not correspond to any spelling principle.

The morphological-phonemic principle lies in the uniform writing of identical morphemes, regardless of their pronunciation options.

The morphological principle makes it possible to preserve the unity of the same morphemes in writing. This is achieved due to the fact that the positional alternations of vowels and consonants are not reflected in the letter. Uniform spelling is established according to the pattern of writing a morpheme in a strong position. So, for example, the sound [e] in the root morpheme -les- can have pronunciation variants [and e] in the word forest and [b] in the word forester. However, for writing, the option in the strong position [e] is chosen. Based on the morphophonematic principle, not only roots are written, but also many suffixes, prefixes and endings, the spelling of which is also checked by the strong position of this vowel or consonant sound in the same morpheme. For example, the prefix ot- is always written with a vowel o and a consonant t, regardless of the pronunciation options: finishing [addelkъ], clear [ach'ys't'it'], because the choice of writing the prefix is ​​based on the strong position of the sounds in this prefix: vacation, have dinner. The prefixes over-, under- and some others are written in the same way. The suffixes of nouns -ost, -izn, -av, -ar, etc. are written in the same way (in the word ruk-av-itsa, as in the word pyκ-aβ∖ in the word tok-ar, as in the word vrat-ar). Unstressed case endings can be verified by the strong position of the endings of other words, but of the same type of declension: book - hand, oak - table (book, hand - 1st cl.; oak, table - 2nd cl.). The following spelling rules are based on the morphological-phonemic principle:

1. Spelling of unstressed vowels, checked by stress: breeze - wind.

2. Spelling of unpronounceable consonants: star - star.

3. Spelling of voiced and voiceless consonants at the end of a word: oak - oaks.

4. Spelling of prefixes: o-, ob-, from-, on-, over-, on-, under-: give - vacation.

5. Spelling of suffixes: -ov-, -a-, -ya-, etc.: detained - detain.

6. Spelling of case endings: lakes - buckets.

7. Spelling soft sign after the consonants inside the words: take - I'll take, casually - I'll slide.

In the Russian language there is assimilative softness, which is not indicated in writing (guest), and independent softness
(eighth), denoted ь. To distinguish an independent soft sound from an assimitative softened one, you need to change the word so that the sound being tested comes before hard sound. If the independent softness of the sound is preserved, then it is indicated in writing by the letter ь.

Initially, Russian writing was mainly phonetic. The vowel sounds of the complete formation o, a, etc. did not change during pronunciation; akanye appeared only in the 12th - 13th centuries. Consonant sounds were not deafened or voiced, since their pronunciation was supported by special vowels of incomplete formation ь and ъ. So, for example, in Old Russian language It was impossible to deafen the voiced sounds in the words shop, mug, since the sounds [v] and [zh] were followed by vowel sounds of incomplete formation: shop, mug. The fall of the reduced, the development of akanya, the processes of assimilation and dissimilation changed the pronunciation of words, but the spelling of morphemes in words remained in accordance with the morphological principle. The historical consolidation of the morphological principle occurred because it made it possible to see related words. The kinship of the words forester - forest - forester, fairy tale - storyteller, etc. becomes more important in our minds than pronunciation differences. Thus, the morphological principle appears as a consequence of the awareness of the relatedness of certain roots, prefixes, suffixes and endings. We write words depending on our understanding of their composition. The morpheme remains an unchangeable meaningful unit in consciousness. Hence the desire not to change its spelling. When choosing a graphic representation of a phoneme in a morpheme, two tendencies collide - to preserve the spelling of the morpheme or to designate the sound in accordance with the pronunciation. If the first tendency wins, morphological writing develops, and if the second tendency wins, phonetic writing develops.

Deviations from the morphological principle of writing significant parts of a word are observed when the same morpheme is written differently in different positions. Such deviations are observed: 1) in the spelling of prefixes with -з, -с (take a nap, but cry; tasteless, but useless)", 2) in the spelling of prefixes roz-/-s - raz-/s (splurge, but fall apart; painting , but write it down)", 3) in the spelling of endings of adjectives, participles, pronouns and ordinal numbers in im.p. units (sixth, but fifth; such, but that, etc.); 4) in endings after hissing ones (a cock, but a nut; a candle, but a cloud; fresh, but clumsy); 5) in the absence of double consonants in some derivative words (crystal, but crystal; column, but column); 6) in some roots, where a/o or i/e alternates
(dawn, but to dawn; I will gather, but to collect, etc.), 7) in roots, with alternating consonants (leg, foot; light, lighting, etc.); 8) in the roots, where after Russian prefixes the initial and turns into ы (play along, before June).

The phonetic principle is to reflect in writing the alternation of phonemes in weak and strong positions. With this type of writing, the letter corresponds to the pronunciation (it is written as it is heard). Thus, the same morpheme has different spellings depending on its pronunciation. There are few spellings that correspond to the phonetic principle in Russian spelling. According to the phonetic principle, the following are written: 1) prefixes starting with 3-∕c-∙. without-/bes-, who-/voe-, up-/all-, from-/is-, bottom-/nis-, once-/ras-, rose-/ros-, through-/through~: chosen - fulfilled, overthrow

Fall down, extraordinary - striped", 2) spelling of the prefixes roz-/ros- - raz-/ras-", distribute - handed out, schedule

Receipts - painting", 3) spelling ы instead of and in the roots after Russian prefixes: unprincipled, refined, artless,

4) spelling ы after c in the suffix -yn: sinitsyn, sisters (but: dad, mom, Svetin), in words: tsyts, gypsy, chicks",

5) writing the letter o under stress after sibilants in suffixes and endings of nouns, adjectives and adverbs: river, pebble, strap, cloak, fresh, hot, cherry plum, canvas (but: pebble, chintz, plush; 6) writing individual letters in some roots: ladder (climb, climb), nostril (nose, nasal), wedding (matchmaker, matchmaker), in these words assimilation due to deafness was fixed in writing.

The traditional historical principle of spelling is the writing of words in accordance with established traditions. Phonemes in weak positions are designated by one of possible options.

The traditional principle includes: 1) writing alternating roots: expound - expound, swimmers

Swim, etc., 2) writing a soft sign after the hissing ones: daughter, supine, just, read, smear, etc.; 3) spelling of the vowel in the suffixes -insk-/-ensk-: Sochi, Baku, but: Penza, Frunze; 4) writing paired sounds in terms of sonority/voicelessness that are not verified by a strong position: station, football, baking, asbestos; 5) writing vocabulary words: railings, vinaigrette, accompaniment, etc.; 6) writing the ending -ого instead of the pronounced -ova in adjectives, participles, ordinal numbers and some pronouns: large, read, second, which. If the spelling of dictionary words just needs to be remembered or clarified in the dictionary, then the spelling of alternating roots and the spelling of a soft sign after sibilants is regulated by a system of rules. Soft sign after sizzling
written for feminine nouns of the 3rd declension (night, daughter), for verbs in the infinitive, in the 2nd person singular. h. and in the imperative mood mi. h. (burn, bake, read, pour, cut, smear), as well as in adverbs, except really, married, unbearable, backwards, backhand, and particles (only, I mean). Nouns male, nouns in plural genitive case. h. and short adjectives written without a soft sign (brick, many clouds, good, burning). There are few alternating roots in the Russian language, but the rules for writing them are heterogeneous in nature, which creates difficulties in spelling such roots.

Spelling of alternating roots

Table continuation

There are also other varieties of the traditional writing principle in the Russian language. Thus, the alternation of a/o can be fundamentally associated with the formation of aspect pairs in verbs with suffixes -ыва-/-iva-: in the roots of imperfective verbs it is written a, in the roots of perfective verbs - o: throw away - throw away, flood - flood , abandon - abandon, touch - touch, be late

Be late, keep an eye on - keep an eye on, etc.

Differentiated spellings, unlike other principles, do not regulate spelling, but explain spelling different letters in similar sounding words: shafts - oxen, campaign

Company, compliment - compliment, genie - genie. With the help of differentiated spellings, the lexical and grammatical meaning of words is distinguished. Should not be considered as
differentiated writing - those cases where the letter distinguishing homophones is easily verified by a strong position, for example: rarefy - rare and discharge - charge; interspersed - alternating, interspersed and interspersed - stirring, stirring.

Means that differentiate lexical and grammatical meaning. 1) letters: burn (noun) - burn (verb), carcass (short greeting piece of music, m.r.) - ink (paint, f.r.); 2) capital or small letters: Eagle (city) - eagle (bird), Roman (name), novel (literary genre); 3) continuous, semi-continuous and separate writing: about you (preposition), to the bank account (preposition and noun), despite your age (preposition), despite looking in the book (particle and gerund); 4) stress: cities (m. h., im. p.), cities (singular h., r. p.) when (in an unstressed position - a conjunction, in a stressed position - an adverb. (Wed: I don’t know, when needed. I will come when it appears. free time), that (in an unstressed position - a conjunction, in a stressed position - a pronoun); 5) quotation marks: language (means of communication), with language "(captured enemy), Maxim Gorky (Russian writer), motor ship "Maxim Gorky".

Fused, semi-fused and separate spellings are determined by special principles: lexical-morphological (spelling depends on the part of the sentence: despite youth and despite looking out the window); lexical-syntactic (different spellings of phrases and words: fast-flowing days and fast-flowing streams from the mountains); and word-formation-grammatical (spelling depends on the formal word-formation indicator: Difficult words a hyphen is written with the first part in -iko, words with a connecting vowel are written together: chemical-technological, dried fruits.

The nature and system of Russian spelling is revealed using its principles: morphological, phonemic, traditional-historical, phonetic and the principle of differentiation of meanings. Modern technique Spelling instruction is focused on these principles. They help to understand the meaning of each rule, each method of checking spelling, to comprehend each spelling as a link common system, as a derivative of the laws of language.

Younger schoolchildren are not introduced to the principles themselves, only to the rules and their application, but the teacher needs knowledge of the principles and the ability to apply them both in the practice of testing and in the methodology of teaching this to children.

The morphological principle requires that the spelling check be focused on the morphemic composition of the word; it assumes uniform, identical spelling of morphemes: root, prefix, suffix, ending, regardless of positional alternations (phonetic changes ) in a sounding word, occurring during the formation of related words or word forms. Such inconsistencies between writing and pronunciation include: unstressed vowels in different morphemes - in the root, prefix, suffix, ending; deafening of voiced consonants and voicing of voiceless consonants in weak positions; unpronounceable consonants; orthoepic, traditional pronunciation of many words and combinations: [siniev] - blue, [kan'eshn'] - of course and many more. etc.

According to the morphological principle, the letter outwardly diverges from the pronunciation: we pronounce [gorʹt], [vada], [zdal], - we write city, water, passed, pull up. Writing according to the morphological principle preserves in the letter composition of the word, its morphemes the original sound, which is revealed through the strong positions of phonemes within the morpheme - root, prefix, suffix, ending: for the root -year- in the words godik, new year, anniversary; for the root -water- in the words watery, waterless, flood, flood; for the prefix s- in the words moved out, copied, drove away, collected; for the prefix, put it in the words, came up. In the word pull up, the morphemic approach allows us to “highlight” both the root -tyan-, the first sound of which in pronunciation merges with the prefix pod- [sweat], and the postfix -sya. Constant, systematic work of students to check spelling in the described way (based on checking morphemes) contributes to the assimilation of word composition, word formation, the simplest cases of etymology, enrichment and mobility of the dictionary. The morphological principle also ensures verification of endings, i.e., the writing of morphological forms of a word - unstressed case endings of nouns and adjectives: the ending is checked by the stressed ending in the same word form of the same type of declension. The same approach applies to other parts of speech.

Checking spellings written according to the morphological principle includes:

a) firstly, understanding the meaning of the word or combination of words being tested (sometimes

entire sentence or even text), without which it is impossible to select a related test

a word, determine the grammatical form of the word, etc.;

b) secondly, analysis of the morphemic composition of a word, the ability to determine the place of the spelling - in the root, in the prefix, in the suffix, in the ending, which is necessary for choosing and applying the rule;

c) thirdly, phonetic analysis, identification of stressed and unstressed syllables, identification of vowels and consonants, understanding of strong and weak positions of phonemes, positional alternations and their causes; for example, the alternation of o/a, o/b, etc., the alternation of a voiced consonant with its paired unvoiced one, the alternation of a consonant with a zero sound: [l’esn’its] – staircase.

The assimilation of spellings that correspond to the morphological principle cannot be effective without strong speech skills of students: choosing words, forming their forms, constructing phrases and sentences. So, in the word stand (“that which is substituted under something, on which they put”) the root is -stav-, the prefix is ​​pronounced like [pot], but the letter retains the same type of morpheme, which is observed in the strong position [pаdyskаk’] . But every time produce so complex check is not necessary, since schoolchildren memorize morphemes, especially prefixes: there are few of them. Mixed prefixes are pre- and pre-, but they are not studied in primary school; there is a prefix pa- (stepson, pastures, flood), but it is always, as a rule, under stress, and is also unproductive.

We should not forget that memorizing a word and its spelling often precedes testing and proof.

In the word form along the street [paulitsj] the ending sounds like a vowel [ъы], but in another word of the same grammar class(1st cl. noun) вoda in the same dative case the ending is under stress - on water [пъв’ади́]. The morpheme, in this case the ending, retains its uniform spelling regardless of positional alternations.

Checking spelling is often difficult due to historical alternations of sounds.

kovs, which, unlike positional alternations, are reflected in writing: run - run, drag - drag, growth - grow, end - finish. Sometimes, when alternating, the root takes on an unrecognizable appearance: hearing - hear, burning - burning - burning. Historical alternations are not studied in primary school; textbook authors try to avoid words with them. But it is impossible to completely avoid them, since these are commonly used words, they are often found in readable texts, and in the speech of children. The teacher, willy-nilly, has to explain to the children that bake and bake are forms of one word, run and run are related words.

The morphological principle in spelling has long been considered the main, leading one, because it ensures the leading role of semantics in language teaching. But in recent decades, a new, phonemic principle has claimed the role of the leading principle of spelling.

Phonemic principle

In modern phonology, it is generally accepted that if two or more sounds alternate positionally, then in the language system they are identical. This is a phoneme - a linguistic unit represented by a number of positionally alternating sounds. Thus, the phoneme [o] can be represented by the following sounds, regularly reproduced in the speech of native Russian speakers:

strong position – under stress [house];

weak position, unstressed [queen];

weak position, reduced [m'lako'], [o'b'k].

The phonematic principle of spelling (more precisely, graphics) states: the same letter denotes a phoneme (not a sound!) in strong and weak positions. Russian graphics are phonemic: a letter denotes a phoneme in its strong version and in a weak position, also in the same morpheme, of course. Phoneme is a meaning distinguisher. A letter, fixing a phoneme, provides a unified understanding of the meaning of a morpheme (for example, a root) regardless of its sound variations.

The phonemic principle explains basically the same spellings as the morphological principle, but from a different point of view, and this allows for a deeper understanding of the nature of orthography. He more specifically explains why, when checking an unstressed vowel letter, one should focus on the stressed version, on the strong position of the phoneme.

The phonemic principle allows us to combine many disparate rules: checking unstressed vowels, voiced and voiceless consonants, unpronounceable consonants; promotes understanding of consistency in spelling; introduces teachers and students to a new linguistic teaching - phonology.

Morphological and phonemic principles do not contradict each other, but deepen each other. Checking vowels and consonants in a weak position through a strong one - from the phonemic; reliance on the morphemic composition of the word, on parts of speech and their forms - from the morphological (morphematic) principle. Some modern programs and Russian language textbooks (for example, V.V. Repkin’s school) provide basic information on phonology, and in those schools where V.V. Repkin’s textbook is used, the interaction of the two principles and practical methods discussed is already being implemented.

Related information.

CONCLUSION THREE: in order to consciously apply the morphological principle of spelling, it is necessary to have an idea of ​​the grammatical meaning of both the word as a whole and its individual parts in particular.

The morphological principle of Russian orthography is so logical and generally consistent that there are practically no exceptions. (It is estimated that 96% of spellings in Russian texts comply with this principle.) One can easily imagine what a storm of indignation this categorical statement will cause among diligent readers of grammar reference books, where almost every rule is accompanied by a long list of notes and exceptions, shyly cowering in small lines of petite. However, most of these seemingly anomalous spellings are by no means exceptions. They were born as a result of certain restrictions and violations of the morphological principle, which, in turn, also have their own historical pattern and are subject to the logic of the centuries-old development of the very system of our language.
Let's compare two well-known verbs - to get angry and to quarrel. It is easy to notice that both of them are written through double C, although such a spelling corresponds to the morphological composition of the word only in the first case (prefix ras + to quarrel), and in the second (prefix ras + quarrel) - the word, according to the morphological principle, should I would write with a triple C: ra sss orate. However, the absence of such a form is well explained. The fact is that in the Russian language “there are only two degrees of consonant length: consonants can be either long (which is conveyed in writing by writing two letters, cf. Kassa), or short (which is conveyed by writing one letter, cf. Kosa). The third there is no degree of length of consonants, so writing three identical consonants is phonetically meaningless" [Ivanova V.F. Modern Russian language. Graphics and spelling. M., 1976. S. 168-169]. Thus, it turns out that writing only two consonants at the junction of morphemes, although morphologically there should be three such consonants (bath - but bathroom, although the adjective suffix -n- is attached to the root of baths), or one consonant, when according to the morphological principle there should be be written two (crystal - but crystal, Finn - but Finnish, finka, column - but column, manna - but semolina, uniform - but formenka, operetta - but operetta, ton - but five-tonka, antenna - but antenna man), is explained by the action historically established phonetic patterns of the Russian language.
Now it becomes clear the spelling of adjectives such as Nice, Cherepovets, German, which, at first glance, conflicts with the spelling of Constance, which was mentioned above. In fact: by adding the suffix -sk- to the base, according to the morphological principle, we would expect to see the form Nice. However, such a form would reflect the third degree of longitude of consonants, which is absent in the Russian language. Our spelling was free to choose from two options (Niztsky or Nitssky), equally violating the morphological principle for the sake of phonetic regularity. The reasonableness of preferring the first of the possible options is obvious: it at least preserves the spelling of the generating stem of a word, especially a foreign word, intact.
We must not forget that spelling norms developed gradually, preserving the heritage of the past, and therefore they cannot but reflect the linguistic state of previous eras. It is safe to say that the remaining 4% of “anomalous” spellings that do not fall within the scope of the morphological principle of spelling did not arise spontaneously, but under the influence of certain phonetic traditions that have developed over the long centuries of the existence of our language. On the pages of various manuals, textbooks and grammars, the same spelling patterns are often interpreted differently (for example, spellings in root morphemes with alternating vowels like -zor- -zar- are considered by some authors to be subject to the phonetic principle of spelling, while others consider them to be a consequence of the traditional principle ). However, since you and I are in this moment We are concerned not so much with scholastic as with practical problems, let’s forget about terminological accuracy and ask a more specific question: “What, exactly, are these phonetic traditions and what trace did they leave in Russian orthography?”