Vowel reduction. Qualitative and quantitative reduction of Russian unstressed vowels

The sounds of speech that are part of more complex units of the language (morphemes, words, etc.), in the formation of different grammatical forms or other words with the same root, can be modified, replaced by one another.

The interchange of sounds (alternation) in some cases is associated with certain phonetic conditions (cf. the alternation of root vowels in the words old - old man - old), in other cases it is in no way connected with the phonetic conditions of their use in modern language(cf. the alternation of consonants in the words friend - friend). On this basis, the alternations of sounds are divided into two types - alternations phonetic (or phonetically conditioned) and non-phonetic (or phonetically unconditioned). Phonetic alternations of sounds are sometimes called positional, allophonemic, live. Non-phonetic alternations of sounds are most often called historical, less often - traditional, non-positional, phonemic, morphological, grammatical, dead, etc.

Phonetic alternations of sounds are phonetically conditioned, depend on the phonetic position (position) of the sound in the word (hence the name "positional alternations"). In this case, sounds related to the same phoneme alternate, i.e., different backgrounds (or allophones, allophonemes) of this phoneme (hence the name "allophonemic alternations").

Phonetic alternations of sounds “depend on one or another neighborhood of consonants (combinatorial alternations) or on the position in the word (positional alternations).

Phonetic alternations are widely represented in modern Russian, where vowels usually alternate with vowels, consonants with consonants.

Obviously, we can talk about the phonetic alternation of sounds (vowels and consonants) with the absence of sound, or zero sound.

Vowel reduction - weakening and changing the sound quality in unstressed syllables. There are two weak positions in the Russian literary language:

I position - the first pre-stressed syllable,

II position - all other unstressed syllables, where the reduction is stronger than in the first.

There are two types of reduction: quantitative and qualitative.

With quantitative reduction, vowels lose part of their longitude, but do not change their main quality. High vowels and, s, u in Russian do not change their quality regardless of their location in the word. Quantitative reduction in phonetic writing is not indicated.

With a qualitative reduction, not only the sound is weakened, but also its change characteristic features, its qualities. The vowels o, a, e are subjected to qualitative reduction in Russian. Qualitative reduction is indicated in phonetic writing: after solid consonants in the I pre-stressed syllable a and o as /, e as ye, in other syllables a, o, e - as b. After soft consonants, the reduction of vowels a, e is indicated in the I prestressed syllable as ie, in other syllables as b.

Reduction (Latin reducere to reduce) - linguistic term, denoting a change in the sound characteristics of speech elements felt by the human ear, caused by their unstressed position in relation to others - percussive elements. Distinguish between quantitative and qualitative reduction of vowels.

Quantitative reduction - reduction in the number of vowels (that is, a strong reduction, up to the complete elimination of sound). Quantitative reduction - reduction in the time of articulation of the sound, that is, the difference in longitude depending on the proximity to the stressed syllable, as well as the difference in the duration of the sound of pre-stressed from all stressed ones, for example, in the word [caravans]. At the same time, the sound quality can still be heard.

Qualitative reduction - a change in sound, the "transformation" of the phoneme.

Vowel reduction.

The literary pronunciation of unstressed vowels is based on the phonetic law of the modern Russian literary language - the reduction of vowels. Due to reduction, unstressed vowels are reduced in duration (in quantity) and lose their distinct sound (quality). All unstressed vowels undergo reduction, but their degree of reduction is not the same. So, the vowels [y], [i], [s] in an unstressed position retain their main sound, and the vowels [a], [o], [e] change qualitatively. The degree of reduction of vowels [a], [o], [e] mainly depends on the place of the vowel in the word in relation to stress, as well as on the nature of the preceding consonant. In addition, the rate of speech affects the reduction of vowels: the faster the rate of speech, the more significant the reduction.

In the first pre-stressed syllable, the vowels [a], [o], [e] are reduced to the least extent and their pronunciation is subject to the following norms.

After solid consonants in place of the letters a, o, the sound [Λ] is pronounced with a slightly less wide mouth opening than with the sound [a] struck: gardens, ramparts, vine, scythe, heat, balls, jockey, driver, kings - [sΛdy] , [vΛly], [lΛza], [kΛsa], [zhΛra], [shΛry], [zhΛk "e], [shΛf "or], [tsΛr" and]. In place of the letter e after hissing [g], [ w] and after [c] it is pronounced [s], prone to [e] - [ye]: yolk, cruel, sixth, sixth, price, chain - [zhyeltok], [zhyestok], [shyestok], [shyesto], [tsyena], [tsyepno].

After soft consonants in place of the letters a, i, e, a sound is pronounced, the middle one between [i] and [e] - [s]: watch, hour, spare, sorrel, took off, took, sand, woods - [h "iesy], [h "yesok], ["yed" yt"], ["yev" êl"], , [v "z" iel], [n" yesyok], [l "yesok]. pronunciation in this case distinct [and] is perceived as colloquial: [h"ivo].

Pronunciation of vowels in all prestressed syllables except the first.

In the second and third prestressed syllables, the vowels undergo a more significant reduction than in the first syllable. The degree of reduction of vowels in these syllables practically does not differ. The sounds pronounced in place of the letters a, i, o, e in these syllables differ in quality, which depends on the quality of the preceding consonant.

After solid consonants in place of the letters a, o, e, the sound [b] is pronounced, the middle one between [s] and [a]. If you pronounce [s], but at the same time open your mouth a little wider, and lower the back of the tongue a little, you get the sound [b]. If you pronounce [a], but at the same time make the mouth opening narrower, and slightly raise the back of the tongue, you get the same sound [b]. For example: Karaganda, bells, millstones, woolen, workshop - [kargΛnda], [kalkΛla], [zhurnΛva], [shars "t" ieno], [ts'khΛvo].

After soft consonants, in place of the letters a, i, e, the sound [b] is pronounced, intermediate between [i] and [e], but more reduced than [s]. For example: palisade, stalk, tickle, piglet, village - [h "stΛkol], [h" yr "yenok], ["kΛtat"], [n" tΛch "ok], [d" yr "yev" ên "k'].

Pronunciation of vowels in stressed syllables.

The pronunciation of vowels in post-stressed syllables is basically similar to the pronunciation of vowels in all pre-stressed syllables except the first. Reduced sounds pronounced in post-stressed syllables do not differ in quality from the corresponding vowels of pre-stressed syllables and in phonetic transcription have the same designations [b], [b]. However, the pronunciation of stressed vowels differs in a number of particular features regarding the pronunciation of vowels in various morphemes.

After solid consonants in place of the letters a, o, e, the sound [b] is pronounced, the middle one between [s] and [a]. For example: gave out, fell out, word, tin, cats, spoons, finger - [vydl], [vypyl], [word], [olv], [cat], [spoon], [pal "ts'm].

After soft consonants, the following cases are distinguished:

In place of the letters a, i, a reduced sound is pronounced in two varieties [b] and [b], depending on which morpheme the sound is pronounced in.

http://robotlibrary.com/book/288-sovremennyj-russkij-..

Title: Modern Russian language - Valgina N.S.

http://morfema.ru/publ/15-1-0-16

1. Avanesov R. I. Russian literary pronunciation. M., 1972.

2. Avanesov R. I. Russian literary and dialectal phonetics. M., 1974.

3. Gorbachevich K. S. Norms of modern Russianliterary language

Prepared by Gladkova Anastasia.

Characteristics of speech elements, caused by their unstressed position in relation to others - percussive elements. In linguistics, the greatest attention of researchers is usually riveted to the description of the process of vowel reduction, since it is vowels that are the main syllabic element, although not the only one. Consonant reduction - stunning (linguistics) - is also very common in a number of world languages ​​(Russian, German).

Vowel reduction types

Distinguish between quantitative and qualitative reduction of vowels. Quantitative reduction - reduction in the number of vowels (that is, a strong reduction, up to the complete elimination of sound). Qualitative reduction - a change in sound, the "transformation" of the phoneme.

Quantitative reduction of vowels

Quantitative reduction - reduction in the time of articulation of the sound, that is, the difference in longitude depending on the proximity to the stressed syllable, as well as the difference in the duration of the sound of the pre-stressed ones from all the shock ones, for example, in the word [caravans]. At the same time, the sound quality can still be heard.

Qualitative vowel reduction

Quantitative reduction often leads to qualitative reduction, that is, the sound loses its clarity and turns into a neutral sliding vowel due to the speaker’s failure to complete the full articulatory program of an unstressed vowel for a number of reasons (vernacular, fast speech, etc.). In a number of languages, the qualitative reduction of sounds turns into a language law, that is, it takes on a regular phonetic character. A typical example is portuguese, where the unstressed vowels of folk Latin have a clear transition system: [a] > [ə], [e] > [s], [o] > [y].

see also

Sources

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Positional changes in sounds

Reduction (Latin reducire to reduce) is a linguistic term denoting a change in the sound characteristics of speech elements felt by the human ear, caused by their unstressed position in relation to others - percussive elements. In linguistics, the greatest attention of researchers is usually riveted to the description of the process of vowel reduction, since it is vowels that are the main syllabic element, although not the only one. The reduction of consonants - stunning (linguistics) - is also very common in a number of languages ​​\u200b\u200bof the world (Russian, German).

Vowel reduction types

Distinguish between quantitative and qualitative reduction of vowels. Quantitative reduction - reduction in the number of vowels (that is, a strong reduction, up to the complete elimination of sound). Qualitative reduction - a change in sound, the "transformation" of the phoneme.

Quantitative reduction of vowels

Quantitative reduction - reduction in the time of articulation of the sound, that is, the difference in longitude depending on the proximity to the stressed syllable, as well as the difference in the duration of the sound of pre-stressed from all stressed ones, for example, in the word [caravans]. At the same time, the sound quality can still be heard.

Qualitative vowel reduction

Quantitative reduction often leads to qualitative reduction, that is, the sound loses its clarity and turns into a neutral sliding vowel due to the speaker’s failure to complete the full articulatory program of an unstressed vowel for a number of reasons (vernacular, fast speech, etc.). In a number of languages, the qualitative reduction of sounds turns into a linguistic law, that is, it takes on a regular phonetic character. A typical example is Portuguese, where unstressed vowels of folk Latin have a clear transition system: [a] > [ə], [e] > [s], [o] > [y].

The system of vowel reduction in Russian has a mixed qualitative and quantitative character. After hard consonants, vowels [e], [o] and partially [s] in unstressed syllables are reduced to [s e] / [b] and [b], and after soft consonants, vowels [e], [o], [a] and [and] are reduced to [and e ]/[b]. The vowel [y] is mainly subject to quantitative reduction.

9. combinatorial changes in sounds

The influence of sounds on each other causes combinatorial changes that occur in phonetic processes: accommodation, assimilation, dissimilation, diaeresis, epenthesis, haplology. Reduction is a weakening and change in the sound of unstressed syllables and syllabic sounds of these words. Accommodations (similarity) occur between consonants and vowels, usually standing side by side, and consist in the fact that the excursion of the subsequent sound adapts to the recursion of the previous sound - progressive accommodation; on the contrary - regressive accommodation, while sliding transitional sounds (glide) may occur. Assimilations (similarity) arise between sounds of the same kind, and therefore can be complete, i.e. As a result of assimilation, 2 different sounds can become completely similar and become the same, therefore, they distinguish between complete and incomplete assimilation. Dissimilations (dissimilations) occur between sounds of the same type and are based on a tendency opposite to assimilation, from 2 identical or similar sounds, 2 different or less similar sounds are obtained; (contact, distact, regressive and progressive). Diareses have an assimilative basis, for example, the elimination of iota between vowels when they strive to become like each other or merge into one sound. Epentheses have a dissimilative stem (e.g. insertion of consonants). Prostheses are a kind of epentheses, only prostheses are not inserted in the middle of the word, but are attached in front to the beginning of the word (eight). Haplology - when one of two identical or similar syllables is thrown out (standard-bearer instead of standard-bearer). Metatheses are more common when a word from 1 language passes into another language, when words move into a dialect.

10. general concept of oppositions of phonemes

Phonemes are always members of a given phonetic system characteristic of a certain language, and it is the content of each phoneme that is determined by its position in the system. For this, you need to consider different types oppositions of phonemes in the language system.

First of all, each phoneme is opposed to zero, i.e. the absence of this phoneme, for example, cattle - cat, chair - chair, couple - couples.

The easiest way to establish oppositions is to select words that differ from each other in only one phoneme. If there is no such pair, you can match the word with part of the word. The resulting rows of oppositions are distributed according to differential characteristics - deafness / sonority, hardness / softness, etc.

Phonemes enter into the following types of oppositions:

• correlative opposition - such an opposition, the members of which differ only in one feature, in all others they coincide
• closed - the opposition is exhausted by two members, forming a closed pair, for example deaf || voiced: [n] || [b]
• non-closed - consist of more than two members
• stepped (gradual) - in a series of phonemes, any sign is enhanced, for example [u] || [ů] || [ü] in Norwegian: back, middle and front u
• non-stepped - there is no increase or decrease of the sign; three or more members change one of the signs
• chains - form a sequential row, for example [p] labial, [t] anterior lingual, [k] posterior lingual
• bundles - a similar ratio that does not form a sequential series, for example [c] affricate, [t] explosive, [c] fricative
• non-correlative - members of such an opposition differ in several ways, for example [n] || [a]

Some oppositions are accompanied in parallel by others, for example: [p] || [b] - [t] || [d] - [k] || [G]; others remain isolated: [c] || [h].

To determine the number of phonemes in a language, an understanding of positions is necessary, since the phoneme count can only be carried out on the basis of a comparison of strong positions. In those cases when it is established that these sounds cannot be equally in strong positions, but replace the sound of a strong position in weak ones by alternation, in the same morphemes in the same places, we are dealing with variations of the same phoneme.

14. Parts of speech. principles of their selection

Parts of speech are lexico-grammatical categories of words, united by semantic, morphological, derivational (word-forming features) and syntactic commonality.

Parts of speech are groups of words that have:

1. the same generalized lexical meaning;

2. the same generalized grammatical meaning, or the same set morphological features;

3. the same syntactic functions.

Parts of speech are traditionally divided into significant (independent - it is characterized by the fact that the words of these parts of speech have a lexical meaning, have articulation and grammatical categories, have verbal stress and logical stress, act as members of a sentence) and ambiguous (do not have lexical meaning, articulation, grammatical categories, often do not have verbal stress, are not members of a sentence). The ambiguous include service parts of speech (unions, prepositions - they express relationships), particles (cat. Emphasize the meanings of other words), modal words (cat. Express the attitude of the speaker to the statement), interjections (cat. Express feelings and motives), onomatopoeia ( cat. transmit various sounds).

Functional words include prepositions, conjunctions, particles. Functional words, in contrast to significant ones, do not have a nominative function, i.e. are not the names of objects, features, processes, but serve to express the relationship between the phenomena of reality, which are called significant words. Because of this, service words are used in speech only in conjunction with significant words. Service words are not members of a sentence, but are used as formal grammatical means of the language: prepositions appear in subordinating phrases, unions - with homogeneous members and in complex sentences, particles - with individual words and in interrogative and exclamatory sentences

Modality is the relation to reality. There are words in Russian that specifically serve to express modality. They are traditionally called modal words. Their main function is to express the speaker's attitude to reality and to the content of speech.

Interjections are words that directly express feelings, experiences and expressions of will, without naming them. Semantically, interjections differ from all significant parts of speech in that they do not have a naming function, that is, a nominative function, since they are, as it were, speech signs, signals used to briefly express a person’s reaction to various events of reality or to express a requirement, a person’s desire .Expressing feelings and will, the interjection is nevertheless recognized by all speakers of a given language and is understood by everyone, since a certain semantic content is assigned to the interjection. But the meaning of interjections can usually be understood only from the context, because the same interjections can serve to express different feelings.

15 syntax as a grammatical doctrine

Syntax as a section of grammar that studies the structure of coherent speech includes two main parts: 1) the doctrine of the phrase and 2) the doctrine of the sentence. Of particular note is the section that considers a larger syntactic whole - the union of sentences in coherent speech.

A phrase is a combination of two or more significant words that are related in meaning and grammatically and are complex names for phenomena of objective reality, for example: a student meeting, an article on dialectology. Another basic syntactic unit is a sentence. A sentence is the smallest unit of human speech, which is a grammatically organized combination of words (or a word) that has a certain semantic and intonational completeness. Being a unit of communication, the sentence is at the same time a unit of formation and expression of thought, in which the unity of language and thinking finds its manifestation. The sentence correlates with a logical judgment, but is not identical to it.

Syntactic connection - serves to express the dependence and interdependence of the elements of a phrase and a sentence, forms syntactic relations, i.e. varieties of syntactic correspondence that are regularly distinguished in syntactic units, regardless of their level.

There are three main types of syntactic connection: subordinating connection, or subordination, coordinative connection, or composition, and predicative connection, or predication.

Subordination, or subordinating connection, is a relation of syntactic inequality between words in a phrase and a sentence, as well as between the predicative parts of a complex sentence. Types of subordination in a phrase and sentence:

• agreement
  - a type of subordinating connection, in which the dependent word is likened in the expression of grammatical meanings (in gender, number, case) to the dominant word; There is complete and incomplete agreement.
  Examples: a little boy, on a summer evening; our doctor, at Lake Baikal.
  Sometimes a special type of agreement is distinguished - correlation - such a connection in which the forms of the number and gender of the dependent word are more likely to coincide with the forms of the dominant word, rather than due to them.
  Examples: female astronaut, excellent student.
• control
  - a type of subordinating connection, in which the dependent word (noun or its equivalent) is put in a certain case form, due to the lexical and grammatical meaning of the dominant word or the meaning of the statement.
  Examples: writing poetry, faith in victory, happy with the answer.
• contiguity
  - a type of subordination in which the subordinate word, being an unchangeable part of speech or a word form isolated from the case system, expresses its dependence on the dominant word only by location and meaning (word order, lexically and intonation).
  Examples: listen carefully, very interesting, too late.

The composition differs from subordination, which is defined as an unequal connection, a one-sided dependence of one component of the connection (word or sentence) on another. According to the meaning, the coordinative connection is divided into the following types:

• adversative connection ("a", "yes" (meaning "but"), "but", "on the other hand", "however", "however", "still"),
• connecting connection ("not only - but also"),
• separating bond ("or", "or... or", "either", "this... that", "either... either", "not that... not that").

In a simple sentence, the essay appears in a mandatory combination with the category of homogeneity: it connects elements that are in the same relation to any other member of the sentence (father and mother came; the teacher is strict but fair; there are not only adults in the hall, but also children; let's meet today or tomorrow). The composition occupies a peripheral place here and serves the purpose of expanding the sentence, increasing the number of syntactic positions of the same type in it.

predicative connection

The connection between the subject and the predicate, a form of expression of predicative relations,

Predicative relations - a type of semantic-grammatical relations between individual structural components of the statement, which allows you to correlate the content of the statement with the described situation of reality and, thus, is necessary for the formulation of the statement into an integral communicative unit (relatively complete thought). Formally, predicative relations are expressed as a predicative connection.

Predicative connection - a type of syntactic connection, built according to the laws of a particular language and representing a formal expression of predicative relations between the components of a speech segment (in predicative pairs).

16.Main types of offers

General information
There are various types of sentences in Russian. According to the nature of the attitude to reality expressed in them, sentences of real and unreal modality with various shades differ. modal values: realities and unreality, assumptions, doubts, certainties, possibilities, impossibilities, etc.
Proposals are considered affirmative or negative, depending on the indication in them of the presence or absence of a connection between objects and their features in reality.
According to the purpose of the utterance and the intonation depending on this purpose, sentences are divided into narrative, interrogative and incentive sentences. Each of the sentences of these three groups can become exclamatory with a corresponding emotional coloring, expressed in a special exclamatory intonation.
The structural characteristic of proposals is built on the basis of accounting various signs this structure. So, sentences can be simple and complex, depending on the number of predicative units - one or more.
Simple sentences are divided into one-part and two-part, i.e. having one or two main members as organizing centers of supply.
By the presence or absence of secondary members, sentences are common and non-common. (A sentence consisting only of the main members - the subject and the predicate is called non-common, for example: She did not answer and turned away). (Sentences that have, along with the main, secondary members, are called common, for example: Meanwhile, the sun rose quite high).
Both one-part and two-part sentences are considered complete if all the necessary members of a given sentence structure are present, and incomplete if one or more necessary members of a given sentence structure are omitted due to context or setting.
The lack of the possibility of dividing certain types of proposals, i.e. identifying individual members in their structure leads to the allocation of a special type of sentences - inseparable (word-sentences).
When making an offer great importance has an intonation that performs both a grammatical function and a stylistic one. With the help of intonation, the completeness of the sentence is conveyed and its division into syntactic units is carried out, the emotionality of speech, volitional impulses, as well as various modal shades of meanings are expressed.
Sentences can have paradigms based on the correlation of predicate forms in temporal and modal terms. For example: He is a good teacher; He will be a good teacher; He was a good teacher; He would be a good teacher; He could be a good teacher.

A complex syntactic whole is a syntactic unit larger than a sentence. This is the largest unit of syntax, which is a structural and semantic unity.

A complex syntactic whole is found in a connected text. This is a combination of several sentences, characterized by the relative completeness of the topic (micro-theme), semantic and syntactic cohesion of the components.

Separate sentences as part of a complex syntactic whole are united by interphrase links, which are carried out with the help of lexical continuity, as well as special syntactic means.

A complex syntactic whole differs from a complex sentence (including a polynomial one) by a less close connection between the parts, their formal syntactic independence. However, these qualities do not prevent the components of a complex syntactic whole from being combined into a semantic and even structural unity, which makes it possible to single out this unit in syntax.

17.grammatical and logical sentence structure

Words and phrases - according to the grammatical rules and laws inherent in a given language - are combined into sentences.

The specific content of sentences cannot be the subject of grammatical consideration. Grammar studies only the structure of a sentence, the typical forms of sentences inherent in a particular popular language in its historical development.

The construction of a sentence is one of the most important, most essential elements of the grammatical structure of a language. The grammatical forms of a sentence and its members are specific to a particular language or a group of related languages. Studying the laws of construction of speech in which a thought is realized and expressed, grammar usually puts the doctrine of the sentence as the basis of syntax.

A sentence is a holistic (i.e., indivisible further into speech units with the same basic structural features) unit of speech, grammatically designed according to the laws of a given language, which is the main means of forming, expressing and communicating thoughts. Language as a tool for communication and exchange of thoughts between all members of society uses the sentence as the main form of communication. The rules for the use of words in the function of sentences and the rules for combining words and phrases in a sentence are the core of the syntax of a particular language. Based on these rules, different types or types of sentences are established that are characteristic of this particular language. The sentence expresses not only a message about reality, but also the attitude of the speaker to it.

Each sentence from a grammatical point of view is an internal unity of its verbally expressed members, the order of their location and intonation. The sentence, as the main grammatical form of expression and communication of thought in the process of communication, first served as the basis for the logical analysis of judgment as a form of thinking. Therefore, already in ancient grammar, the theory of sentence and the theory of judgment were intertwined, and sometimes even directly mixed. This confusion was partly expressed in the fact that the term "sentence" (propositio, proposition, cf. German Satz), for example, in Russian for a long time served to designate both a judgment and the form of its verbal expression. On the basis of such a mixture, on the basis of the ancient theory of sentence-judgment, it was created in the 17th-18th centuries. a universal scheme of a sentence and its members, which has long been used to analyze sentences in all languages ​​of the world. In each sentence (often even in impersonal or non-subjective), in abstraction from its grammatical structure, the subject (subject), i.e., what is being discussed, and the predicate (predicate), i.e., were searched for by purely semantic, logical considerations. That is, what is said about the subject of speech, and then the object or objects (complement) - the names of other objects, except for the subject, and attributes (definitions). From attributive (defining) and partly object words, circumstances later began to be distinguished as members of a sentence denoting time, place, condition, purpose, reason, image and mode of action, and sometimes also contradictory or counteracting factors (circumstances of concession). The traditional school theory of the sentence finally took shape on the basis of logical doctrines of judgment in the 18th century. [*one]

The logical direction in the West, based on the idealistic philosophy of Kant and Hegel and especially closely associated with the name of Becker, came to a complete identification of grammatical and logical categories. F. Becker developed an ahistorical and cosmopolitan doctrine of a single path for all languages ideal development building sentences, replacing the internal laws of language development with laws and forms of logic. According to Becker, language logical form concepts and judgments (thoughts) are merged with the grammatical form. In this regard, the syntactic relations within the sentence, which Becker identifies with the logical concepts of the subject, predicate, attribute and object, were considered by him as metaphysical "all-time" categories and forms of thinking of the "self-positing spirit".

In our domestic grammar, the foundations of the theory of the sentence, developed in the logical-grammatical (and stylistic) plan, were laid by M.V. Lomonosov and deepened by his student prof. A. A. Barsov. Then A. Kh. Vostokov, who put forward the idea of ​​a simple verbal and compound verbal-nominal predicate, and especially A. A. Potebnya and A. A. Shakhmatov, who developed their original theories of sentences, laws of changes in sentence forms, made their contribution to the development of the doctrine of the sentence. in Russian and determined the variety of types of simple sentences.

18. suggestion and judgment. The main features of the offer

Most types of sentence, as mentioned above, correspond to a logical proposition. In a judgment, something about something is affirmed or denied, and in this the so-called predication (predication) finds its expression, i.e. disclosure of the content of a logical subject by a logical predicate.

The relationship between subject and predicate in a judgment finds its parallel in the predicative relationship between subject and predicate in a sentence, which expresses the relationship between the subject of thought, denoted by the subject, and its attribute, denoted by the predicate. For example: Spring has come; The report will not take place; The lecture was interesting.

Predicative relations can only be in a two-part sentence, therefore, although they are an essential feature of a sentence, they cannot be considered as a feature inherent in any sentence (cf. one-part sentences with one main member). Many grammarians consider predicativity to be such a general, basic feature of a sentence, understanding it as the relation of the content of a sentence to objective reality (its possibility or impossibility, necessity or probability, reality or unreality, etc.). The grammatical means of expressing predicativity are the categories of tense, person, mood, and various types of intonation (intonation of a message, question, motivation, etc.).

Since, while expressing his thoughts, feelings, expressions of will, the speaker at the same time expresses his attitude to the content of what is being expressed (its desirability or undesirability, obligation or conditionality, etc.), modality is also an essential feature of the sentence. The means of expressing modality, as well as predicativity in general, are the category of mood (indicative, imperative, conditional-desirable) and special lexico-grammatical means (the so-called modal verbs and modal words and particles).

Finally, an essential feature of a sentence, which, along with predicativity and modality, delimits a sentence from a phrase, is intonation. The intonations of a message, a question, an urge, etc., differ.

Thus, the main features of a sentence are modality (the relation of the speaker to the expressed), predicativity (the relation of the content of the sentence to reality), intonation and relative semantic completeness.

A phrase is a combination of two or more significant words, related in meaning and grammatically, which serves to dismember the designation of a single concept (object, quality, action, etc.).

The phrase is considered as a unit of syntax that performs communicative function(included in speech) only as part of a sentence.

It is generally accepted that word combinations include compounds of words based on a subordinate connection (connection of the main and dependent members). Some researchers also recognize coordinating phrases - combinations of homogeneous members of a sentence.

Phrases are not

1. grammatical basis
2. homogeneous members suggestions
3. service unit speech + noun
4. phraseological unit
5. word repetitions

19. morpheme. Classification of morphemes by location relative to the root

A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of a language.

From the point of view of the morphological structure, the words of the Russian language are divided into words that have forms of inflection and those that do not have forms of inflection. The words of the first group fall into two parts: the stem and the ending, or inflection; the words of the second group are pure stem.

The stem is the part of the word that expresses its lexical meaning. The stem is distinguished by subtracting the ending.

The ending, or inflection, is the modified part of the word, which indicates the relationship of this word to others, i.e. is a means of expressing the syntactic properties of a word in a sentence.

The basis of the word breaks up into separate significant parts: a prefix, a root, a suffix.

Word root - common part related words- stands out when comparing words of the same nest, i.e. single-root words. The root can attach various affixes to itself. An affix is ​​a common name for all significant parts of a word, with the exception of the root.

Affixes are subdivided into prefixes, or prefixes, - parts of the word that stand before the root, suffixes - parts of the word that stand between the root and the ending, and endings.

Each significant part of a word - prefix, root, suffix, ending - is called a morpheme.

As the names of one of the significant parts of the word, the term postfix is ​​sometimes used (as applied to the affix -sya, -s: work, wash). This morpheme holds a special name because it is often placed after other parts of the word, including endings.

Most compound words one more part of the word stands out - the connecting vowel (interfix).

As part of the word, affixoids are also distinguished - root morphemes that act as an affix. These include prefixoids: semi- (shoes, half-open, reclining), daily (daily, monthly) and suffixoids: -var (soap maker), -ved (local historian), -vod (beekeeper), -voz (timber truck).

Words that come from the same root form a derivational nest.

A special place in the classification of affixes is occupied by zero affixes:

Zero endings - endings that are not represented by sounds are not materially expressed, but this sound absence is significant.

Zero suffixes - suffixes that are not expressed by sound, are not materially represented, but with the help of which new words are formed: exit - exit

20. The concept of the word. Its difference from sentence and morpheme

So, the word is a significant independent unit of the language, the main function of which is the nomination (naming); unlike morphemes, the minimum meaningful units of a language, a word on its own (although it can consist of one morpheme: suddenly, kangaroo), is grammatically designed according to the laws of a given language, and it has not only a real, but also a lexical meaning1; unlike a sentence, which has the property of complete communication2, the word, as such, is not communicative (although it can act as a sentence: It's dawning. No.), but it is from words that sentences are built for communication; at the same time, the word is always associated with the material nature of the sign, whereby the words differ, forming separate units of meaning and sound (or graphic) expression (became - table - chair - cold; volume - house - scrap - rum

21. word as a nominative unit of language

The subject of study of lexicology is the word as a linguistic unit. As you know, the word is studied in morphology and word formation, but in other aspects. In these sections of linguistics, words turn out to be a means of studying the grammatical structure and word-formation models of the language. The word is the main nominative and cognitive (cognitive) unit of the language, which serves to name and communicate knowledge about the phenomena of reality. Words in the language are called specific objects ( computer, phone) and abstract concepts ( beauty, study, well-being), human emotions are expressed ( rejoice, be frightened, tenderness, indignation) and much more. The word as a linguistic unit correlates with units of other levels of the language: phonetic, since it is framed with the help of sounds - school [school]; derivational, since words consist of morphemes: school(root, ending). Words with non-derivative stems serve as the basis for the formation of new words: school - school - n-th; morphological, because words form certain grammar classes: words with a common objective meaning belong to nouns, words with a common meaning of a feature belong to adjectives, etc., school- noun; syntactic, since words are used in phrases and sentences - new school . Being associated with different levels language, the word holds together, cements the general language system. Despite the reality and evidence of the word as a linguistic unit, it is difficult to define. This is due to the diversity of words in terms of structure and meaning. A word is such a unit of a language that is both a phonetic, lexico-semantic, and morphological whole, and therefore can be characterized with different parties, taking into account properties that are different in nature. Usually a word as a unit of language is characterized through its differential features. So, N.M. Shansky identifies 12 such properties:

22. polysemy of a word

Polysemy, or polysemy (gr. poly - many + sma - sign), is such a property of words when they are used in different meanings. The ways of forming the meanings of words are different. A new meaning of a word can arise, for example, by transferring the name according to the similarity of objects or their features, i.e. metaphorically (from Gr. metaphora - transfer). For instance; by resemblance external signs, shapes of objects, by the similarity of sensations, assessments, etc. It is also possible to transfer names according to the similarity of the functions performed (i.e. functional transfers): pen (goose) - pen (steel).

A new value may arise as a result of adjacency associations. For example, the name of the material is transferred to a product made of this material: bronze chandelier (name of material) - An antique bronze was sold in an antique shop (an item made of this material). In a metonymic way, various kinds of connotations also arise, i.e. the name in one word of the action and its result, cf .: to do embroidery - an exhibition of artistic embroidery; parts and the whole (and vice versa), cf .: Pea coats with peakless caps and gray overcoats flashed (i.e. sailors and infantrymen; in this case, a person is named after a piece of clothing), etc.

In the event of a break or complete loss of semantic links between different values there is an opportunity for naming completely different concepts, objects, etc. with an already known word. This is one of the ways to develop new words - homonyms.

The direct meaning of a word is its main lexical meaning. It is directly directed at the object (immediately causes an idea of ​​the object, phenomenon) and is least dependent on the context. Words denoting objects, actions, signs, quantity, most often appear in

direct meaning. The figurative meaning of a word is its secondary meaning that arose on the basis of the direct one. For instance:

Toy, -and, well. 1. A thing that serves for the game. Kids toys.

2. trans. One who blindly acts according to someone else's will, an obedient instrument of someone else's will (disapproved). To be a toy in someone's hands.

Depending on the basis of which sign the name is transferred, there are three main types of figurative meaning: 1) metaphor; 2) metonymy; 3) synecdoche.

A metaphor (from the Greek metaphora - transfer) is the transfer of a name by similarity, for example: a ripe apple is an eyeball (in shape); the nose of a person is the bow of a ship (according to location); chocolate bar - chocolate tan (by color); bird wing - aircraft wing (by function); the dog howled - the wind howled (according to the nature of the sound), etc. yes

Metonymy (then Greek metonymia - renaming) is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on their proximity *, for example: water boils - a kettle boils; porcelain dish - tasty dish; native gold - Scythian gold, etc. A variety of metonymy is synecdoche.

Synecdoche (from the Greek "synekdoche - connotation) is the transfer of the name of the whole to its part and vice versa, for example: thick currant- ripe currants; a beautiful mouth is an extra mouth (about an extra person in the family); big head - smart head, etc.

23. Homonymy

Homonymy is the sound coincidence of different language units, the meanings of which are not related to each other. Causes of homonymy-1. Sound changes. Phonetic laws can lead to partial or complete coincidence of phonemes, and hence words that include these phonemes.2. homonyms arise when borrowing foreign words.3. a break in the originally unified semantics of a polysemantic word.

DO WE SPEAK RUSSIAN?

(Literary pronunciation)

Oratory speech from the podium, a lecture by a teacher from the pulpit, a speech by a reader from the stage, an actor's speech from the stage, sound films, radio broadcasting, television - all this requires impeccable language design, including pronunciation design.

R. I. Avanesov

The culture of pronunciation is an element of euphony and expressiveness of speech. It is studied by orthoepy (from the Greek words orthos - correct and ehos - speech). Knowing the rules of orthoepy and following them save a person from dialects, accents, wrong stresses. Indeed, sometimes one inaccurately spoken word is enough to spoil the whole impression of the speaker. “I want to start our story...” - the speaker said, and the audience immediately became alert.

Orthoepic rules are closely related to pronunciation styles, which are divided into: 1) colloquial, 2) neutral, 3) full.

The colloquial style of pronunciation is a relaxed, most often rather fast pronunciation, characteristic of everyday dialogic speech.

The neutral pronunciation style is the most natural, clear, slightly slow pronunciation of the text. Usually this style is read "Latest News".

The full style is a distinct, careful pronunciation. Important official messages, solemn promises, oaths, verses are pronounced in full style. Yu. Levitan transmitted reports of the Sovinformburo in full style during the war years. The full style (internally justified) is characterized by increased emotionality. Journalists use neutral and full styles in their practice, carrying out their own special type of communication.

The Russian phonetic system is based on the following laws: 1) quantitative and qualitative reduction (abbreviation) of unstressed vowels, 2) laws of assimilation (similarity) of consonants and simplification of their pronunciation.

In Russian speech, the stressed syllable is lengthened, highlighted in the word. Unstressed syllables are pronounced differently (shorter) depending on the position: the further they stand from the stressed one, the more they are reduced. The stressed syllable in a word undergoes the greatest reduction. Vowels I, S, U, Yu, E - change quantitatively (pronounced more briefly). The vowels A, O, E, I also change qualitatively. So, for example, in Russian literary pronunciation there is no unstressed sound of the vowel I. If it is not under stress, then it sounds like a short I - petitelet, Linguistics, glanced, probing, and Itno, heavy ... It sounds the same (like a short sound between E and I) pre-shocked A after the sounds of Ch and W: clock-chisy, sorrel-sorrel ...

“Yakanie” (peek, announcement, appearance, manifest, explain, untie, dedication, enraged, Language ...) is perceived as dialectism (it was characteristic of Vladimir-Volga dialects) or accented speech of a non-Russian person.

In pre-stressed and stressed syllables, E sounds closer to I: spring-visna, trembling-trembling.

Words with a clear pronunciation of the vowel E at the end of adjectives do not sound in Russian plural: blue, red, kind, fast, industrial, economic, bold ...

According to the laws of orthoepy, the vowel E in this case sounds like a short AND: “Kind, brave people”, “Industrial enterprises”, “Red, white, yellow, black roses” (the sign b denotes a short sound AND).

However, the reduction of unstressed syllables should be natural, not deliberate. So, for example, the host of St. Petersburg television, Innokenty Ivanov, speaks with an excessive stretching of the pre-stressed vowel and greatly reduces the unstressed ones. Scientists write about such an old Moscow speech: “A Muscovite spoke approximately as he was swinging on a swing, raising the pre-stressed syllable higher than the sub-stressed one, drawing it out as he sang, with a stretch, and swallowing the rest of the unstressed vowels: ". F. M. Dostoevsky sneered at the “petty-bourgeois” speech: “the characteristic sugary stretching of vowels - sa-a-ma pa-a-shla!”1

Such old Moscow speech is especially negatively perceived by Petersburgers, whose speech is distinguished by uniformity, evenness of pronunciation, without stretching the pre-stressed word.

1 V.V. Kolete. Russian speech, St. Petersburg, 1998. S. 41.

ha, without ups and downs in tone, without the “leaping Moscow gait”, as St. Petersburg ill-wishers used to say.

PRONUNCIATION "AND"

The union And, the preposition IZ when pronouncing words together (if the previous word ends with a consonant sound) sound like Y, YZ: “Syronia”, “from Yndii”, “kakyoi”, “kakymy”, “talantYwork”, “minds fill the heart”, “There is no return to our thoughts”, “to us of the city”, “like all Petrograders” ...

As an acceptance of a non-Russian person, the combinations sound like: “soInam”, “like And all”, “like they asked”, “like he says” ...

PRONUNCIATION OF THE VOYAL "E"

Long Russified foreign words we sound with a soft E: declaration, deduction, degradation, koshress, conference, dean, dean’s office, demobilization ... And if the speaker says: defect, reis, rels, shinEl, muzEy, rector, revue, defor-mation ... it disturbs the listeners. His speech is perceived as mannered, alien to the Russian sounding word. "A journalist's BESED should sound like a song!" - stated one of the speakers at the republican seminar. Have you noticed that radio and television announcers and journalists have long been saying: pace, energy, inert?

The firm pronunciation of E comes from the old noble speech, from imitation of the West. And only at the beginning of the 20th century, the pronunciation of the type was canceled: demon, gigiEna, vodEvil, muzEy, shinEl ...

E - sounds in foreign surnames like: Breht, FlobEr,

The vowel O in an unstressed position is pronounced only in

foreign words: b0a, dossier, poet.