From the editor. From the editor Educational and communicative function of communication

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N. A. Ippolitova
Pedagogical rhetoric in questions and answers

Z.S. Smelkova, Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences, Professor - Sec. I (1, 2, 3, 4);

N. A. Ippolitova, Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences, Professor - Sec. II (chap. 1), sect. II (ch. 5) (together with L. S. Yakushina);

T. A. Ladyzhenskaya, Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences, Professor - Sec. II (chap. 2);

E. L. Erokhina, Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences, Associate Professor - Sec. II (ch. 3), sect. IV (chap. 4);

L. E. Tumina, Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences, Professor - Sec. II (chap. 4);

M.R.Savova, Cand. Pedagogical Sciences, Assoc. - sect. III (chap. 1);

Z. I. Kurtseva, Cand. Pedagogical Sciences, Assoc. - sect. III (chap. 2);

Z.S. Zyukina, Cand. Pedagogical Sciences, Assoc. - sect. III (chap. 3);

O. V. Filippova, Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences, Professor - Sec. III (chap. 4), sect. IV (chap. 3);

L. V. Salkova, Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences, Associate Professor - Sec. III (ch. 5), sect. IV (chap. 2, 6);

L. V. Khaimovich, candidate of pedagogical sciences, associate professor - sect. IV (chap. 1);

N. G. Grudtsyna, Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences, Professor - Sec. IV (chap. 5);

O. G. Usanova, candidate of pedagogical sciences, associate professor - sect. IV (chap. 7);

L. S. Yakushina, candidate of pedagogical sciences, professor - sec. II (ch. 5) (together with N. A. Ippolitova).

© Design. Publishing house "Prometheus", 2011

Foreword

Currently, the higher school faces new tasks, one of which is the formation of the communicative competence of a specialist - a future teacher, doctor, manager, lawyer, etc.

Communicative competence involves mastering the norms of communication in a certain professional team, the ability to create and interpret professionally significant statements (texts). And for this, the future specialist needs to know the specifics of professional communication in a particular field of activity, the norms of speech behavior, which ensure the effectiveness and efficiency of solving the professional tasks facing him.

The main aspects of professional training - the achievement of learning goals, the successful solution of various educational, methodological and educational tasks - are possible only if the teacher knows the specifics of pedagogical communication, has a command of professional speech, the norms of speech behavior, which ensure the effectiveness and efficiency of the teacher.

The field of education is the area of "increased speech responsibility", since the word (speech) becomes the most important (if not the main) instrument of the teacher's activity, the main means of implementing all tasks of a methodological and didactic nature.

Thus, an additional component related to mastering the experience of the teacher's communicative and creative activity should be introduced into the content of the teacher's professional training.

The problems of teaching professional communication for future teachers can be successfully solved if this training is based on a single concept, on the basis of a holistic course addressed to students of higher educational institutions.

The basis of this concept can be a rhetorical approach focused on searches, theoretical comprehension and practical implementation of the optimal ways of mastering an effective, successful, effective professional speech.

In rhetoric, general laws and principles of speech behavior have been developed, and the practical possibilities of their use in various situations of communication are described.

On the basis of categories, laws and principles of general rhetoric, a model of professional speech training of future specialists can be created within the framework of private - pedagogical - rhetoric. A professionally-oriented rhetoric course allows you to form the communicative competence of future specialists, which implies:

- mastering rhetorical knowledge about the essence, rules and norms of communication, about the requirements for speech behavior in various communicative-speech situations;

- awareness of the situation of professional communication in the field of education, the characteristics of communicative-speech situations, characteristic of the professional activity of trainees;

- mastering the ability to solve communication and speech problems in a specific communication situation;

- mastering the experience of analyzing and creating professionally significant types of statements; development of a creatively active speech personality, able to apply the acquired knowledge and formed skills in new, constantly changing conditions for the manifestation of a particular communicative situation, capable of seeking and finding their own solutions to diverse professional problems.

The course of professionally oriented rhetoric is primarily of a practical orientation - a prerequisite for the demand for rhetorical knowledge is its applied nature. The theoretical provisions of rhetoric are always aimed at solving real problems related to human life.

These are, in the most general form, the basic provisions that determine the goal, objectives and content of rhetoric as an academic discipline at a pedagogical university.

These provisions determine the main approaches to the creation of this manual.

The manual consists of four sections, which reveal the specifics of each of the named components of the professional training of a specialist. We emphasize that the basic concepts - "communication", "speech activity", "pedagogical speech genres" - are revealed taking into account the specifics of the teacher's profession, as evidenced not only by the title of the sections ("Pedagogical communication", "Speech activity of the teacher", "Professionally significant speech genres for the teacher "," The culture of the teacher's speech activity "), but also their content.

Basic concepts and categories of the psychology of communication, rhetoric, the theory of speech activity are considered in the process of their implementation in specific situations of professional communication, which makes it possible to show their specificity, to determine how general principles, provisions, rules, laws, norms operate in appropriate communicative conditions, how they "Work" in the course of solving a certain problem.

Section I
Pedagogical communication

Chapter 1
Specificity of pedagogical communication

What is pedagogical communication and what are its functions?

What is the content of the concept of "pedagogical communication"? According to A. A. Leontyev, “optimal pedagogical communication is such communication between a teacher (and, more broadly, a teaching staff) with schoolchildren in the learning process, which creates the best conditions for the development of student motivation and the creative nature of educational activities, for the correct formation of the student’s personality, provides emotional learning climate<…>, provides management of social and psychological processes in the children's team and allows you to maximize the use of personal characteristics of the teacher in the educational process ”.

You can offer a more concise definition of the term: pedagogical communication- this is the interaction of a teacher and students, providing motivation, efficiency, creativity and educational effect of joint communication activities.

The basis of the teacher's communicative activity is practical knowledge about the methods of purposeful use of speech means to solve the problems of pedagogical communication. Such knowledge is the key to mastering the profession.

Pedagogical communication is multifunctional. The communicative strategy of teacher-student interaction is determined by the teacher who controls the process of cognitive activity, regulates the relationship between students, creating an atmosphere of friendly and active verbal communication. This is a pronounced strategy of partnership, cooperation: the participants in communication are, as it were, on one side of the activity, their relations are mediated by a common goal and common participation in the performance of their duties (functions).

The mutual influence is obvious: the communication strategy in some way predetermines the functions of pedagogical communication, in some way is conditioned by them.

To characterize the functions of pedagogical communication, it is advisable to refer to the generally accepted classifications, where the definition of functions correlates with the purpose of the teacher's activities, and the following functions are distinguished as the main ones: gnostic(cognitive), constructive(selection and organization of educational material), organizational(organization of educational activities, choice of forms of work) and educational.

The communicative nature of the teacher's activity in the implementation of all these functions is obvious. Communication is the main form of knowledge; in communication, the essence of the organizational and educational function is realized; finally, the constructive function correlates with the pre-communicative, preparatory stage of communication, when the selection and organization of material are made in accordance with the subject of speech (topic), with the communicative intention of the addressee (teacher) and with orientation towards the addressee (students of a particular class).

This obligation of the communicative principle in each of the functions of communication is reflected in another generally accepted classification (communication in the broad sense of the word), proposed by the psychologist B.F.Lomov: information and communication(exchange of information, its perception), regulatory and communicative(organization of joint activities, correction of interaction methods), educational and communicative(emotional contact, empathy).

The terminological designation of functions adopted by us has the following content: information and communication function (gnostic, providing knowledge) - the function of teaching, acquiring subject knowledge and social experience; regulatory and communicative function - organizational, providing both the choice of strategy and methods of teacher-student interaction, and the specific organization of activities within the framework of the educational and speech situation; the educational and communicative function is focused on the development of the student's personal qualities, his emotional sphere, on the formation of aesthetic sensitivity, artistic taste.

In the process of educational and speech activity, the teacher comprehensively implements all the functions of communication.

What are the conditions for the successful implementation of the information and communication function of communication?

Pedagogical communication in the "teacher-student" system is carried out, as it were, through two channels. This is, firstly, a channel of direct interpersonal contact (subject-subject communication) and, secondly, closely related to the first, but having its own specifics channel of communication through the educational subject (subject-object-subject).

The specificity of the subject, academic subject knowledge affect not only the content of speech (terminology, information specificity of the exact or humanitarian sciences), but also the selection of specific speech means of pedagogical communication.

Thus, the importance of the communication channel "through the educational subject" increases significantly and fluency in the "language of the subject" becomes the most important condition for pedagogical communication.

The speech form of the implementation of the gnostic function is a dialogue, informational contact of the subjects of communication, each of which addresses precisely this partner, the listener. And because, how equal they will be, how invisible the teacher will make his communicative leadership and will be able to organize contemplation, co-creation, and his partner will be able to change the role of a student to the role of a co-author, predetermines the effectiveness of training.

What forms of scientific knowledge should a young teacher master in the first place? The minimum of subject knowledge is determined by the curriculum, the maximum is determined by the individual abilities and attitude of a person to work.

Secondly, the development of gnostic abilities is the mastery of the "technology" of professional and pedagogical communication. Here, general attitudes are important, the definition of the basic conditions (requirements) for the successful implementation of the information and communication (gnostic) function.

First condition- the accuracy of the transfer of scientific information at any degree of its adaptation for educational purposes. The adequacy of communicative means is achieved here due to the clarity and brevity of theoretical definitions, provided by speech techniques of joint activities of the teacher and students.

On the other hand, the adequacy of speech means to an educational and communicative task can be considered from the standpoint of interaction of communication partners. This is an attitude towards joint action (WE are studying), this is a manifestation of sensory means of influence in the teacher's speech behavior - the creation of a relaxed atmosphere of communication.

The communicative competence of a teacher, his ability to navigate in a communication situation - second condition successful implementation of the gnostic function of communication. Now the “sentiment of the addressee” is brought to the fore - the ability to anticipate his reaction both at the stage of preparing the lesson and at the stage of direct educational communication.

Third condition- do not forget about two additional functions - normative and actualizing - in the context of the implementation of the information and communication function of communication.

An actualizing function, meaning the actualization of individual speech characteristics of a person in pedagogical communication (within the framework of an educational speech situation), is successfully implemented if the teacher, who knows his audience well, is able to choose from the personal arsenal of speech means those words and those forms of speech influence that will be most adequate and emotionally consonant with the given situation.

And, finally, as a general condition for the implementation of all the functions of educational communication and the open influence of the teacher's speech, professional mastery of the speech technique should be called. Thus, the communicative and informational function, combining the content and form-building (speech) structures of pedagogical communication, provides a solution to the educational problem.

What are the features of the implementation of the regulatory and communicative function of communication?

Organizational function can be defined as pivotal, guiding the development of the communication process and connecting all its threads.

The implementation of this function begins at the pre-communicative stage of communication, when there is a selection and organization of educational material (this aspect of the function is also terminologically designated as a constructive function). There is a modeling of the upcoming pedagogical communication: selection of didactic materials necessary for the lesson, lesson planning, writing a synopsis.

The effectiveness of communication largely depends on the thoroughness of the development of not only the content of the lesson, but also on the planning of its speech structure. First of all, the teacher should present the entire probabilistic picture of his educational interaction with the class, correlate the planned material, methodological methods of its assimilation with the capabilities and characteristics of the communicative activity of specific participants in communication.

By organizing joint activities, the teacher constantly regulates the communication process, stimulates the participation of interlocutors in it, corrects the solution of educational tasks - both planned and arising spontaneously. Here mobility, internal readiness to change the tactics of speech interaction with students is important: an experienced teacher feels the reaction of the audience and can intuitively correct one or another method or technique of speech influence.

The most mobile regulatory and communicative function is manifested in the organization of direct communication with students in the classroom. In the process of "recoding" the materials of the synopsis into oral speech, elements of speech improvisation naturally arise.

The activity of a teacher organizing communication is essentially multifunctional: he maintains communicative leadership (but does not advertise it), stimulates the activity of students, predetermines the effectiveness of their actions by the very formulation of the educational problem and instructions that ensure its solution.

So, the successful implementation of the regulatory and communicative function of pedagogical communication depends on the formation of the teacher's communicative skills and on the attitude towards the creative nature of the process of organizing educational relationships. The benchmark for self-control and assessment of communicative skills can be defined as follows: the teacher needs to master not only external methods of dialogizing forms of learning, but also speech methods of influencing the awakening of the student's thought, on predicting its verbal expression in speech.

What is the significance of the educational and communicative function of communication?

The range of action of this function is very wide: the development of the student's personal qualities (including communication skills), the formation of the emotional sphere, the development of aesthetic sensitivity and artistic taste in the process of studying the humanities.

Why, in defining this function, the second word - communicative - seems to be fundamentally significant?

Speech, the mental activity of a student is considered in psychology as the most important personal qualities. In addition, it is speech, speech forms of expression and thought, and feelings that make it possible to trace and evaluate the dynamics of the development of the student's personal qualities.

What personal qualities are professionally necessary for a teacher to carry out the educational and communicative function of communicating with schoolchildren? In any form of communication with schoolchildren, the teacher always remains an educator and communicative leader. And the more natural this inequality of social roles, the more imperceptible it is, the more successfully the pedagogy of cooperation works.

The communicative actions of the teacher predetermine the educational effect of communication. Voluntarily or involuntarily, the teacher's speech, his manner of communication is perceived by schoolchildren as an example. It is difficult to overestimate the influence of such a model on the formation of interpersonal relations in a team, on overcoming the psychological barriers of communication - the lack of confidence in the speech behavior of schoolchildren or their excessive emotionality and excessive verbosity.

Chapter 2
Types of communication: professional conditionality characteristics

What are the main types of communication?

It is customary to distinguish types of communication for various reasons. We will name and consider those of them that, in our opinion, are professionally significant and stand out on the following grounds:

1. By the sign system of communication, which predetermines the way of communication: verbal (verbal) and non-verbal.

2. By the number of participants in communication: interpersonal, group, mass.

3. By the position of the communicants in space and time: contact and distant.

4. According to the external conditions of communication and the observance of the social roles of the communicants: official and unofficial.

What is non-verbal communication?

The main sign mechanism of communication is language - a system of sign units of a specific national language. It is a system of rules that allows the use of language signs to convey the meaning of information. In essence, speech is a language in use: a sequence of signs of a language, organized according to its laws in accordance with the needs and conditions of communication.

The system of the national language is unified. The semantics of a word, the meaning of grammatical or syntactic categories of the language are impersonal and do not depend on the sphere and conditions of communication. Another thing is that in speech the same linguistic units can be perceived, decoded by the listener in different ways - depending on the understanding of the subtext of the statement, on the speaker's intonation, on the expression of his eyes.

The perception of a word-sign is enriched or transformed by the simultaneous perception of a sign from another system - non-verbal (non-linguistic).

All non-linguistic signs are communicatively significant: being a concrete-sensory form of manifestation of a person's inner urges and reactions, they perform the emotionally expressive function of communication, complementing and enriching the teacher's speech.

The ability to “decode” non-verbal information is an important condition for effective communication and a special skill that is professionally necessary for a teacher. The uniqueness of the multichannel impact on the listener of non-verbal communication means makes them indispensable in the arsenal of pedagogical tools.

In the process of communication, non-verbal means can replace verbal information, can duplicate it, but much more often there is an effect of complementing the meaning of the message, strengthening the impact: the speaker's facial expressions and gestures, the tonality and melody of speech provide its expressiveness. Information comes through different channels, its perception is an integral process: the student hears and sees the teacher.

The existing term "body language" (Allan Pease) TA Ladyzhenskaya concretizes from the standpoint of pedagogical communication as the language of "teacher's appearance". When discussing a significant degree of reflexivity, involuntary signs of a person's “body language”, all researchers talk about his social and situational conditioning.

The primary classification of the components of the system of non-verbal signs has a psychophysical basis. Let's start with a component such as a proximic.

RHETORIC

Edited by

Doctors of pedagogical sciences, professors ON THE. Ippolitova

"AVENUE"

Moscow 2008

UDC 808.5 (075.8) BBK 83.7ya73 R55

3.S. Smelkov. Dr. ped. Sciences, prof. - sect. I (chap. 1, 2, 3, 4); N. A. Ippolitova, Dr. ped. Sciences, prof. - sect. II (chap. 1), sect. 2 (ch. 5) (together with J1. S. Yakushina);

T. A. Ladyzhenskaya, Dr. ped. Sciences, prof. - sect. II (chap. 2);

E. L. Erokhin. Cand. ped. sciences - sect. II (ch. 3), sect. IV (chap. 4);

JI. E. Tumin, Dr. ped. Sciences, prof. - sect. II (chap. 4);

M.R.Savova, Cand. ped. Sciences, Assoc. - sect. III(chap. 1);

3.I. Kurtseva, Cand. ped. Sciences, Assoc. - sect. III (chap. 2);

3.S. Zyukina, Cand. ped. Sciences, Assoc. - sect. III (chap. 3);

O. V. Filippova, Dr. ped. Sciences, prof. - sect. III (chap. 4), sect. IV (chap. 3);

L. V. Salkova, Cand. ped. Sciences, Assoc. - sect. III (ch. 5), sect. IV (chap. 2, 6);

L. V. Khaimovich, Cand. ped. Sciences, Assoc. - sect. IV (chap. I);

N. G. Grudtsyna, Dr. ped. Sciences, prof. - sect. IV (chap. 5);

O. G. Usanova, Cand. ped. Sciences, Assoc. - sect. IV (chap. 7);

L. S. Yakushin, Cand. ped. Sciences, prof. - sect. II (Chapter 5) (together with N. A. Ipolitova);

O. I. Marchenko, Ph.D. Philosopher, Sciences - Appendix.

Rhetoric: textbook. / 3. S. Smelkova, N. A. Ippolitova, T. A. Ladies-P55 female [and others]; ed. N. A. Ippolitova. - M.: TK Welby, Prospect Publishing House, 2008 .-- 448 p.

ISBN 978-5-482-01640-4

The textbook sets out the basic theoretical "and practical questions of the course" Rhetoric. "The specifics of pedagogical communication, speech activity of the teacher, the main pedagogical speech genres are disclosed. The appendix contains four lessons of voice-speech training.

For students, graduate students and teachers of pedagogical universities, scientific and practical workers, as well as everyone interested in the culture of professional communication in the field of education.

ISBN 978-5-482-01640-4
UDC 808.5 (075.8) BBK 83.7ya73

Ђ> Prospect Publishing House, 2008
Foreword

This tutorial summarizes the experience of the Department of Rhetoric and Speech Culture at the Moscow Pedagogical State University (MPGU), associated with the theoretical substantiation and experimental development of a professionally oriented textbook of the subject, which is based on rhetorical knowledge.

Currently, the higher school faces new challenges, one of which is the formation of the communicative competence of a specialist - a future teacher, doctor, manager, lawyer, etc.

Communicative competence presupposes possession of communication skills in a certain professional team, the ability to create and interpret professionally meaningful statements (texts). And for this, the future specialist needs to know the specifics of professional communication in a particular field of activity, the norms of speech behavior, which ensure the effectiveness and efficiency of solving the professional tasks facing him.

"To speak and write as a teacher for a teacher at the same time means to assert oneself as a person in a given social environment, and most importantly, in our opinion, to ensure for oneself, both professionally and interpersonally, equal contact in interaction with partners" (L.G. Antonov).

Thus, an additional component related to mastering the experience of the teacher's communicative and creative activity should be introduced into the content of the teacher's professional training.

In rhetoric, general laws and principles of speech behavior have been developed, and the practical possibilities of their use in various situations of communication are described.

mastering rhetorical knowledge about the essence, rules and norms of communication, about the requirements for speech behavior in various communicative-speech situations;
awareness of the situation of professional communication in the field of education, the peculiarities of communicative-speech situations characteristic of the professional activity of trainees;
mastering the ability to solve communication and speech problems in a specific communication situation;
mastering the experience of analysis and the creation of professionally significant types of statements; development of a creatively active speech personality, able to apply the acquired knowledge and formed skills in new, constantly changing conditions for the manifestation of a particular communicative situation, capable of seeking and finding their own solutions to diverse professional problems.

These are, in the most general form, the basic provisions that determine the goal, objectives and content of rhetoric as an academic discipline at a pedagogical university.

These provisions determine the main approaches to the creation of this manual, which is, to a certain extent, a new type of educational literature.

In this regard, let us first of all note the peculiarities of the content of the material presented in it. Professionally-oriented rhetorical training involves knowledge of the specifics of communication in a particular area, the peculiarities of the implementation of various types of speech activity due to the nature of the profession, the development of experience in communicative and creative activities to create professionally significant pedagogical speech genres. The manual consists of four sections, which reveal the specifics of each of the named components of the professional training of a specialist. We emphasize that the basic concepts - communication - speech activity - pedagogical speech genres - are revealed taking into account the specifics of the teacher's profession, as evidenced not only by the title of the sections ("Pedagogical Communication", "Teacher Speech Activity", "Speech Genres Professionally Significant for Teachers", "The culture of the teacher's speech activity"), but also their content.

We also note the novelty of the methodological organization of the manual, which is manifested in the following:

the theoretical material of the manual is selected and presented taking into account the instrumental nature of the knowledge obtained in the course of pedagogical rhetoric (knowledge about the methods of activity);
theoretical information in this regard is presented in a special way: the main provisions, conclusions, definitions of concepts, etc., are preceded, as a rule, or accompanied (in all cases) by an analysis of communicative and speech situations associated with the teacher's profession, illustrated by examples of the teacher's speech behavior are supplemented with questions and tasks that activate the cognitive activity of readers;
theoretical material is presented in such a way that students (readers) become participants in those reflections to which their author is attracted in the process of presenting information, as a result of which the student acts as a subject (and not just an object) of communication in the author-reader system;
the development of theoretical material is organically connected with the implementation of various tasks, which are aimed not so much at reproducing what has been read, but at activating the thinking, creative activity of the readers (students), their awareness of the concepts and facts being studied;
the types of tasks available in the manual can be conditionally divided into the following groups: tasks, anticipatory chapter or section (? Think about it. Think it over); tasks of an analytical nature that are proposed to be performed in the process of reading section of the manual (! Try to independently determine what means of popularization used by the teacher in the fragment below); questions at the end of a chapter or paragraph, which allow you to actualize the main thoughts of one or another part of the manual (??? How does speech activity differ from other types of activity); pedagogical tasks, in the course of solving which the student (reader) must demonstrate the ability to apply theoretical information in practice (Imagine that you are explaining to fifth grade students how the sounds of speech are formed. Using the material from the textbook and other sources, prepare an explanation. What methods of popularization do you use? Why ?)

And, finally, we note that the theoretical material of the manual is accompanied by various types of visualization (diagrams, tables, memos), which not only illustrate educational information, but also allow the reader to comprehend it at a new level, which is facilitated by special tasks: to supplement the diagram, to analyze the features of drawing up tables (why the voiced speech is separated from the "speaking" column), based on the table, make a message, etc.

The manual contains an appendix, which is an essential and necessary addition to the theoretical part of the manual.

In conclusion, we emphasize that the textbook reflects the concept of the communicative-rhetorical scientific school (KRS) of Professor T.A. Ladyzhenskaya, which is based on a rhetorical approach to the formation of speech skills at school and university.

Despite the fact that a large number of authors took part in the work on the textbook, the commonality of their scientific positions is convincingly manifested in the unity of understanding of the tasks and content of rhetoric, in the proximity of approaches to solving the main problems of a theoretical and practical nature, in the coincidence of views on many methodological problems ... Of course, the presentation of theoretical information in various sections of the manual is characterized by different completeness, differences in the ratio of theoretical and practical material, and the manner in which it is presented. But maybe it is these circumstances that ensure the absence of monotony, uniformity in the structural parts of the text, which can have a positive effect on their perception.

SECTION I PEDAGOGICAL COMMUNICATION

Chapter 1

Specificity of pedagogical communication

? Let's think about it. Ponder

What type of profession does the teaching profession belong to?

Let us use the classification of E. A. Klimov, who singled out five types of profession: "man-nature", "man-technology", "man-artistic image", "man-sign system", "man-man".

In which professions is the specific weight of human speech activity especially high? Why are these spheres of activity usually called spheres of "increased speech responsibility"?

Is the thesis-conclusion correct: the form of interaction between people is conditioned by the peculiarities of the professional sphere of communication?

Give justification for this thesis.

What is the peculiarity of the teacher's speech behavior in the classroom?

1.1. Pedagogical communication, its functions

Communication is "a form of interaction between people" - so succinctly this concept is defined by the sociological vocabulary. Communication is a necessary condition and an integral element of any human activity, in the first place - collective activity.

To what extent does the definition of a basic concept emphasize the importance of its professional characteristics? What general rules do such professionally oriented communication obey and how specific are the forms of interaction between a teacher and a student that ensure the effectiveness of joint activities? What are the functions and volume of speech activity in pedagogical communication?

Let's reflect on these issues together. Answering them, we will try to identify the specifics of pedagogical communication, its types and styles.

First of all, it is necessary to define the basic concepts. What is the content of the concept "Pedagogical communication"? Let us refer to the definition of the term proposed by A. A. Leontyev: “Optimal pedagogical communication is such communication between the teacher (and more broadly, the teaching staff) with schoolchildren in the learning process, which creates the best conditions for the development of student motivation and the creative nature of educational activities, for the correct formation the personality of the student, ensures the emotional climate of learning ... ensures the management of socio-psychological processes in the children's team and allows you to make the most of the personal characteristics of the teacher in the educational process ”.

A more laconic definition of the term can also be proposed: pedagogical communication is the interaction of a teacher and students, which provides motivation, efficiency, creativity and the educational effect of joint communicative activity.

Consideration of the role of speech mastery in the teacher's profession should be started by defining the main functions of pedagogical communication.

Function(lat. functio- execution) - "Duty, scope of activity, purpose, role»- in this first meaning of the term, recorded in dictionaries, we will use the named concept. Let's start the discussion of the problem by identifying the main functions of pedagogical communication.

For a schoolchild, pedagogical communication is the main form of socially active development of the world. The circle of the teacher's activity is not just organizing the process of cognition, but actively participating in the process of the formation of the student's personal "I". Pedagogical communication is multifunctional. The communicative strategy of teacher-student interaction is determined by the teacher, who controls the process of cognitive activity, regulates the relationship between students, and creates an atmosphere of friendly and active verbal communication. This is a pronounced strategy of partnership, cooperation: the participants in communication are, as it were, on one side of the activity, their relations are mediated by a common goal and common participation in the performance of their duties (functions).

The mutual influence is obvious: the communication strategy in some way predetermines the functions of pedagogical communication, in some way is conditioned by them.

This obligation of the communicative principle in each of the functions of communication is reflected in another generally accepted classification (communication in the broad sense of the word), proposed by the psychologist B. F. Lomov: information and communication(exchange of information, its perception), regulatory and communicative(organization of joint activities, correction of interaction methods), educational and communicative(emotional contact, empathy).

We use the classification of B. F. Lomov as a working one, but with some minor clarifications dictated by the specifics of pedagogical communication. Thus, communicative activity within the framework of the educational process presupposes the presence of two additional functions - normative (mastering the norms of speech behavior) and actualizing (implementation of individual characteristics of a particular person in communication), which are present in one way or another in each of the main ones.

The terminological designation of functions adopted by us has the following content: information and communication function (gnostic, providing knowledge) - the function of teaching, acquiring subject knowledge and social experience; regulatory and communicative function - organizational, providing both the choice of strategy and methods of teacher-student interaction, and the specific organization of activities within the framework of the educational and speech situation; educational and communicative function - focused on the development of the student's personal qualities, his emotional sphere, on the formation of aesthetic sensitivity, artistic taste.

In the process of educational and speech activity, the teacher comprehensively implements all the functions of communication. The classification demarcation makes it possible to deepen the characteristics of the features of each function in the context of the whole - effective pedagogical communication.

1.2. Information and communication function of communication

What is the specificity of the transfer of educational information? How is the successful implementation of the information and communication function of communication ensured?

How important is this factor - "Language of the subject"?- Let's refer to the authority of the psychologist: “Pedagogical communication in the“ teacher-student ”system is carried out, as it were, through two channels. This is, firstly, a channel of direct interpersonal contact (subject-subject communication) and, secondly, closely related to the first, but having its own specificity, a channel of communication through the educational subject (subject-object-subject).

In the methodological studies of recent years, the concept of "language of the subject" has consolidated this feature of the speech form of interpersonal communication, when the specificity of the subject, academic subject knowledge affects not only the content of speech (terminology, information specificity of the exact or humanitarian sciences), but also the selection of specific speech means of pedagogical communication.

The substantiation of the fundamental difference between the academic subject "Russian language" and other subjects of the school course is given from two positions: for this subject, language is not just a "teaching tool" and a speech form of teaching the subject, but also an object of study, as well as a means of achieving the goal of teaching - a means of development student speech. Thus, the importance of the channel of communication "through the educational subject" increases significantly, and fluency in the "language of the subject" becomes the most important condition for pedagogical communication. This thesis, like the position on the thoroughness of the teacher's subject knowledge, hardly needs additional argumentation.

Much more difficult is the question of how to form subject knowledge, how to ensure both the required depth of assimilation of knowledge, and the creative nature of the work of schoolchildren - the possibility of their own scientific discoveries ”. Communication is the key word in the answer to this question.

The speech form of the implementation of the gnostic function is a dialogue, informational contact of the subjects of communication, each of which addresses precisely this partner, the listener. And because, how equal they will be, how invisible the teacher will make his communicative leadership and will be able to organize CO-reflections, CO-creativity, and his partner will be able to change the role of a student to the role of a co-author, depends on the effectiveness of training.

The evidence of this truth appears in the catch phrases of teachers of different times and peoples: "You cannot teach - you can learn"(Confucius), “What does it mean to teach? "It means systematically encouraging students to discover their own."(G. Spencer). Spiritual interest, awareness of motivation, the ability for independent learning activities, “learning with enthusiasm” are the basis for success, say innovative teachers and our contemporaries.

What forms of scientific knowledge should a young teacher master in the first place? What are the gnostic and communicative-speech abilities to develop first of all? What is the role of experience in this? The minimum of subject knowledge is determined by the curriculum, the maximum is determined by the individual abilities and attitude of a person to work. It is impossible to level the amount of knowledge. However, there are proven ways to increase knowledge and develop gnostic abilities - they are not worth mentioning.

First, it is reliance on experience and intuition. Knowledge, growing into a skill and passing into the subconscious, becomes experience. The human brain is capable of prediction, of anticipation based on past experience. This helps him to guess, correlate, make the right decision. Therefore, first of all, the ability to anticipate, intuition should be developed. Intuition is based on quick generalization, based on personal experience, on associations. Information that is already known to a person is synthesized (consciously and intuitively), summed up - argumentation is reduced - and a judgment is expressed - an assumption. Intuition is always economical and ensures the speed of mutual understanding between communication partners, if the verbal form of judgment is adequate to the content. This means that it is necessary to develop intuition, trust it and more boldly turn to the circle of associations existing in a person's memory.

Secondly, the development of gnostic abilities is the mastery of the "technology" of professional-pedagogical communication. The characteristics of the ways of interaction in various situations will be presented in the final chapter of this section. Here, general attitudes are important, the definition of the basic conditions (requirements) for the successful implementation of the information-communicative (gnostic) function.

Let us comment from these positions on the recording of the teacher's speech (explanation of the new material on the topic "Pronoun as a part of speech"):

“Today we are studying the pronoun as a part of speech. You know that each part of speech has a generalized meaning, a system of morphological features and plays a certain syntactic role. The most interesting thing about a pronoun is its meaning. A noun denotes an object, an adjective denotes a sign of an object, and a numeral denotes quantity. A pronoun can indicate objects, signs, quantities, but not name them ... That is, the meaning of a pronoun is more general, more generalized than the meaning of other parts of speech. That is why it is called a pronoun - it is used instead of a name ”(quoted from the book by ND Desyayeva).

The speech is informative, the teacher uses:

A) comparison - referring to the knowledge already available to schoolchildren (pronoun and other parts of speech);

B) repetition and intonation of the most significant words ( subject, parts of speech) ",

C) explanations of the semantics of a complex word through the semantics of its constituents (place - estate: instead of name), again, supported by intonation means.

In our opinion, this is a fairly convincing example of the implementation of pedagogical principles of influence in a teacher's speech: accessibility, evidence, associativity. On the other hand, the adequacy of speech means to an educational and communicative task can be considered from the standpoint of interaction of communication partners. This is an attitude towards joint action (WE are studying), this is a manifestation of sensory means of influence in the teacher's speech behavior - the creation of a relaxed atmosphere of communication.

Third condition- do not forget about two additional functions - normative and actualizing - in the context of the implementation of the information and communication function of communication.

The normative function involves the development of normative speech behavior by schoolchildren directly in the process of communication. Educational and scientific speech of the teacher is perceived as a model. That is why it is fundamentally important for a language teacher to be fluent in the “language of the subject” in all its varieties: from scientific logic and informational capacity of the theoretical definition of a linguistic concept to the artistic expressiveness of a word about a writer.

The actualizing function, meaning the actualization of individual speech characteristics of a person in pedagogical communication (within the framework of an educational speech situation), is successfully implemented if the teacher, who knows his audience well, is able to choose from the personal arsenal of speech means those words and those forms of speech influence that will be most adequate and emotionally consonant with the given situation.

And, finally, as a general condition for the implementation of all the functions of educational communication and the open influence of the teacher's speech, professional mastery of the speech technique should be called. Thus, the communicative and informational function, combining the content and formative (speech) with the structure of pedagogical communication, provides a solution to the educational problem.

The teacher implements the dialogical essence of the cognition process in concrete forms. His speech will be actively influencing if it is addressed to the mind and feeling of the student, if it is perceived as an alloy of solid subject knowledge, communicative skills and the expressiveness of sounding speech.

??? 1. Justify the synonymy of the use of two terms denoting the function of communication: information and communication and gnostic.

* 2. Read the opinion of the classic teacher A. Disterverg: “... knowledge in the proper sense of the word cannot be communicated. You can offer a person, suggest, but he must master them through his own activity ... He must independently embrace everything, assimilate, process ”. Please comment on your understanding of this thesis.

Comment on the implementation of the gnostic function of communication based on a fragment of the teacher's teaching speech:

“The common meaning of all related words lies at the root. How to understand: "Overall value related words "? Each of the words written by them has its own lexical meaning (remember their interpretation), but all the words of the first column in their meaning are somehow connected with the root of" waters "in the word water -" transparent colorless liquid ", all the words of the second column associated with the root of "waters" in the word drive - "to control some object (machine)" "(according to EI Nikitina).

1.3. Regulatory and communicative (organizational)

communication function

How to organize joint learning activities? Organizational function can be defined as core-forming, guiding the development of the communication process and connecting all its threads.

The effectiveness of communication largely depends on the thoroughness of the development of not only the content of the lesson, but also on the planning of its speech structure. First of all, the teacher should present the entire probabilistic picture of his educational interaction with the class, correlate the planned material, methodological techniques for its assimilation with the capabilities and characteristics of the communicative activity of specific participants in communication.

To what extent will the chosen form of educational interaction be optimal for solving the educational problem? How beneficial is it for the manifestation of the teacher's personal creative abilities? What is the degree of adequacy of the perception of educational information by schoolchildren and what communicative complications may arise?

The teacher's oral speech in the lesson is “predictable” in terms of the strategic task (pedagogy of cooperation), but the interactive nature of pedagogical communication (the specific reaction of schoolchildren) makes significant corrections in the speech fabric of the lesson. Naturally, the individual ) the teacher's style.

| | | Here is a snippet from the beginning of the tutorial:

Melnikov. Sit down. Come on, be quiet ... (He took off his watch and put it in front of him). Last time we talked about the manifesto of the seventeenth of October ... We talked about the deceptive sweetness of this state carrot ... About how it was soon replaced with an outright whip ... About the beginning of the first Russian revolution. Let's repeat this and move on. Syromyatnikov!

(G. Polonsky)

How does this lesson start organize the work ahead? Comment on the "subtext" of the gesture. What does the listing of subtopics of the material of the previous lesson give (form of setting an assignment to test students' knowledge)? Determine the communicative intention of the teacher - his external manifestation (" Let's repeat this and ... ") and inner meaning (" Listen: I am defining the plan for your answer, be specific, do not waste time ").

There are no trifles here. What, for example, can be the organization of the "communication space": "To get up or not to get up for the student when he answers?"

Here is the answer of E. N. Ilyin: “This way and that,” I assured. Now I declare unequivocally - get up! And turn to the class ... Talk to those who used to be behind your back and whom you, unwillingly, ignored, addressing your monologue to the teacher. Now - he is behind, and those who are 30-40 are looking at you inquisitively. At any moment I will go out to them and together with them, equal to them and any of them, I will listen to you. " The function of the answer changes radically when it is valid for everyone. In this position, the student does not “answer”, but acts (!) With a word, leads him ... The gift of speech is the ability to speak not only with the language, but with the whole essence of his spiritual “I”. The word is a symbol of this spirituality. What is the first manifestation of social activity? In a word. In a special skill and courage to prove it. So, we must look for a way to the word ... This is one of the levers of instilling courage, the ability to express and defend one's thought - in action. “Arise” is our teaching principle, deliberately expressed in a slang word, as the most accurate and concise. It means: do not be afraid to say out loud in the lesson about what worries, but does not take away from the topic. Impersonal knowledge cannot be moral.

The repetition of what has been learned, the presentation of new educational material by the teacher or joint searches for a solution to the educational problem and any other forms of organizing pedagogical communication are predetermined by the general communicative strategy of the lesson and the specific goals of interrelated learning situations. This issue will be the subject of a separate consideration and the fourth chapter of this section.

In the meantime, we will restrict ourselves to general conclusions. Taken together, the teacher's monologic statements and his remarks in the dialogue constitute the semantic core of the educational discourse of the lesson. The complexity of organizing communication lies in the fact that the teacher's speech remains such a core, without exceeding the minimum required amount of time. Students should speak most of the time. Practicing teacher and researcher VF Shatalov, after conducting preliminary calculations, formulated the initial data for solving the problem: “The average time of active oral speech of each student during 6 lessons of a working day is two minutes. Finding an evidence-based way to increase this time means solving one of the most important pedagogical problems. "

This directly correlates with the organization of pedagogical communication. Within the framework of educational discourse, both quantitative characteristics and the interdependence of the speech behavior of all participants are of fundamental importance.

So, the successful implementation of the regulatory and communicative function of pedagogical communication depends on the formation of the teacher's communicative skills and on the attitude towards the normal nature of the very process of organizing educational relationships. The benchmark for self-control and assessment of communicative skills can be defined as follows: the teacher needs to master not only external methods of dialogizing forms of learning, but also speech methods of influencing the awakening of the student's thought, on predicting its verbal expression in speech.

??? 1. The initial period in the organization of direct communication with the class (establishing contact) V. A. Kan-Kalik called "a communicative attack." Why do you think? What should a teacher "win"?

"Arise!"- How expressive is this definition of the principle of pedagogical communication? Return to the judgment of E. N. Ilyin and comment on it.
Comment on the manifestation of the organizational and communicative function of communication in the situation of setting a cognitive task:

. "The union word" which "has an interesting property: it can replace other union words without changing the meaning of the whole sentence. Do other union words have the same property? " (A. A. Semenyuk).

1.4. Educational and communicative function of communication

The special importance of the educational and communicative function of pedagogical communication is reflected in those methodological requirements that apply to lesson planning. It is accepted to formulate the goals of the lesson from three positions: teaching, educating, developing. They are interconnected, interdependent. The realization of the goal of upbringing and developing is correlated with the upbringing and communicative function of communication.

Why, in defining this function, the second word - communicative - seems to be fundamentally significant?

“Spirituality develops in“ unhurried communication, ”noted Niktor Astafiev. - Slow, that is, extremely attentive, peering into the world of a person, penetration into the essence of what he said, into the intonation structure of his speech, into the symphony of his movements. And the eyes of a child! How many feelings, states and experiences, motives of certain actions can be read in them. Take your time, teacher. Your speed reading is tantamount to frivolity and professional incompetence. The slowness of communication excludes indifference. It requires the teacher to look actively, listen actively, think actively, act actively and encourages students to do the same. "

The perception of the teacher's speech reveals to the student the beauty of his native language, forms his “sense of the word”, linguistic flair. Talented teachers understand this perfectly well: “I would not have the right to be called an educator, if at every step I did not reveal the beauty, poetic power, aroma, subtle shades, music of the word, if schoolchildren did not want to express the most beautiful and intimate in words ... "(V. A. Sukhomlinsky).

Mastering a word - effective, expressive - helps the teacher to create an atmosphere of collective aesthetic experience in a literature lesson. The atmosphere, without which it is impossible to fully comprehend and influence works of fiction. This is a special situation of aesthetic communication, when educational communication is predetermined by the specifics of the language of the subject, for in this kind, literature remains, first of all, a form of art. The artistic style of the studied literary work cannot but influence the speech fabric of the lesson, it cannot but form a sense of the word, and not have an ethical and aesthetic impact on the student.

So, all the functions of pedagogical communication are important. A concrete idea of their professional specifics helps to understand the indicative basis of effective speech behavior of a teacher.

??? 1. Referring to dictionaries, compare the semantic meaning of words "Teacher", "mentor", "educator". Prepare a statement about the organic nature of the combination of all communication functions in the teacher's professional activity.

2. An example of a communicative basis for the formation of an aesthetic assessment (unprepared speech) can be a comparison of works of various types of art - literature and painting.

Comment on a fragment of the text and try to continue the dialogue based on the comparison between "The Lay of Igor's Campaign ..." and the painting by V. M. Vasnetsov "After the Battle of Igor Svyatoslavovich with the Polovtsy." (Recording from the lesson.)

Student:... it was not the fierce battle that occupied the artist, not the noise of battles, not the clanging of swords ... The artist depicted the silence after the battle as a mournful lament for the heroes of The Lay of Igor's Host.

Teacher: Complement these thoughts using the text "Words ..."

Student: As a heroic outpost, the Igor's regiments stood on the border of their land and fell for her honor.

And Igor said to his squad: "Brothers and squads, it's better to be hacked to death than captured ..."

Teacher: What new things have you learned about the artist Vasnetsov?

Student: The artist knew the text of the Old Russian poem very well. He comments on it in detail with his pictorial means. But if the author of "Lay ..." in the finale of the poem "sings glory" to Igor (and the princes), then the artist weeps for those killed.

The manual sets out the main questions of the program of the course "Speech therapy" on the topic "Rhinolalia" (disorder of articulation of sounds and phonation)

The book provides a methodology for speech therapy work in the preoperative and postoperative period to educate the correct speech

The manual is designed for students of defectological faculties of pedagogical universities and speech therapists of special institutions

FROM THE EDITOR

This textbook is intended for students of defectological faculties of pedagogical institutes. It examines the study and correction of speech disorders in children with rhinolalia.

The manual is based on materials from articles and manuscripts of the prominent Soviet speech therapist A.G. Ippolitova, one of the first to devote herself to working with this speech impairment. The effectiveness of the methodology described in the manual has been proven by her in practical work with a large number of children.

The manual consists of six chapters and an appendix. It sets out the main questions of the program on the theme "Rinolalia". However, the main attention is paid to the description of one of the most common and formidable forms - open rhinolalia (although it does not exhaust the variety of rhinolalia). It is this form of impairment in speech therapy practice that is most difficult (see chapter 2 "History of the study of rhinolalia").

The materials of Chapter 4 (§ 1, 2, 3) show how congenital clefts affect the physical and speech development of the child, here the features of speech in rhinolalia are described, data on the psychological characteristics of children are given, that is, an idea is given about the formation of speech activity in these children. The chapter ends with § 4, which discusses the possibilities of correcting the defect with rhinolalia.

The conclusions formulated in Chapter 4 determine the direction of psychological, pedagogical and speech therapy influence on the formation of speech and personality of a patient with rhinolalia.

"PROSPECT RUSSIAN LANGUAGE AND SPEECH CULTURE Course of lectures PROSPECT" Moscow UDC 811.161.1: 808.5 (075.8) BBK 81.2Rus-923 I76 Ippolitova N. A., Knyazeva O. KH, ... "

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ON THE. Ippolitova, O. Yu. Knyazeva, M.R. Savova

RUSSIAN LANGUAGE

AND SPEECH CULTURE

Lecture course

AVENUE

ON THE. Ippolitova, O. Yu. Knyazeva, M.R. Savova

RUSSIAN LANGUAGE

AND SPEECH CULTURE

Lecture course

AVENUE"

UDC 811.161.1: 808.5 (075.8)

BBK 81.2Rus-923

Ippolitova N.A., Knyazeva O. KH, Savova M.R.

I76 Russian language and culture of speech: a course of lectures / ed.

N. A. Ippolitova. - M .: TK Welby, Prospect Publishing House, 2007.-344 p.

ISBN-10 5-482-01237-9 ISBN-13 978-5-482-01237-6 The manual describes all the topics of the course "Russian language and culture of speech."

The theoretical foundations of the culture of speech, the specificity and types of speech activity are considered, the characteristics of the mechanisms of speech are given. The structure of the presentation of the material will allow you to quickly restore in memory the previously learned material, prepare for an exam or test.

The manual is written in accordance with the state educational standard of higher education of the Russian Federation.

For students, graduate students and teachers of higher educational institutions.

UDC 811.161.1: 808.5 (075.8) BBK 81.2Rus-923 Educational publication Ippolitova Natalya Aleksandrovna, Knyazeva Olga Yurievna, Savova Marina Robertovna

RUSSIAN LANGUAGE AND CULTURE OF SPEECH

Course of lectures Signed for printing on 19.09.06. Format / ^ Print. l. 21.5. Add. circulation 3000 copies. Order No. 15458 (Kp-sm ,.

LLC "TK Welby"

107120, Moscow, Khlebnikov per., 7, bldg. 2.

Printed at Smolensk Printing House OJSC.

214020, Smolensk, st. Smolyaninov, 1.

© N. A. Ippolitova, O. Yu. Knyazeva, ISBN-10 5-482-01237-9 M. R. Savova, 2007 ISBN-13 978-5-482-01237-6 © Prospect Publishing House, 2007 Foreword This textbook is addressed to non-philological students studying the course "Russian language and culture of speech" within the framework of the disciplines of the humanitarian cycle. The form of presentation of the educational material presented in the questions and answers serves as an additional means of structuring it and is designed to facilitate the work on mastering the theoretical part of the course.

It seems that the main goal of this course is to increase the level of speech culture of future specialists in various fields in the process of mastering and understanding some speech concepts and improving communication and speech skills.

The tutorial implements a new approach to the selection and interpretation of the content of speech material. This is primarily due to the interpretation of the basic concept of the course - "culture" of speech.

The authors of the textbook consider the culture of speech as the culture of speech activity, which makes it possible to describe, present and analyze in a new way such components of the basic concept as communication, the communicative qualities of speech, the norms of the Russian literary language.

Understanding the culture of speech as a culture of speech activity is due to the inclusion in the structure of the manual of such sections as "Ethical and communicative norms", "Culture of non-verbal speech", "Text as a unit of communication". In the chapter devoted to the analysis of the text as a unit of communication, the specifics and types of speech activity are considered, a brief description of the main mechanisms of speech is given, which allows us to show how linguistic and speech, ethical and communicative norms ensure the process of creating and perceiving a text message.

The chapter "Culture of non-verbal speech" describes the specifics of gestural-mimic behavior in the process of communication, the role of voice and intonation in communication, emphasizes the need to comply with the norms associated with the use of non-verbal means of communication.

Thus, the content of the concept of speech culture is revealed in full, at various levels, taking into account the specifics of all components and means of communication, ensuring its effectiveness and, most importantly, efficiency.

The chapter "Culture of oral and written speech" analyzes the features and properties of oral and written speech, the requirements for oral and written statements, a description of some oral and written genres is given. In the selection and structuring of the material in this case, the authors were guided by such criteria as the specifics of the educational activities of students, the features of their speech practice, the nature of the tasks associated with the professional activities of future specialists. This chapter summarizes at a new level the material that reveals the essence of speech culture as a culture of speech activity.

In connection with the above, we emphasize that the social status of a person, his belonging to culture as a whole are manifested primarily in the ability to communicate effectively in the process of life, which implies the ability to create and understand texts that are significant for the professional activities of people.

The development of this ability begins with the formation of the level of speech culture necessary for the implementation of the goals of communication, which ensures the development of the most important communicative and speech skills.

These provisions are reflected - directly or indirectly - in the content of the textbook, primarily in the chapters "Culture of speech" and "Culture of communication", as well as in all its other sections.

The theoretical material in the textbook is presented in such a way as to activate the mental activity of students, lead them to reflections on the essence of human communication, on the moral and ethical values that underlie it.

It seems that the approach to the presentation of the foundations of speech culture, implemented in the textbook, will allow successfully solving the most important educational and methodological problems within the framework of the new university discipline "Russian language and culture of speech".

Introduction How is language and speech related?

Language and speech are different concepts, but they are not so much opposed as they are closely connected as two sides of the same coin, since speech is always language in action. And although there is no complete coincidence between them, speech rarely does without verbal language, and language functions only in speech.

Consequently, speech and language are closely interconnected. They are so interconnected that sometimes even linguists cannot determine precisely and unambiguously whether they are considering a linguistic or speech phenomenon. For example, concepts such as "linguistic competence", "linguistic personality" imply that a person uses a particular language meaningfully. This means that these are linguistic concepts, since the basis of a person's knowledge and skills is language. But if we are dealing with the implementation of linguistic knowledge, and even a specific person, then we are already talking about “linguistic competence”, “linguistic personality” as speech concepts. This is another confirmation that language and speech do not exist (with rare exceptions) without each other.

Those who strive to achieve a high level of speech culture, which is impossible without a conscious and purposeful mastery of all the components of speech, including language, in this regard, it is necessary to know what connects and what distinguishes language and speech. Culture always presupposes a meaningful attitude to what needs to be cultivated and what to get rid of. Moreover, “man and culture are inseparable. Each person belongs to a certain culture, a historically established culture, and at the same time he feels that this culture belongs to him. This feeling arises because the fundamental level of culture is formed by language. A native speaker is a person who is unable to arbitrarily change it. And at the same time, language belongs to a person who is fluent in it, and the principles of spiritual creativity are rooted in the free construction of texts.

A text is a reproducible sequence of signs or images that has a meaning that is, in principle, comprehensible. "

(A. A. Brudny).

Knowledge of language and speech helps to first understand what is meant by the culture of speech, and on the basis of this understanding - to learn and master the ways to achieve a high level in it. But for this you also need to know that language, speech, and speech culture, in turn, are components of culture as a whole. Therefore, we need to consider and disclose in the aspect that interests us all these concepts.

1. LANGUAGE What is language?

Language is a system (from the Greek. Systema - a whole, made up of parts, combination) of signs, which are assigned the content corresponding to their sound appearance.

Let us explain what understanding is put into the keywords of this provision.

Language is a system of signs. These are the most important words that characterize the language. A language becomes a language only when behind every sound, word or sentence of this language there is one or another meaning that can give this sign a certain meaning. For example, the sounds [yes] in Russian have a meaning - they can express agreement with the appropriate intonation.

Language is a system of signs, that is, these units of language are not random, they are interconnected, they form a unity that functions only as a whole. Moreover, each unit of this system is a particle of the whole. The system of any national language consists of units combined at the appropriate levels: phonemes (sounds of speech) form the phonemic level, morphemes (parts of a word) - morpheme, words - lexical, phrases and sentences - syntactic. In turn, each level includes the corresponding units of the language: sentences consist of words, words - of morphemes, and morphemes - of phonemes. Complex relationships arise between all these and many other language units, which determine the unity and integrity of the entire language system, designed to perform various diverse functions of the language.

Moreover, each unit of the language has a certain and universally recognized meaning, which allows the use of this language as the main means of sending and receiving information, transmitting and perceiving social experience, preserving the national culture, which is inseparable from the language.

The role of language in the life of every society is enormous, since the emergence and existence of man and his language are inextricably linked with each other. “The language is intended to serve as an instrument of communication between people, and is designed so as to be naturally assimilated and an adequate means of information exchange and accumulation. Its structure is subordinated to the tasks of communication, which consists in transmitting and receiving thoughts about objects of reality "(Russian language. Encyclopedia).

Human language differs from the so-called animal language, which is a set of signals-reactions to a situation, primarily in that with the help of language people transmit to each other not only specific, but also abstract information, which is the fruit of thinking, as well as the fact that the main the rules of using a language are not only felt by the native speakers of that language, but are consciously followed. Thus, a person is distinguished from other living beings not only by the fact that he is able to think (homo sapiens) and that he is a creator man (homofober), but also by the fact that he is a speaking person (homo eloquens) and a communicating person (homo communicans ).

The human mind and his need for languages that are able to most adequately express meaning in all areas of human life have led to the fact that a person uses both national languages - natural, existing since time immemorial:

Russian, English, Japanese, etc., and new created by himself - artificial. Artificial languages are now very diverse, they serve various spheres of life, they are international, since they are not limited by national boundaries. Artificial languages include, first of all, international languages created on the basis of natural national languages: Esperanto, Volapuk, etc. In addition, artificial languages are symbolic languages of science: the languages of mathematics, logic, chemistry, etc. The languages of man-machine communication are also artificial languages - programming, database management, etc.: Fortran, Algol-60, etc.

What functions does the natural national language perform?

The main purpose of the language is to serve as the main means of information exchange (that is, to perform a communicative function). In other words, for communication. We speak to each other in Russian, transmitting and perceiving in this way a wide variety of information.

The second most important function is to be the main form of reflection of the reality surrounding a person and himself, as well as a means of obtaining new knowledge about reality (that is, to perform a cognitive, or cognitive, function).

Thus, any natural human language is intended primarily for communication and knowledge of reality. Therefore, relying on knowledge of the language as a system, in this course we will study what rules of using the language help it to most effectively fulfill its main functions in our speech.

The main functions of language also include emotional (to be one of the means of expressing feelings and emotions) and metalanguage (to be a means of studying and describing the language). The emotional function of language is very important for a person, since it helps him to express his inner world, his impressions, feelings, assessments, etc. most adequately, especially since most statements in a particular language contain not only logical, but also emotional information ... The metalinguistic function plays a lesser role in everyday life, but this book and other written and oral texts about the language fulfill this function to a large extent.

The main functions include others. So, the implementation of the communicative function is facilitated by the actual (contact-establishing), assimilation of information, impact, as well as the cumulative function (creation, storage and transmission of information). In addition, language also has an aesthetic function, which assumes that speech itself and its fragments can be perceived as beautiful or ugly, that is, as an aesthetic object, and axiological (evaluation function), etc.

And all these functions are united by the fact that the language is intended and exists not for a separate individual, but for a certain society, in which this language acts as a common code with which people are able to understand each other.

However, language fulfills these functions only when it is used in the speech process to create an utterance. Thus, the language is designed to perform these functions, but the language itself, without the efforts of the speaker or writer, cannot fulfill this role, like its other functions.

What is the value of language to society?

Language itself exists independently of anyone, of someone's consciousness, and of whether or not it is used at all. A language can even be "dead", that is, one that is not spoken (for example, Latin). The form of existence of language is very conditional, abstract, since it is recorded in dictionaries, reference books, in the minds of people, but it reveals itself in speech and only through it fulfills its communicative purpose.

An important property of the language is that it is relatively stable, it has a basic part that is almost not subject to change, and a periphery that is gradually changing (mainly in vocabulary). This stability is very important, because language is that common thing that binds people, is the common property of society (it is no coincidence that the existence of a single language or languages is considered a condition for the existence of a nation). In addition, the stability of the language, the fact that the language does not depend on specific situations of communication and the meanings of words in it are strictly defined and fixed by dictionaries, is designed to ensure mutual understanding between all speakers (and writers) in this language.

All these properties of language explain why any society considers language to be of significant value, since language does not exist outside of society, and society does not exist without language. Suffice it to recall the legend of the Tower of Babel, where people were deprived of a single language and they lost their community, even though they had a unifying goal.

In addition, language has become a guarantee of the unity of society not only as a means of communication, but also as a means of creating, storing and accumulating information, which allows you to feel and continue communication between different generations and people of different eras.

Language has a pronounced social character in all its functions, and in properties, and in its internal organization, and in accordance with the laws by which it exists and develops. Language is not only a system of linguistic means that act as a kind of resources for meaning expression, but it is also a system of rules for the use of these means. And in all these respects, language is a cultural phenomenon.

The national language as a single developed system of signs reflects the level of development of the people, conveys the peculiarities of its culture (both material and spiritual), but at the same time - the variety of different spheres in which it functions.

It distinguishes such varieties as a literary language, territorial (local) and social (professional, argot, etc.) dialects, vernacular, etc.

What is literary language?

The highest, written form of the national language is the literary language. Literary language is the main form of language, which is characterized by processing, multifunctionality, reflects the stylistic features of a particular sphere of communication and, which should be specially noted, has a normalization. This is how the literary language differs from all other varieties of language.

At the same time, the literary language covers all the main spheres of communication: everyday (everyday), scientific, official-business, public and the sphere of the art of words. And in all these areas, the literary language not only ensures mutual understanding, but also raises the general level of culture, helps to achieve greater efficiency of speech through the use of both general literary and specific linguistic means for this area. This is reflected in the ramified system of functional styles of the Russian language, corresponding to the main spheres of communication.

Why, then, is the main form of the Russian language called the literary language?

Literary language does not mean “the language of fiction”. The literary language covers not only the sphere of the art of words, but also all the others, and it is called so because at the heart of its creation lies the selection of all the best that is in the language and that needs to be preserved and developed, that is, the culture of the language. What exactly deserves cultivation is a difficult question, in the solution of which both linguistic knowledge itself and linguistic taste and linguistic flair play a decisive role, with which, among all native speakers, the writers who are most demanding in the selection of the most accurate, capacious and euphonious words are distinguished first of all. , expressions and speech constructions. Thus, in the works of writers and poets, the aesthetic function of language is to a greater extent embodied, and these works themselves become a kind of reference points of what heights can be achieved with the help of language. But in order for the literary language to become the basis of the national, the main thing is not the aesthetic function itself, but the main ways that provide it, that is, correctness (normalization), thanks to which the literary language is delimited from the non-literary.

What are language norms for?

The unity and stability of the language is supported by a ramified system of norms - rules and regulations that govern the main uses of certain linguistic units or their forms. These are the norms for pronouncing words (spelling), writing words (spelling), placing punctuation marks (punctuation), etc.

The normalization of a language is a sign of its high development and a guarantee of its stability, integrity and general comprehensibility, as a result of which the language ensures even better mutual understanding between people speaking it. At the same time, both the language itself and speech as a whole become a value and an attitude towards them arises accordingly - as a value, and the value attitude is already a sign of culture. Since culture has a selection mechanism and strives to preserve the best, evaluativeness is always inherent in it. Regarding the normalization, the main criteria for assessing the facts of the language are "right" / "wrong".

Thus, norms are a mechanism for maintaining the stability of a language and a guarantee of its correct development in the future.

In turn, compliance with the norms affects the personality of the person who speaks this language. Professor-linguist Yu. N. Karaulov, on this basis, proposed to study the linguistic personality, by which he understands “the totality of the abilities and characteristics of a person, which determine the creation and perception of speech works (texts) that differ

a) the degree of structural and linguistic complexity, b) the depth and accuracy of the reflection of reality, c) a certain target orientation ”. Thus, when considering the problem of linguistic personality, the problems of language become inseparable from the problem of using and mastering the language. At the same time, the use of a language is understood as any level of knowledge of the language and its means, and language proficiency presupposes only a high level of development of a linguistic personality, in which a person speaking a given language effectively and expediently uses various means of language to create effective texts, that is, in his speech.

So, language is a ramified system of signs, in which there are various means for performing all its functions.

2. SPEECH

What is called speech and how is speech different from language?

The word "speech" denotes a specific human activity, therefore, to characterize both its sides, this word in linguistics is used in two main meanings: the process of speaking (orally) or writing (in writing) itself is called speech, and those speech works (utterances, oral and written texts), which represent a sound or graphic product (result) of this activity.

We began our introduction to this textbook with the fact that language and speech are closely interconnected, since speech is language in action, and that in order to achieve a high culture of speech, language and speech must be distinguished.

First of all, the fact that language is a system of signs, and speech is an activity that proceeds as a process and is presented as a product of this activity. And although speech is based on one language or another, this is the most important difference, which, for various reasons, determines others.

Speech is a way of implementing all the functions of a language, primarily communicative. Speech arises as a necessary response to certain events in reality (including speech), therefore, unlike language, it is deliberate and focused on a specific goal.

Speech is, first of all, material - it sounds orally, but in writing it is recorded with the help of appropriate graphic means (sometimes different from the given language, for example, in another graphic system (Latin, Cyrillic, hieroglyphic writing) or with the help of icons, formulas, drawings, etc.). Speech depends on specific situations, unfolds in time and is realized in space. For example, your answer to one of the subjects you study will be structured differently depending on how familiar you are with the material, how difficult it is, how long you can talk or how much time you have to prepare, in which room. and at what distance from the addressee of speech you will utter it, etc. Speech is created by a specific person in specific conditions, for a specific person (audience), therefore, it is always specific and unique, because even if it is reproduced with the help of those or other records, the circumstances change and it turns out the same thing about which they usually say: "You cannot enter the same river twice." At the same time, theoretically, speech can last indefinitely (with and without interruptions). In fact, our whole life, from the time we begin to speak and until we say the last word, is one big speech in which circumstances change, the addressee, the subject of speech, the form (oral or written), etc., but we keep talking (or writing). And with our last word, speech (only already written or not our oral) will continue.

In this regard, speech develops linearly, that is, we pronounce one sentence after another in a certain sequence. The process of speaking is characterized by the fact that speech proceeds at a certain (sometimes changing) tempo, with a greater or lesser duration, degree of loudness, articulatory clarity, etc. Written speech can also be fast or slow, clear (legible) or indistinct (illegible ), more or less voluminous, etc. That is, the materiality of speech can be illustrated by various examples. Language, in contrast to speech, is considered to be ideal, that is, it exists outside of speech as a whole only in the minds of those who speak this language or study this language, and also as a part of this whole - in various dictionaries and reference books.

Speech is, as a rule, the activity of one person - a speaker or a writer, therefore it is a reflection of the various characteristics of this person. Consequently, speech is initially subjective, because the speaker or writer himself selects the content of his speech, reflects his individual consciousness and individual experience in it, while language, in the system of meanings expressed by it, captures the experience of the collective, the “picture of the world” of the people speaking it. In addition, speech is always individual, since people never use all the means of language and are content with only a part of the language means, choosing the most suitable ones according to their level of knowledge of the language and the conditions of a particular situation. As a result, the meanings of words in speech may differ from those that are strictly defined and fixed by dictionaries. In speech, situations are possible in which words and even individual sentences receive a completely different meaning than in language, for example, with the help of intonation. Speech can also be characterized by indicating the psychological state of the speaker, his communicative task, attitude towards the interlocutor, sincerity.

What are the reasons for describing and analyzing speech?

The difference between language and speech can be seen, as on a kind of cut, in the comparison of a sentence as a unit of language and an utterance as a unit of speech. MM Bakhtin distinguishes between these concepts in the following way: “A sentence as a language unit has a grammatical nature, grammatical boundaries, grammatical completeness and unity. (Considered as a whole, the statement and from the point of view of this whole, it acquires stylistic properties). " “A sentence as a unit of language ... is not delimited on both sides by a change of speech subjects, it does not have direct contact with reality (with an extra-verbal situation) and has no direct relation to other people's statements, it does not have semantic fullness and the ability to directly determine the reciprocal position of another speaker , that is, evoke a response. " In turn, an utterance differs from a sentence in that it is always associated with a speech situation, focused not only on someone else's utterance, but also on the presence of the addressee and on his active response position, the utterance also has semantic completeness and clearly defined boundaries between statements of other speech subjects.

In addition, speech is not limited to only linguistic means. The composition of speech means also includes those that belong to non-linguistic (non-verbal, or non-verbal): voice, intonation, gestures, facial expressions, posture, position in space, etc.

All these differences between speech and language relate primarily to speech as a process of using language, therefore, although with a stretch, they are grounds for opposing them, since in this regard, the creation of speech as a process proceeds in many stages and partially coincides with the boundaries of the largest unit of language : with sentence boundaries. If we talk about speech as a result of this process, that is, as a text, then the description of speech at this level, in principle, cannot have common criteria with the language, since they are completely inapplicable to the language.

Namely:

Speech can be external (spoken or written) and internal (not voiced and not fixed for others). We use inner speech as a means of thinking or internal speaking (speech minus sound), as well as a way of memorizing.

Speech-utterance takes place in certain speech genres, for example, writing, speaking, saying goodbye, etc.

The speech-text should be built in accordance with one or another functional style: scientific, official-business, journalistic, colloquial or artistic.

Speech as a text reflects reality and can be viewed from the point of view of its truth and falsity (true / partially true / false).

Aesthetic (beautiful / ugly / ugly) and ethical assessments (good / bad), etc., are applicable to speech-text.

Thus, we see that all functions of the language are realized in speech. And language turns out to be the main, but not the only means of creating it. Speech is always the result of the creative activity of the indgvid, therefore, the approach to the analysis, assessment and methods of creating speech must be completely different than to the language. This is especially important when considering speech from the point of view of its culture.

3. CULTURE

What is culture?

The very word culture originated in ancient Rome. “As you know, the word“ culture ”has as its original Latin“ cultura ”, which meant both“ cultivate ”(the land), and“ improve ”, and“ honor ”. In the later use of the word "culture" these shades were preserved, but it is curious that originally "culture"

meant a change in nature in the interests of man, more precisely - the cultivation of the land. And in parallel, a metaphor, used by Cicero, arises - “culture (perfection) of the soul”, “spiritual culture”, writes A. A. Brudny.

What is the meaning of this concept now?

In the most general sense, it includes all the achievements of human society in various areas of life, and a high level of development of any particular branch of activity, and enlightenment, education, erudition, and the presence of living conditions that meet the needs of an enlightened person, and breeding, cultivation of some or plants.

In other words, culture is inseparable from the process of choosing something that is most successful in any area, caring for it, cultivating it, bringing it to a high level of quality in the pursuit of excellence. This process presupposes awareness and purposefulness of all relevant actions, the development and storage of techniques and methods - the rules of effective activity.

In modern research on culture, “a well-grounded idea of culture as a certain form of human relations, objectified value-wise, is gradually being formed” (A. A. Brudny). Or: “Culture is a universal form of simultaneous communication and being of people of different cultures, each of which is a universal form of simultaneous communication and being of people ... and in this communication of cultures there is communication of individuals” (V. S. Bibler).

This means that culture is a process of special communication between people, the facts of culture (in which scientific discoveries, household items, works of art, etc. are recognized as values) are the result of this activity and a means for the emergence of the process of interpretation and understanding of these facts and the beginning a new responsive process of creating your own "replica"

in this never-ending process.

What are the most important characteristics of a culture?

The most important characteristics of a culture are:

1) the significance of all its constituent elements;

2) the dialog of the process and focus on the dialogue of its products (cultural facts);

3) the existence of many cultures and types of cultures that enter into dialogue;

4) its continuity as a process;

5) branched criteria for assessing the facts of culture;

6) mechanisms for the protection of cultural facts, etc.

All these properties of culture, in turn, are closely interconnected. Their interdependence can be outlined in dotted lines as follows.

Culture in this sense is “an expression of human relations in objects, actions, words to which people attach meaning, meaning, value. Pay special attention to the essential side of cultural phenomena: the connection between them is the connection between their meanings. The essence of cultural phenomena is that they matter to people; and that which has meaning for people gradually turns into a sign, ”A. A. Brudny explained this property of culture.

Any sign, in turn, is aimed at understanding, therefore, it needs a different, different from itself, subject who “decodes” the meaning of this sign in the process of understanding it (at one level or another) and will somehow react to it. Thus, the dialogue of culture manifests its essence.

Naturally, a dialogue is possible only between subjects that are different in some way, therefore, two opposite, but mutually conditioned processes arise in culture: firstly, the awareness of one's individuality, and secondly, isolation, delimitation of oneself in its integrity and dissimilarity from others , from other, different cultures.

These processes, combined with dialogue, make the culture continuous.

At the same time, the significance and differences of different cultures make it necessary for the emergence of a dialogue between them to identify and designate criteria for assessing different aspects of the facts of culture, that is, to create a mechanism for selecting what should be cultivated and what should be got rid of.

This, in turn, helps to understand what and how to protect and preserve.

Due to this kind of mechanisms, culture is always associated not so much with the material world as with the spiritual. And it has not only a communication, but also a symbolic, symbolic nature.

This means that the meaning of separating culture from non-culture is that any fact of culture, even physical or material, is filled with meaning, filled with an element of spirituality - those associations, those events with which it is associated and the sign of which it is.

Culture gives each sign a context - that wider framework in which any fact of culture is perceived not in isolation, but in interconnection with the rest. These relationships also imply a causal relationship when you ask the question "Why?" and look for an answer to it - that is, you interpret the facts of reality. These interconnections become a source of comparisons, comparisons, analogies - everything that underlies both logical and imaginative perception of the world.

All these initially scattered meanings require ordering. Therefore, structuring is an obligatory attribute of culture, and already it, according to the law precisely formulated by Yu.M. Lotman, leads to an increase in information precisely due to an increase in meanings. Structuring is a way of giving additional meanings by updating familiar logical connections and associations. The history of civilizations shows that the development of culture was largely due to the development of systems for coding and structuring meanings. And now the inclusion of an element in a certain system also leads to a significant increase in its information potential.

Thus, any culture is multi-layered and diverse, and at the same time it necessarily presupposes the organization and orderliness of all objects included in it, that is, structuring, which leads to an increase in information due to the growth of meanings. This allows the culture to accumulate rich heterogeneous potential and to constantly evolve.

In what forms does culture exist?

Culture has three forms: physical, material and spiritual. Every fact of culture unites all of them in itself. What exactly is meant by each form of culture, Yu.V. Rozhdestvensky described as follows:

“Physical culture is a person's preparation for any kind of activity, consisting in the development of motor-coordinating abilities, the inclinations of mental activity, ethical and aesthetic ideas, as well as the ability to self-observation, self-preservation, procreation ...

Material culture is a system of material objects that form an artificial (technical) human environment, selected for eternal storage and designed to serve people as samples of technical creativity ...

Spiritual culture is a collection of facts of spiritual social life that characterize the moral, emotional, mental development of mankind, the development of styles and stylistic needs of people, their systematization and dissemination through all types of education and enlightenment, works of arts, crafts, literary monuments, etc. culture are morality and ethics, examples of scholarship and wisdom, achievements of scientific and technical, legal and medical, economic and sociological theories, works of art, the conquest of state and military, philosophical and religious thought "(according to Yu. V. Rozhdestvensky. Glossary of terms) ...

Thus, even physical culture, not to mention its material and spiritual forms, presupposes a spiritual and intellectual beginning, introspection and self-improvement, etc.

Therefore, culture is always associated with activity - be it physical, material or spiritual culture. Culture is both a process of activity, and its result is a certain product that arises as a result of this activity. But, unlike lack of culture, activity is always deliberate and purposeful. In addition, the combination in each fact of culture of all three of its forms presupposes ethical and aesthetic components as inherent in each of them.

What types of culture are there?

Culture always goes beyond the domain of one person.

Therefore, the main form of culture is spiritual and therefore culture always belongs to a person or a multitude of people.

Accordingly, three types of culture are distinguished:

The culture of society is the entire set of facts of culture, for the exclusive possession or use of which neither a private individual nor any individual collective has the right to claim;

The culture of a collective (family, firm, organization, etc.) is the experience of the activity of this collective, recorded in signs and material objects, and is a direct source of the activity of this collective;

The culture of the individual consists of knowledge of the facts of culture, skills of working in one's profession, the ability to use culture and personal experience. The culture of the individual serves as both a source of personal achievement and a source of creating a culture of a collective and a culture of society (according to Yu. V. Rozhdestvensky. Glossary of terms).

Despite the fact that there is also a culture of the individual, “culture, first of all, is a collective concept. An individual person can be a bearer of culture, can actively participate in its development, nevertheless, by its nature, culture, like language, is a social phenomenon, that is, social. Consequently, culture is something in common for any collective - a group of people living simultaneously and linked by a certain social organization. It follows from this that culture is a form of communication between people and is possible only in the group in which people communicate "(The italics of the author. - Lotman Yu. M." Conversations about Russian culture "). Accordingly, the culture of communication presupposes the highest level of communication that meets all three forms of culture.

Moreover, culture is not only something common for any collective, but culture is also the creator of both this collective and the common thing that unites it: the "main" work "of culture ... - in the structural organization of the world around a person. Culture is a generator of structure, and by this it creates a social sphere around a person, which, like the biosphere, makes possible further life, though not organic, but social ”(Yu. M. Lotman).

This means that the three types of culture do not conflict with each other, but only complement and mutually enrich. At the same time, the social character of culture necessarily implies that individual culture is possible only when it is perceived as an element, part of a common culture (a collective or society as a whole), as a personal contribution of someone to it, but not as a manifestation of antagonism to it, because culture is originally characterized by tradition and continuity.

What determines the development of culture?

One of the most important concepts that convey the essence of culture and become a mechanism for implementing its continuity is memory. Memory in culture implies the continuity of the moral, intellectual, spiritual life of a person, society and humanity. Memory, on the one hand, fixes the facts, events and achievements of culture and thereby preserves them, on the other hand, movement forward, improvement is impossible without a developed memory, and culture is not only the fruit of human development, but also its engine.

An important property of culture is the implementation of interaction between its various types. Academician DS Likhachev characterized these processes, considering the corresponding levels of memory: “The culture of the personality is formed as a result of the active memory of one person, the culture of the family is the result of family memory, the culture of the people is the national memory. But we have long ago entered an era when the common culture of an individual, society and people needs the active memory of all mankind. And just as the culture of the family does not destroy, but improves the personal culture, so the culture of all mankind improves, elevates, enriches the culture of each individual nation. " (D. S. Likhachev). And at the same time, the achievements of an individual person are not opposed to the culture of the collective and the whole society, but, being prepared by them, in turn, enrich them.

This mutual influence and mutual enrichment of various components of culture is determined by its main properties, among which Yu.M.

Lotman identified the following contradictions that are the driving force for the development of culture:

1. On the one hand, the orderliness of both external and internal organization of culture. On the other hand, dynamism: the need for constant self-renewal, in order to remain oneself and become different, is one of the main working mechanisms of culture.

2. On the one hand - the unity of a certain culture, on the other - the plurality of cultures and components within a single culture.

As a result of these contradictions, culture is ruled by the principle of alternativeness, when the choice and combination of various elements provide inexhaustible opportunities for its development.

It is important that opportunities for development are borne not only by the spiritual form of culture, but also by the material one.

Why and how is it important to preserve culture?

Dialogue of cultures of different peoples and different generations is often possible only due to the fact that certain cultural facts were recorded and preserved. Literature, architecture, sculpture, painting, music - all these are frozen moments.

And they all represent a kind of symbolic "code", 2 * 19 which sometimes outside the meanings that the authors put into them, and outside the context cannot be adequately deciphered and understood. And speech occupies a special place in this series, because only it is capable of preserving and transmitting spiritual information in the most adequately deciphered form. Therefore, written speech is not just a form of speech existence, but a form of cultural life.

For example, the development of culture associated with an increase in the volume of its facts is also stimulated by “various technologies for creating speech:

Oral speech;

Written (handwritten) speech;

Printed speech;

Speech on electronic media.

Each historical stratum of culture differs from another in that a more advanced speech technology makes it possible to fit in the memory of a person, collective and society a greater amount of information about the facts of culture.

So, oral speech allows you to store the facts of culture only in the memory of people, which is limited. Written (handwritten) speech allows you to record information on writing in such a volume that many times and infinitely exceeds human memory, but handwritten speech is difficult to consistently systematize the content and has limited opportunities for disseminating cultural facts through the correspondence of manuscripts. Printed speech has the possibility of unlimited dissemination of cultural facts, is characterized by a market mechanism for selecting the facts of the culture of society, but is limited by the language in which the books are written, and by the very form of the book, which gives rise to certain problems in systematization, storage and use. Electronic technology gives rise to the possibility of the broadest extra-regional accumulation of cultural facts and their fastest use "

(according to Yu. V. Rozhdestvensky. Glossary of terms).

That is why written texts play a crucial role in the development of culture.

Another important aspect of culture is the need to preserve it. It is about preserving not only individual facts of culture, but also its boundaries, as well as the mechanisms of reproduction and development. Therefore, a special task of culture should be recognized as the education of culture both in society as a whole and in its individual representatives. And the culture of society as a whole is achieved by enhancing the culture of its constituent individuals. Education of culture is aimed at respectful and wide use of the experience of social development, collection, storage, classification of all facts of culture and the creation of effective cultural use.

What is the basic culture of a person?

Recently, they began to talk about the elementary level of personality culture - the basic culture of the personality, that is, the necessary minimum of a person's general abilities, his value ideas and qualities, without which both socialization and the optimal development of genetically given personality talents are impossible (O.S. Gazman ). The main components of the basic culture of the individual have also been determined: a complex of knowledge, skills, qualities, habits, value orientations. This assumes, first of all, knowledge of the basic facts of the culture of a particular people or world culture.

With regard to speech culture, this especially concerns the knowledge of the so-called precedent texts (the Bible, myths, peaks of world literature, etc.), since “knowledge of precedent texts is an indicator of belonging to a given era and its culture, while their ignorance, on the contrary, is the premise of being detached from the corresponding culture ”(Yu. N. Karaulov).

A cultured person is always an educated person. But, in fact, culture does not presuppose learning, but the education of the individual. And it is not by chance that both of these words differ in meaning. In this respect, a trained person differs from an educated person in that he did not receive knowledge, but the ability to obtain, apply and transmit this knowledge. He did not learn someone's thoughts, but learned to think for himself. He not only can repeat who said what and how to speak in a given situation, but he is able to create his own speech. All this can be formulated as follows: a cultured, educated person is not only a person who knows and knows a lot, but, above all, is creative.

Therefore, the culture of the individual necessarily presupposes the mastery not only of some necessary knowledge, skills and abilities, but also of the cultural values personally mastered in the activity. Consequently, education is based on the process of cognition - finding relationships between various phenomena and their structuring. And then the structure suggests gaps - white spots that also require filling. Thus, cognition, as a component of culture, is also dialogical, because there is a movement from ignorance to incomplete knowledge, and then to a relatively complete one.

Culture in its most general form presupposes the presence of individuality in a person and the desire to manifest this individuality. And at the same time, recognition by this individuality of the right of other people to their individuality and respect for this their individuality. Not isolation of the individual, but the realization that individuality is a separateness within the whole - society.

This presupposes the ability to look at the situation from the standpoint of another, to understand the course of his thoughts, his feelings, etc. All this manifests itself again in dialogic activity, namely, in the process of communication. The general culture of both society, and the collective, and the person is unthinkable without a culture of communication.

Thus, culture is a system of human achievements in all areas of life, which appeared and develops thanks to the purposeful and conscious activity of a person and society as a whole in the material and spiritual spheres. This activity is of a unifying communicative nature, aimed at achieving the highest level of quality, and therefore is accompanied by a system of restrictions, due to which there is a purposeful selection of worthy ones for continuation and development.

Chapter 1. Communication culture

1. WHAT IS COMMUNICATION

What is the meaning of the concept of "communication"?

Communication permeates all spheres of human activity, therefore it is studied by many sciences, within the framework of each of which scientists approach the phenomenon of communication from their own positions. Sociologists, psychologists, philosophers, and linguists understand communication as “the process of generating new information and what produces their community” (M.S.Kagan) or “a special form of human interaction,” etc.

Otherwise it can not be. Because, first of all, "the reality that lies ahead of them is common for people" (N. I. Zhinkin). This common reality includes a common language, and a common memory, and common concepts, and common mechanisms of thinking, developed as a result of a common culture, and others, thanks to which communication becomes not only necessary, but also possible.

Psychologists distinguish three levels of analysis of the structure of communication:

1. Communication of an individual as a side of his lifestyle (macro level).

2. Individual acts of communication, individual contacts (conversation, dispute, etc.) - the meso level.

3. Individual elements of the act of communication (means of expression) - micro level.

In this chapter, we will look at macro communication.

Academician DS Likhachev expressed the essence of communication very accurately: "By communicating, people create each other." These words emphasize precisely the reciprocity of the influence of people on each other and the need for them to each other for realizing their individuality and for the development of each. This approach and this understanding emphasizes the conditionality of communication as the main element of culture.

This explains the main means of communication - speech. Consequently, communication is a real activity that unfolds procedurally, that is, in the same way as speech, and proceeds mainly in the form of speech (in its verbal and non-verbal components).

Communication is an activity. In this case, the activity is not only the communication that occurs when jointly solving any substantive and practical problems, but also spiritual communication, during which spiritual and informational interaction takes place. Communication as an activity requires conscious goal-setting, the choice of optimal means to achieve the goals set, constant monitoring of the actions of partners and each making the necessary adjustments to his own behavior and, of course, responsibility for the result of this activity. The communication process always has a spiritual component of the content as the consciousness of the need to interact with another person, and therefore the need for him as a partner in achieving a common goal. This need turns into a specific attitude, that is, a willingness to coordinate one's personal behavior with that of a partner, into a desire for community, cooperation, etc.

What are the main functions of communication?

The main functions of communication are formulated by different scientists, taking into account the science in which they consider communication, therefore, from different positions. We give the classification of the psychologist A. A. Brudny, who deals with the issues of understanding, since this approach, in our opinion, allows the most adequate consideration of communication in the aspect of culture.

A. A. Brudny identifies four main functions of communication:

1. Instrumental, that is, communication as an auxiliary component of joint objective activity (for example, repairing a car or cleaning).

2. Syndicative (association), when communication involves the creation of the unity of the participants who have entered into it.

3. The function of self-expression, which in its essence is focused on mutual understanding, on contact.

4. The translational function is the transmission of specific modes of activity, assessment criteria and programs (for example, training).

This means that for the implementation of any function of communication, a subject is needed who carries out this communication.

In turn, within the framework of communication as an activity, the person himself as a subject of communication also performs various functions:

communicative (ensuring interconnection), informational (mutual expression), cognitive (mutual knowledge), emotive (experiencing relationships), conative (mutual manifestation, management), creative (mutual influence, transformation).

Thus, communication satisfies (must satisfy) the various needs of the individual. These needs are inherent in all people, since a person is a social creation first of all. All these needs are essentially cultural: they are associated with values and value attitudes towards oneself and others, with dialogism, with the processes of cognition and self-knowledge, with creative activity, etc. But, depending on the level of culture of a particular person, those or other social needs are of paramount importance.

Communication is also one of the basic conditions for the existence of culture. It is organic to culture and in the fact that in the process of interaction, as well as in culture as a whole, there is a clash of contradictory tendencies between unification and isolation, socialization and individualization, which also becomes the driving force behind the development and enrichment of all participants in communication. “Only in communication, in the interaction of a person with a person, a person in a person is revealed both for others and for himself” (M. M. Bakhtin).

Consequently, the recognition of the need for "the other" for the existence of the individual gives communication a value character, makes communication a part of culture as a whole.

What are the main goals of communication?

The main goals of communication are related to the direction and characteristics of the interaction between the communicants. Philosopher

M.S.Kagan proposed the following classification of communication goals:

1) the purpose of communication is outside the very interaction of subjects;

2) the purpose of communication lies in itself;

3) the purpose of communication is to familiarize the partner with the experience and values of the initiator of communication;

4) the purpose of communication is to familiarize the initiator himself with the values of the partner.

The first goal is solved mainly in the process of joint actions of communication partners. The second consists mainly in self-knowledge and self-expression through dialogical activities and in mutual understanding of the participants in communication. The third and fourth goals speak for themselves - this is primarily the value interaction of partners, in which one of them takes on the role of initiator.

All these goals are achieved only in the process of dialogue, therefore, according to M. M. Bakhtin, “in the process of real speech activity, people become“ speech subjects ”, and their verbal interaction is not an exchange of monologues, but a dialogue, that is, oriented towards each other. statements ". At the same time, dialogue is understood not only as a form of speech, implying a change in speech subjects, but broadly, that is, as a collision, interaction of different points of view, different positions, different minds, different understandings, different interpretations, etc.

2. COMMUNICATION AND COMMUNICATION

What is the difference between the meanings of the terms "communication" and "communication"?

Dialogue, on the one hand, and the ways of its implementation, on the other hand, in real communication can differ significantly. This difference is largely reflected in the shades of meaning that the words "communication" and "communication" have. In the scientific literature, both words are used synonymously. At the same time, the word "communication" is used more often in linguistic works, and "communication" is used in research on psychology. What are the features of the meaning of each of these terms and which of them is more appropriate in the analysis of speech from the point of view of its culture?

Communication is an informational connection between a subject and an object.

Speech communication (from Lat. Communicatio - making it common, connecting, communicating) is one of the meanings that the word "communication" has in modern Russian.

Communication is also called the ways of communication (for example, water communication), and forms of communication (telegraph, radio, telephone), and communication, communication between people to transmit and receive information, and mass communication - the process of communicating information using technical means - mass communication (print, radio, cinema, television) numerically to large dispersed audiences.

Communication (according to the Dictionary of S. I. Ozhegov) - mutual relations, business or friendship.

These concepts unite, make synonymous speech, which connects people and serves as the main means of transmitting information in its various forms and forms. Therefore, we will consider the concepts of "communication" and "communication" only in relation to speech, to a speech situation.

In this sense, "communication" refers to the transmission of voice information from the sender to the recipient and the receipt of this information by the recipient from the sender. And under "communication" - speech interaction between people.

Can we say that in relation to speech, the concepts of "communication" and "communication" are completely identical? Yes and no.

If the peculiarities of a particular communication situation, certain relationships between communicants are insignificant for us, then we will use these terms as full synonyms. But if it is important to take these features into account for a full-fledged characterization of the process, then it is necessary to bear in mind significant differences in the meanings of these terms (these differences were analyzed by M.S.

Kagan in the book "The World of Communication"):

1. "Communication" in its direct meaning is an exclusively informational process addressed to a person, an animal, a machine (it can also be carried out in artificial languages), and "communication" is always two-layer (it has both practical and spiritual (informational) character).

2. "Communication" presupposes an informational connection between the subject and this or that object. In this case, both a person and an animal or a machine can act as an object. "Communication"

it is possible only between subjects, that is, between people who feel their individuality and uniqueness.

3. "Communication" is primarily the process of transferring information. In this respect, he is one-sided and monologic.

"Communication" is a process of interaction, it is two-sided and dialogical (according to M. S. Kagan. The world of communication).

Thus, the distinction between the shades of the meaning of the words "communication" and "communication" is based on the peculiarities of relations between the participants in this process.

What types of relationships between participants in interaction in the process of speech underlie communication and communication?

Features of the relationship between the participants in the interaction in the process of speech have three main varieties. MM.

Bakhtin described them as “three types of relationships:

1. Relations between objects: between things, between physical phenomena, chemical phenomena, causal relationships, mathematical relationships, logical relationships, linguistic relationships, etc.

2. The relationship between subject and object.

3. Relations between subjects - personal, personalistic relationships: dialogical relationships between statements, ethical relationships, etc. This includes all sorts of personified semantic connections. Relationships between consciousnesses, truths, mutual influences, discipleship, love, hatred, lies, friendship, respect, reverence, trust, distrust, etc.

In other words, schematically and conventionally, we can assume that if the relationship between the participants in the information exchange process is based on the relationship "subject-object" (which means that there is not communication, but communication), then even if this object is a person, it acts exclusively in the role of the ".objective" recipient of some ready-made, general, not personally adapted information for him. And, since this recipient in this sense is only an object, it means that he has no personality traits, therefore, he also perceives information "objectively", that is, it is not distorted by his personal interpretations. " At the same time, note that the sender of information and its recipient act in communication, we are dealing with a unidirectional process, information flows only in one direction, and - according to the laws established by the theory of communication, - the amount of information decreases in the course of its movement from the sender to to the recipient (or, in the absence of transmission losses, the information remains unchanged). (For more details, see the already named book by M. S. Kagan.) But the response information from such an "object", most likely, will not follow, or it will also be "objectified".

If there is communication, which is based on the relationship of subjects, then the situation becomes fundamentally different. Each subject is always unique, and therefore each requires an individual approach to himself. According to the laws of the functioning of culture, it is their non-identity that determines the need for communication for everyone and, taking into account the personal (actual in this situation) characteristics of each, makes it unique. At the same time, since in full-fledged multidimensional communication there is no sender and receiver of messages - there are subjects, individuals, interlocutors, they do not send their information to each other in turn, but interact at the same time, that is, they not only transmit and perceive any information, but process it, discuss it, becoming partners in their common cause - the joint development of the resulting information. It turns out that in communication, information circulates between partners, since both of them are active (although sometimes to varying degrees), and therefore information does not decrease, but increases, enriches, expands in the process of its circulation due to structuring and augmentation of meanings in the process of understanding.

Let us illustrate what is meant by this enrichment of information and its increment in the process of communication with a quote from the book “The World of Communication” by M. S. Kagan: “They often refer to the judgment of B. Shaw:“ If you have an apple and I have an apple and if we exchange these apples, then you and I each have one apple. And if you have an idea and I have an idea and we exchange these ideas, then each of us will have two ideas. " But if Bernard Shaw's thought about apples perfectly reflects material interaction, then the second part, which talks about the exchange of ideas, can be recognized as correct only in relation to communication, since the exchange of ideas not only does not take into account the personal characteristics of the participants, proceeds alternately and monologically, but also in As a result, everyone does not have anything except arithmetic summation of the available and received information. Communication assumes that the collision of ideas generates fundamentally new products - for example, knowledge about the practical application of these ideas. " Thus, the communication partners at the end of their discussion may no longer have two ideas, but three or more. It is then that we can talk about the increment of meanings as a result of communication. Of course, this model of communication is not applicable to all of its manifestations, but only communication provides such an opportunity. Thus, communication is the process of developing new information that is common for communicating people and gives rise to their community or increases the degree of their community while maintaining the unique individuality of each.

Thus, if communication is intended to transmit and receive information, that is, to preserve it, then communication in culture also performs another function - the function of not only storing, but also developing information in the process of dialogue. In addition, communication is limited to information exchange as a product of previous mental and speech activity, and communication involves the process of developing joint information. This process of interaction is characterized by two-sidedness (multilateralism) in relation to the participants in this communication. At the same time, it is characterized by a two-layer content, since in addition to logical information, that is, the subject of speech, in communication there is always emotional-evaluative information about the attitude towards this subject of speech and about the attitude towards communication partners.

What types of information are typical for communication?

The difference in the meanings of the concepts of "communication" and "communication" is largely based on the nature of the information that connects the communicants. Information is the information that is the object of storage, processing and transmission.

Let us emphasize that facts are not information in themselves, but only as an object of the corresponding activity. It is generally accepted to divide information into logical, which has an objective character, and emotional and evaluative, expressing mainly subjective meanings, assessments and attitudes. Communication always presupposes the communication of any information: logical or emotionally evaluative. This is the main and only goal of "clean" communication. Communication, however, necessarily includes one more side - non-informational, or, according to a stuck term, phatic.

The phatic component of communication means understanding not so much the meaning of the statement - the main one or their totality, as understanding the person himself (the author of this text) and establishing personal relationships with him. As a rule, exclusively phatic communication, that is, communication for the sake of communication, "conversation for conversation", occurs when there is no task to convey any information or when the task of establishing or maintaining certain relationships at a certain level becomes the main one. (Read more about the specifics of phatic communication in this chapter when characterizing the types of communication.) But most often, communication combines informational and non-informational (phatic) goals. This also differs communication from communication in which the phatic side is not present.

What form of speech activity prevails in communication, and what - in communication?

Communication and communication are also distinguished by the predominant form of speech activity of the participants in the process: monologue in communication, and dialogue - in communication. Dialogue and monologue are usually distinguished from formal positions, that is, according to the number of speakers: if one speaks, this is a monologue, and two or more enter into a dialogue. However, for exploring the differences between communication and communication, this approach does not always work. In accordance with the dialogical nature of communication, its main form is dialogue. At the same time, a monologue in this aspect becomes not so much a form of speech in the presence / absence of a change in speech partners, as an expanded replica within a general dialogue with this partner (even if the response form is silence). At the same time, the main purpose of communication is to transmit or receive information. Therefore, communication, unlike communication, does not always imply a response, and if this happens, it often represents a response to a request for information or a request to provide new information, that is, the exchange of information occurs alternately, as an exchange of monologues, and not mutually and at the same time, as is typical of dialogue. Consequently, communication is inherently monologue in contrast to communication. (More about monologue and dialogue as types of communication will be discussed later in this chapter.) Communication and communication differ in the degree of activity of the participants. In communication, one is always active, and the other (others) perform the passive role of recipients of information. These roles can change, but the very pattern remains. In communication, all partners are simultaneously active (to a greater or lesser extent), since listening or reading, during which the speech of the speaker (writer) is perceived, in this case includes not only the reception of information, but also its interpretation and active response. Therefore, since activity is a product of awareness and independence, communication as a process requires a person to realize their individuality and demonstrate it. Communication presupposes a certain contribution of efforts, ideas, etc. on the part of each to obtain a common product. Thus, communication determines the speech creativity of everyone as a prerequisite for participation in communication.

How do differences in communication and communication affect different aspects of speech effectiveness?

Communication, as a predominantly one-way process, usually lends itself to precise planning. If you need to inform someone about something and there are all the necessary conditions for this (this person can listen to you or get acquainted with your written notice), then you will complete your task for sure. Communication, being a process of interaction of individuals, is always improvisational and often unpredictable. For example, you are worried about a problem, you go to someone to discuss it. As a result of this discussion, it may turn out that you are working out some kind of joint solution, that your communication partner (s) supports your proposed solution to this problem, that they convince you of the unacceptability of your proposal or prove that this is not the problem at all about which you need to worry. It is impossible to know in advance exactly and definitely what the result of such a discussion will be.

In addition, communication is axial (from Lat. Axis - axis), that is, precisely addressed to a specific recipient, irretial (from Lat. Rete - network, seine), in other words, in this case, information is sent without a strictly designated addressee - all at once. At the same time, the number of recipients of information does not affect the nature of communication (axial or retal), because a large team can act as a specific addressee, and advertising, which is often perceived individually, can serve as an example of retal communication.

Communication always presupposes the mutual precise targeting of the speech of all partners.

Communication and communication are also distinguished by the presence / absence of understanding as an obligatory result of the process that has taken place. In communication, its effectiveness is assessed by the degree of adequacy of the information sent and received. If no loss has occurred, the communication efficiency is 100%.

If it happened, it can be calculated in units of information. But communication is not set as an obligatory goal of the recipient's understanding of this information. Moreover, the sender does not always understand what he is transmitting. For example, a student taking an exam or a schoolchild at the blackboard can “rattle off” a complex textbook material. Does the respondent always fully understand what he is saying? Thus, understanding in communication may not happen. In communication, the effectiveness is assessed, first of all, by how the partners understood each other. In this case, "understanding" includes both the informational and the phatic aspects of communication, that is, it is possible to understand the information that is in speech at one of the levels of understanding, or to understand the person himself, his position on some issue in which the addressee does not understand ... Understanding can be realized only if the communication partners have something in common, if new information complements the previously known. The result of understanding is not the ultimate truth. One and the same message can be understood in different ways, and, depending on this, the response may be different, but without understanding, communication is impossible, because in this case, the community between partners either does not arise or collapses. This means that for communication, understanding is optional (although in most cases understanding it presupposes), and for communication it is obligatory.

So, the main purpose of communication is not only to transmit or receive information, but also to create, support, transfer to a new, higher level of relationships between people. And the main thing in this is to achieve understanding.

What can dictate the need to choose this or that method of interaction - communication or communication?

We consider "communication" and "communication", as they say, "in its pure" form, but in reality there are many forms of their mutual transitions into one another. First of all, these are official and business situations, as well as other situations in which the individuality of the partner is neglected, when they level the personal characteristics of people, de-subjectivize them, making them an easily replaceable social object. This is reflected in the delineation of the levels of communication.

And yet both of these forms - communication and communication - are necessary for a person, social development and culture, since they have different spheres of application and mutually complement each other. And accordingly, each person should be able to combine the positions of the subject and the object of activity, quickly switch from the role of a listener to the role of a co-author and back, from the role of a performer to the role of a partner and vice versa, etc.

Thus, the terms "communication" and "communication" have their own shades of meaning, which reflect two main groups of situations:

1. Situations when the purpose of a communicative act is to transmit constant information.

2. Situations when the purpose of the communication act is to generate new information.

Situations of the second type, when the purpose of the communication act is to generate new information, have their own characteristics. “Here the value of the system is determined by a non-trivial shift in meaning in the process of the movement of the text from the transmitter to the receiver. We call non-trivial a shift in the value that is not unambiguously predictable and is not specified by a specific text transformation algorithm ”(Yu. M. Lotman).

The text resulting from such a shift will be new not only for the addressee, but also for its author. "The possibility of the formation of new texts is determined both by chance and errors, and by the difference and untranslatable code of the original text and the one in the direction of which the code is being converted." That is, a new text is a text that does not lend itself to an adequate reverse "translation" into the original one, since in the process of communication a transcoding system occurred that violated the identity of the original and final texts. Please note: Yu. M. Lotman does not give an unambiguous assessment of this non-identity on a scale of good / bad due to various reasons for this inadequacy. We will return to the consideration of these reasons in other chapters, and now we will emphasize that the emergence of new texts of this kind is characteristic to a greater extent for communication than for communication.

Thus, the peculiarities of the situation and the goals facing the communicants in each specific case dictate the need to choose one or another method of interaction - communication or communication.

We will often use the term "communication", which to a greater extent reflects the specifics of the culture of speech in our understanding.

What is the culture of communication as an obligatory element of the general culture of a person?

The culture of communication, like any manifestation of culture, has all its features, therefore, the concept of “culture of communication” must first of all be “delimited” from the anticulture of communication, that is, from everything that deliberately separates people, violates the integrity of communication, its traditions, etc. and from lack of culture, the reasons for which are ignorance or half-knowledge, ignorance in general.

3-1D) 1D) CI ||| 1ol11N) ua 33 The creative component of communication allows individuals to transfer the situation from communication to communication and back, to create the communication framework themselves, to determine its duration, to choose communication partners themselves. And at the same time to act not only jointly, but also in common interests.

Both the process and the result of communication have the goal of creating or strengthening their unity, their community, therefore, in every culture and in every social group, rituals of delimiting "us" from "strangers" arise. All forms of communication specific to each group: rituals, ceremonies, traditions that govern the relationship of different generations, professions, groups, etc. serve to consolidate and at the same time isolate it from other groups, that is, they confirm its internal integrity, cohesion and its originality, uniqueness ... This is especially clearly manifested in speech, because the main purpose of a literary language, professional, dialect or jargon is to be a means of separating representatives of a given social group from the rest.

The culture of communication also presupposes a distinction from anti-communication (pseudo-communication). Pseudo-communication is deception or self-deception, in which it seems that communication is happening, when in reality it is not. As a rule, in such situations, the main sign in communication does not arise - interaction.

Even if both (or several) people perform verbal or other actions, they proceed independently of each other and remain isolated. It is important that in such cases communication as a process of interaction is often opposed to non-communication not neutrally as the absence of this interaction, but as a refusal to interact or counteraction, active or passive. And in this respect, non-communication is perceived as open or latent aggression. Pseudo-communication destroys the unity and integrity of relationships, and therefore belongs to anti-communication.

Communication boundaries serve different purposes. This is the delimitation of different situations of communication, this is the definition of the "circle" of participants in communication, this is the establishment of the framework of communication, including this or that distance between them, this is the delimitation of the types of communication, etc.

3. TYPES AND FORMS OF COMMUNICATION

What are the main types of communication?

The types and forms of communication serve as important "milestones" in the orientation towards the communication framework and in their creation. The choice of the optimal types and forms of communication, taking into account all the features of a particular situation, is also an important element of culture.

Like culture as a whole, communication is multifaceted and multi-layered, therefore the types of communication characterize it on various grounds. We are based on the classification of N.I. Formanovskaya, which distinguishes the following types of communication:

Purpose: phatic (that is, non-informational) - informational (non-physical).

According to the sign system used in communication: verbal (verbal, that is, usually a natural national language) - non-verbal (non-verbal - gestures, facial expressions, etc.).

By the form of the language: oral - written.

For the constant / variable communicative role of the I-speaker and you-listener: monological - dialogical.

By the position of the communicants relative to each other in space and time: contact - distant.

By the presence / absence of any mediating "apparatus": mediated - direct.

By the number of participants: interpersonal - public - mass.

By the nature of the relationship of communicating and the environment of communication: private - official.

In relation to compliance / non-compliance with strict rules for the construction and use of the ready-made text: free - stereotyped, etc.

Let's characterize the main types and forms of communication in more detail.

What is the basis of the distinction between phatic and informational communication?

For informational (non-physical) communication, the main goal is always associated with information. In the course of such communication, something new is communicated or heard (read) for a given addressee.

Phatic (non-informational) communication is aimed not at transmitting or receiving information, but at establishing and maintaining verbal contact with the interlocutor, at regulating relationships, at satisfying the need for communication: speaking in order to speak out and meet understanding is the main goal of such communication. "Fatika" is closely related to the spiritual side of communication (but not equal to it). Therefore, within the framework of phatic communication, there are also aimless, meaningless chatter "nothing to do" and a serious, thoughtful, finally, just an interesting conversation. A typical example of the former is a long conversation of women on the phone, when men think that this whole conversation is “about nothing”. Or small talk, conversations at a party at the table, when people talk a little about everything, but more often something is discussed that everyone knows. All these are variants of phatic communication. Thus, phatic interaction is always characteristic only of communication and cannot relate to communication.

This determines other features of phatic communication.

If informational communication is usually purposeful and devoted to the discussion of a single topic throughout the communication, then phatic communication distinguishes, according to the results of TG Vinokur's research: a) unpreparedness, spontaneity; b) dialogical form; c) thematic freedom, "for the topic is not as important as its treatment"; d) hence the colloquiality of style. Let us emphasize that phatic communication belongs mainly to oral speech and is most clearly manifested in dialogue.

It is important to note that phatic communication is characteristic not only of a pleasant pastime, it has two main strategies - dissonance and unison. We will only be interested in the second. Phatic communication includes both cooperative and conflict communication with different forms, tonality, relationships (degree of closeness) between partners. It can also be a situation that requires sympathy, empathy, condolences. This is “clarification of the relationship”, etc. In other words, in phatic communication, the general speech task of the communicants may vary depending on close or distant relationships.

Consider typical situations with the clarification of a speech task, depending on the degree of proximity of communication partners:

1. Between strangers - to make an acquaintance, to while away the time in the conditions of a forced joint stay (in transport, etc.).

2. Between unfamiliar people - to strengthen familiarity.

3. In case of casual acquaintance - observe the rules of polite behavior, when it is awkward to be silent.

5. Between close friends or in a family - to pay tribute to the habit of exchanging opinions, to express emotions on any occasion in which there is no informational need.

Fatal communication is also distinguished by a set of typical topics that are discussed in the process of such communication: health, weather, family affairs, sports, impressions of what you read, what you see, discussion of the merits and demerits of mutual acquaintances, etc. or situationally conditioned topics - the work of transport, the latter city (local) news, etc.

At the same time, phatic communication often accompanies informational communication, therefore, an informative-phatic balance is usually observed in speech as a norm of verbal behavior. The first thing that a person does when he sees another is he perceives and evaluates him. Depending on whether we want to enter into communication with this or that person, we unconsciously “turn on” or “turn off” the phatic side in communication. And then, as a rule, interaction combines a phatic and an informational component. Because, even if we enter into communication with a specific goal (for example, to learn something), then, having fulfilled it, we can complete the communication. But we do not always do this. Therefore, after completing the informational phase of communication, we can move into an extremely phatic one, as is usually the case with people who are pleasant to each other.

Thus, phatic communication is a part of any culture. It exists in many varieties - from chatter that accompanies any activity, to the art of conversation, and has the goal of creating a community in various socially conditioned situations.

What is called verbal and what is non-verbal in communication?

Verbal and non-verbal communication also most often accompany each other, since verbal communication is verbal communication, that is, in one of the natural national languages. Non-verbal communication is non-verbal communication, in which the system of signs serves: in oral speech - a combination of posture, gestures, facial expressions, intonation, etc., and in writing - the location of the text, fonts, diagrams, tables, graphics, etc.

Each of these types of communication corresponds to one of the two existing types of information presentation - linear and fenestration (from Lat. Fenestra - "window"). Signs following one after another represent information linearly (this is how verbal speech unfolds). Signs, grouped so that their semantic perception is as simultaneous and unified as possible, represent information in a different, fenestrated, form (in the same way non-verbal speech and other signs are perceived in a complex way - an emblem, coat of arms, order, road sign). Usually these types of information presentation complement each other (A. A. Brudny).

In fact, in this case, we mean two different, but almost always combined languages: verbal and non-verbal. Usually, in relation to the culture of communication and culture of speech, it is customary to talk about the verbal side, but taking into account the importance of non-verbal communication, we have singled out the conversation about the culture of non-verbal speech in a separate chapter.

Please note: the separation of the verbal and non-verbal aspects of speech is very conditional and is possible only for the convenience of description, since both the verbal and non-verbal aspects of communication very rarely exist without each other. Accordingly, in relation to communication, it is more correct to talk about verbal-non-verbal balance as the norm of verbal communication.

What is the difference between oral communication and written communication?

These types of communication correspond to two main channels of communication: oral-auditory and written-visual, and similar forms of speech: oral and written.

The specificity of oral and written communication is determined by two main groups of reasons:

1. Features of situations of oral and written communication.

2. Features determined by the form of speech.

Situations that require oral communication are usually characterized by the fact that personal contact is possible between the participants in communication: both visual (visual) and Acoustic (auditory), that is, partners both see and hear each other, or acoustic, when people only hear each other. for example, by phone or in the forest, in a field in the fog, in another room, etc.

If such personal contact is impossible or for some reason inappropriate, then usually they resort to written speech (letter, note, telegram, e-mail, SMS message, etc.).

The choice by the communicant of oral or written form is also influenced by how quickly he needs to get a response and whether he needs to get it at all. If the response is important and you need to get it as soon as possible, then the oral form of speech is preferable, in which the response follows immediately. If an answer is not needed (communication occurs, not communication) or a quick response is not needed, then the written form of speech can be chosen.

In addition, the choice of a particular form of speech is dictated by the characteristics of the information. In oral speech, sometimes the meaning is not of words, but of intonation and other non-verbal means of speech, while in written speech the main meaning is conveyed verbally. Sometimes the choice of the form of speech is determined by the importance or volume of the transmitted information, namely: since oral speech is pronounced once (“The word is not a sparrow, you will not catch it”), and the written text is often focused on multiple re-reading, then important and complex information or information of a large volume to convey in the expectation of a more adequate understanding is more convenient in writing, and easier to comprehend - in oral.

To decide which form of speech to prefer, it is necessary to know and to whom this speech is intended, and in what conditions it can be perceived most adequately. Oral speech is said to a specific listener (listeners) and in a specific communication situation, and written speech can be addressed both to a specific person (letter, note, personal diary, etc.) and to a hypothetical reader (book, instruction, etc.) , this does not exclude the possibility of changing both the addressee and the conditions in which the reading takes place.

These are just the main features of the communication situation that can affect the choice of oral or written form of speech. At the same time, the features of these forms of speech must also be taken into account in order to achieve an optimal result.

It should be borne in mind that:

Oral speech, due to its singularity and, often, improvisational ™, is limited in the selection of linguistic and non-linguistic means for expressing a certain meaning, while written speech usually presupposes a complete and complete expression of the intention;

Oral speech, as a rule, is created at the time of speaking, and the non-fixed text leaves room for additions and changes, up to "I didn't mean to say this at all /", while written speech requires polished accurate fixation of the text;

Oral speech, in accordance with the law of redundancy, contains more repetitions and generalizations, while in writing there are fewer or no more.

All these features together determine the choice of a speech genre corresponding to the purpose of communication. You will learn more about the culture of speaking and the culture of writing, as well as the genres characteristic of each of these forms of speech, in the special chapters of this textbook.

WHAT distinguishes monologue communication from dialogical one?

There are two types of oral speech according to the number of persons making speech - monologue and dialogue. Accordingly, monologic and dialogical are the types of communication that differ in the constant / variable communicative role of the speaker and you-listener (N. I. Formanovskaya).

Dialogue (from the Greek dia - "through" and logos - "word", "speech") is a direct exchange of statements between two or more persons, a monologue (from the Greek monos - "one" and logos - "word", " speech ") is the speech of one person, which does not imply an exchange of remarks with other persons. Sometimes polylogue is also distinguished as a conversation of several persons, but this is terminologically incorrect, since the need for this term is based on the false assumption that part of the word "dia" is translated as "two" and, therefore, the conversation of a larger number of participants in communication needs special designation.

Monological and dialogical communication as special types stand out because each of these varieties has its own characteristics. However, it is important to distinguish between dialogue as a property of any culture (that is, a constant orientation towards a partner, towards understanding, towards “the other,” for whom speech is created) and dialogue as a form of speech in which the speech roles of the speaker and listener change. Dialogue also includes a monologue, which most often presupposes a certain answer.

The answer can be: 1) a verbal answer with new content; 2) action (non-verbal); 3) retelling the content of the message to another, that is, to a “third party”; 4) silence or lack of action (Yu. V. Rozhdestvensky). In addition, the answer can be written, delayed in time, etc. Thus, dialogue accumulates both types of communication - monological and dialogical.

Dialogue as a form of speech to the greatest extent meets the desire of communicants for dialogue ™, since dialogue presupposes special cooperation of communicants on the basis of mutual interest (M. M. Bakhtin, L. P. Yakubinsky). MM Bakhtin believed that “dialogue, in its simplicity and clarity, is a classical form of verbal communication. Each remark, no matter how short and abrupt, has a specific completeness, expressing a certain position of the speaker, to which you can answer, in relation to which you can take a reciprocal position. " This constantly renewed need to take a reciprocal position is, in many ways, the driving force behind the development of dialogue and communication in general. At the same time, the replicas of the participants in the dialogue are not a formal combination of the statements of each: they are closely related to each other in meaning. Often, remarks form inseparable pairs: question - answer, statement - objection, statement - consent, proposal - acceptance / rejection of this proposal, etc.

This property of dialogue explains why it is more characteristic of oral speech and why in dialogue it is imperative to constantly monitor the interlocutor's thought.

The features of the dialogue also determine the boundaries of its possibilities.

It is believed that dialogue is an older, natural form of speech. A monologue is a product of culture. What caused the need for the appearance of a monologue in ancient times and what determines its cultural value today?

The reasons for the appearance of a monologue are probably explained by the fact that it allows the speaker to be more independent than in dialogue in choosing the content and form of his speech. The monologue is longer than the replica of the dialogue, therefore the monologue is, as a rule, more detailed than the replica. This allows the author of the speech to express more complex thoughts in the most appropriate form.

Monologue as a form of speech differs from dialogue primarily in that the listener or reader does not participate directly in the creation of speech. Their response (agreement, objection, one or another level of understanding, etc.) is only guessed (or predicted) by the speaker. Therefore, it is believed that a monologue speech is most often a public speech, that is, one that is addressed not to one or two, but to a large number of listeners. But this is not always the case.

The following characteristic features of monologue speech are usually distinguished:

1) continuity (the statement is not limited to one phrase, but is a superphrasal unity of a certain volume);

2) consistency, consistency of speech;

3) relative semantic completeness;

4) the communicative orientation of the statement;

5) thematicity (deployment of one topic);

6) syntactic complexity, etc.

In other words, a monologue assumes that it is based on a text - a coherent, complete, thematically whole statement.

Thus, both dialogue and monologue have their own characteristics that determine their capabilities and advantages in achieving certain goals.

What determines the choice of contact or distant communication?

These types of communication reflect the position of communicants relative to each other in space and time, that is, the presence of direct contact (from Latin contactus - contact) between partners, or its absence and the existence of a spatial distance between them (from Latin distantia - distance).

In contact communication, interaction occurs simultaneously, partners are next to each other, as a rule, they see and hear each other, therefore contact communication is almost always verbal. This makes it possible to communicate using not only verbal but also non-verbal means. In contact communication, the situation allows partners to use in speech not descriptions, but indications of objects, actions and phenomena, as a result of which understanding is achieved much easier. For example, "We need to go over there", "Give me this thing, please"

or "Well, the weather is today!" Outside of a specific situation, the meaning of these and similar remarks is not clear to us, and in contact communication, the convolution of situationally conditioned elements of speech can reach a level at which it is possible to understand each other "at a glance" or "without words."

Distant communication occurs when partners are separated by space and time. For example, reading a book assumes that the author is separated from the reader by both.

Sometimes the participants in a conversation are separated by one of these components of the situation:

for example, space (they are talking on the phone or have a dialogue on the Internet, etc.) or time (there is an exchange of notes in the classroom). Always distant communication in letters, etc.

With distant communication, the share of non-verbal communication is significantly reduced, its liveliness and instant response are lost. However, in situations in which direct contact is unnecessary or undesirable, this is preferred.

In turn, communication at a distance involves the use of auxiliary means as carriers of information or means that help preserve the channel of information transmission. In this regard, by the presence / absence of any auxiliary "apparatus", mediated-direct communication is distinguished.

Mediated and direct types of communication are closely related to contact and distant, since, as a rule, contact communication, which does not require additional means for its implementation, is direct communication. And communication at a distance, or when some time passes between the “replicas” of partners, requires “intermediaries”, that is, it is mediated. The means that provide the possibility of distant communication include: telephone, letter, book, newspaper, tape recorder, video, radio, television, computer, etc. All of them can help in transmitting and receiving information.

Each of these types of communication has its own purpose and its own "niche" in communication.

What is the difference between interpersonal, public and mass communication?

These types of communication stand out depending on how many partners are participating in the communication.

If two people take part in communication (formula "one + one"), then this communication is interpersonal. At the same time, the degree of closeness in the relationship between these partners can differ significantly, therefore, within it, personal communication is distinguished as communication at a more significant "internal" distance (official or semi-official) and personal communication, indicating friendly, closer relationships. This subtype of communication is characterized primarily by dialogue. Personal communication is more often direct contact, in which a significant proportion of information comes through non-verbal means. It differs in that the phatic side of communication is necessarily present in it (it often even predominates in the case when it occurs distantly and indirectly, for example, personal letters or video messages). Personal communication usually gravitates towards communication, that is, the informational side of interaction comes to the fore in it, and the phatic side is not present at all or is weakly expressed.

If several people take part in communication (the formula "one + a little"), then its features depend on how much a person interacts with and what is the situation of communication in general. It can be 3-4 people friends in an informal setting - then their communication is close to interpersonal (with a small number of people communicating, their interaction is called group), and maybe 20-50 people, and in this case it becomes undoubtedly public even in an unofficial setting. Group communication is characterized by the fact that dialogue is still possible in it (if not between all, then with many), but in such communication a leader is already needed who will regulate this communication - encourage some to speak out, interrupt others, etc., as this happens, for example, at the table, where the host or the master of ceremonies controls the communication.

Public communication (class in the classroom, meeting, etc.) usually takes the form of a monologue. It always requires structuring, since people in such cases come together to achieve some important goal. Without a structural organization of communication, this goal is unlikely to be achieved. In public communication, a different, higher degree of responsibility for speech arises, and one of the main requirements for it becomes purposefulness and meaningfulness. In this case, the level of requirements for the design of speech, for the observance of ethical and communicative norms in it, for its correctness and aesthetics, also increases.

Responsibility for speech and for its consequences increases even more when mass communication is realized. It is believed that mass communication occurs when the audience exceeds 100 people (formula "one + many"). This can also be in oral speech - speaking at a representative meeting, congress, with a concert at the stadium, etc., but more often this kind of communication is characteristic of newspapers, television, etc. More precisely, this is usually not communication, but communication ... Therefore, the corresponding means are called so - mass media. In mass communication, the addressee loses its specific shape - as a rule, it exists in the speaker's imagination in a generalized form. Accordingly, a mass audience requires not only an accurate selection of speech means, but also necessarily technical means: microphones (megaphones) to amplify the sound of a voice, television cameras and television screens to transmit (or enlarge) images, etc.

But no matter how much a person participates in communication, their interaction depends on the degree of formality of this communication. Usually they talk about two extremes - about official and unofficial communication, but there are many transitional forms between them.

What makes formal communication different from informal?

By the nature of the relationship between the communicators and the environment of communication, private (unofficial) and official communication are distinguished.

Official (official) communication is interaction in a strict business environment, therefore, in compliance with all rules and formalities. Private communication is a relationship that is not limited by the strict framework of the business situation and formal speech roles.

The distinction between these types of communication is due to the presence of certain areas of communication, social roles and relationships between communication partners.

Official communication takes place in the sphere of production and business relations, that is, where it is possible for a person to perform a particular job role (boss, subordinate, colleague, government representative, etc.). In this case, a person acts not as an individual person, but as a representative of some organization, group, etc. Accordingly, his communication is built in general and speech in particular - an official (a person “on duty”) must strictly observe his role, be as predictable and understandable as possible in the performance of this role. Therefore, communication in official situations approaches the "object-object" and is, rather, communication. And the speech of an official (oral and written), in accordance with this, is built according to a template, which in official communication is designed to ensure the adequacy of understanding in typical situations. This applies to both genres, built according to a rigid scheme (for example, a statement, resume, explanatory, memo, report, etc.), and turns of speech.

Informal, that is, private, communication proceeds more freely and is subject only to the general laws of speech interaction.

What is the difference between free and stereotyped communication?

The stereotyped type of communication is used primarily when it comes to observing established rituals, that is, about typical behavior in typical situations. These can be both official situations (the beginning and end of a meeting, greeting guests, etc.), and informal, everyday situations (situations at a doctor's appointment, at a store counter, etc.). Usually, in such cases, recommendations of speech etiquette act as a guide to verbal and non-verbal action. It includes certain rules of behavior and ready-made verbal expressions (formulas for greetings, apologies, requests, condolences, congratulations, etc.), as well as response speech cliches for speech behavior corresponding to each typical situation in the main areas of communication.

In other situations, communication is more free and involves creativity both in building relationships and in verbal design.

3. HOW TO OBTAIN OPTIMAL COMMUNICATION

What is the role of typical scenarios in speech behavior?

Speech is both a form of individual behavior and a form of universal human culture. This is the very contradiction that is common to any form of culture and ensures its development. Therefore, in speech, stereotypes and the manifestation of originality and individuality of the author are necessarily combined and intertwined.

Stereotypes are an integral part of everyday consciousness.

A stereotype accumulates a certain standardized collective experience that helps an individual to navigate in various communication situations and respond to them adequately to the expectations of other communication participants. The fixation of certain speech manifestations for a certain communicative behavior makes it possible to create one or another image for all participants in communication. The stereotype of construction and speech structures is characteristic of each genre and style, but especially - the official business one. But if a person builds his speech behavior only stereotypically, he thereby levels himself as an individual, does not model communication in accordance with his goals, does not manifest himself as a creative person.

Speech in situations of expanded communication (not ritual) must necessarily include a creative component. This is the dignity of communication - for the sake of creativity, in order to create something new together, people enter into communication. But when in the process of communication we are faced with speech creation, then the problem of mutual understanding arises, which is complicated by the fact that our speech is full of "echoes of previous statements" (M. M. Bakhtin), not all of which may be known and adequately understood by our addressee, in as a result, the problem arises of both understanding our speech in itself, and understanding our speech in the context (given or more general) and its interpretation.

The situation is even more difficult with the understanding of highly emotional speech, the main purpose of which is the expression of these emotions. This speech is often incoherent, and the author himself often does not know where he is leading, what he wants to say, which way out of this situation he prefers. Therefore, communication should be regulated in order to maintain the necessary balance between the stereotypical, common for all, side of speech and the manifestation of individuality in it, the creative component. This is served by the typical "scenarios" of behavior developed in each culture, within the framework of which the personality is realized with a greater or lesser share of creativity, and knowledge of various scenarios, "recognizing" them in the process of communication and following them or imposing one's own scenario largely determines the skill communicate.

What are the barriers to communication?

The ability to communicate also depends on how much a person is able to overcome communication barriers. Barriers are obstacles that interfere with communication. Sometimes they need to be overcome, sometimes - to take into account and follow them. Communication barriers can be roughly divided into internal and external.

Internal barriers that may arise for one of the participants in communication or for several are feelings, thoughts or states in which communication becomes difficult. For example, if a person is absorbed in something else (business, thoughts, excitement), then it can be very difficult for him to readjust to communication on another topic. A barrier of this kind can be fatigue or poor health, fear of communication in general or with a given partner, etc. But there are internal ethical barriers when “primitive interpersonal reactions,” as AB Dobrovich described them, impede full-fledged communication. These are, first of all, ambition, complacency, envy, gloating, aggression, indifference.

Communication barriers on the external plane are, rather, of a communicative nature. These can be obstacles associated with the absence of contact itself (visual or sound, or both), lack of attention (all this can be attributed to the conditions of communication), etc. Barriers can also be caused by the nature of communication: its monotony, monotony, uninformativeness, meaninglessness or not satisfying in terms of content due to incompetence, lies, lack of necessary knowledge both for the speaker (writer) and the listener (reader).

Communication barriers can also be caused by actual speech reasons: ignorance or insufficient knowledge of the language, illogical or inaccurate speech, its poverty, etc.

The existence of these and other barriers in a particular communication situation makes speech inaccessible and / or inappropriate.

Thus, for the optimization and regulation of communication, and sometimes for its implementation, such norms are necessary, the observance of which would help to overcome all communication barriers.

At what levels can communication take place?

These norms will depend on the levels of communication, since interaction at different levels can differ significantly both in purpose and in nature. There are various classifications of levels of communication. We are based on the classification of V.P. Tretyakov and Yu. S. Krizhanskaya, who distinguish three levels of communication: ritual, manipulative and friendly.

1. The ritual level of communication is the level of communication that implements the object-object relationship, when individuality is not manifested by communicants, and the contact is carried out at the level of the process of “accepting and playing roles”, or at the level of interaction of “masks”. A mask is a set of signs (verbal and non-verbal), the presentation of which ensures “smooth” and safe interaction in a human group (R. Jacobson). The ritual level of communication is almost entirely governed by speech etiquette.

The meaning of ritual communication is that we need at least a minimum of information that we are "seen" and recognized, and not ignored. Better yet, they approve of us with their benevolence. In this regard, Eric Berne's theory of "social stroking" is interesting and productive, based on the fact that every person in the process of communication needs positive stimuli. And basic politeness can be seen as an exchange of "strokes" - greeting in response to greeting, etc.

The ritual level of communication serves to confirm that the participants in communication are members of some social group. This is the level of formal phatic communication.

2. Manipulative level of communication. (Manipulation - from lat.

manipulus - manual technique, action - a series of hand actions performed with a specific purpose.) The manipulative level of communication involves interaction based on "subject-object" relationships: one partner considers the other as a means or as an obstacle in relation to the achievement of his goal. They talk about the manipulative level when the main thing for communicants is to achieve speech efficiency at any cost. This is another shade of the meaning of the word manipulation: "fraud, deception." Very often the partner is perceived as an opponent in the game. The purpose of such communication is a gain, if not material, then psychological.

The general principle of manipulative communication lies in the latent influence on the interlocutor, in ignoring his will. In speech manipulation there is always a moment of inequality, disrespect for a person, for his personality, therefore, the main part of conflict relations refers to this level of communication. Conflict manipulation is a speech action, the purpose of which is a feeling of superiority over the interlocutor by showing him his imperfection, inferiority. Or, in other words, to self-affirmation at the expense of a partner. Such a speech action is close to the phenomenon of indirect aggression. But manipulation is different in that it is always accompanied by a hidden urge to any action (K.F.Sedov).

At this level, communication is intertwined with a management-execution relationship. Therefore, the main problems with understanding the explicit and hidden speech intentions of communicants are associated with this level.

The level of manipulative communication is not uniform. This idea is given by other classifications of levels of communication, which, in fact, contain more detailed characteristics of such an understanding of manipulative communication. For example, A. B. Dobrovich distinguishes the following levels of communication: primitive, manipulative, standardized, conventional, playful, business and spiritual. The primitive and spiritual levels correspond to the ritual and friendly, and the rest reflect various situations of communication, in which the information component prevails. The phatic component of communication at this level serves as one of the means to achieve the main goal.

3. A friendly level of communication. This level is characterized by the interaction of subjects with a large share of phatic communication, since the main thing in such communication is understanding and acceptance of a person as a person. The friendly level is the level at which one can not worry about the "speech production technique", that is, there is a deep understanding of speech: not at the level of individual words, but understanding at the level of the whole personality. It was about this kind of communication that A. Saint-Exupéry spoke of as “the luxury of human communication,” since spiritual and, consequently, creative communication prevails in it.

It is the spiritual aspect of verbal communication that makes it a necessary component of culture, since communication in its essence is a way of existence of culture, and not only a means of fixing transmitted information, its storage and transmission from generation to generation. At the same time, it is assumed that the spiritual orientation of communication already implies ethically irreproachable goals of the communicants.

In order to communicate at this level, one must first of all be attentive to partners, develop the ability to communicate.

In fact, all levels of communication reflect the idea of how communication is built - how the partner is perceived: as a subject, that is, as a person, as an equal, entitled to his point of view, to speech, to participate in the development of a joint decision, etc. ., or as an object deprived of these rights and forced to act only in accordance with the role assigned to him by the addressee (M. M. Bakhtin).

What promotes optimal communication?

At all levels of communication, the ability to communicate is conditioned by three main components:

Skills associated with the perception and understanding of another person and at the same time - the ability to present oneself, express oneself;

The ability to bring the points of view - one's own and the interlocutor's;

The ability to manage communication (according to S. B. Elkanov).

Based on the above, we will give a definition of optimal communication.

Optimal communication is such an interaction that creates the best conditions for the development and implementation of non-contradicting communicative goals of all communication partners, for creating a favorable emotional climate due to overcoming various kinds of barriers, as well as for maximum disclosure of the personality of each.

How to achieve optimal communication?

1. Raise your own culture, strive to be a highly cultured person. And this means - to combine external and internal culture. External culture is manifested in the fact that a person acts according to all the rules only when he is in sight or when people in front of whom he plays the role of a cultured person become aware of this action. Internal culture consists in the fact that a person always acts as required by the moral laws of this society.

A cultured person is a person who deliberately goes to some restrictions related to the observance of norms accepted in society.

2. Learn to constantly think about the interlocutor in the process of communication: monitor whether you are understood; strive to anticipate the response of the interlocutor; constantly recreate his internal psychological situation based on external signs; take care not to create barriers to communication.

For this, humanity has developed norms of communication and norms of speech, which help to make communication optimal.

Norms are tools for achieving optimal communication.

The goals of harmonious and effective communication (and this is optimal communication) have a leading influence on the formation of the very types of communication norms (ethical, communicative and speech).

4-15458 Ppnolitova 49 Norms are mechanisms that help coordinate all aspects of communication: cognitive (how you see other people and how you understand them), affective (how you treat them) and behavioral (how you act in specific situations) (T. G. Vinokur). It is important to take into account that the norm is how it should be. But the norm is also something in between, so the norm is the minimum, on the basis of which (but not vice versa) you can show your individuality.

There are three types of norms - ethical, communicative and linguistic. These are types of norms of different levels.

Ethical norms relate primarily to the motives of speech, to the field of the culture of communication - this is benevolence, acceptance of communication partners, observance of all the laws of morality. These norms can be conditionally attributed to the norms of the strategic level - relations with the world in general and with a specific person in particular.

Communicative norms accompany the entire communication situation in all its phases. These are the norms related to the provision of the communication process and its regulation to achieve the goals of communication. These are norms that combine strategic and tactical elements, since the choice of a communication situation, partners, the subject of speech can be attributed to the area of strategy, and the specific embodiment of the speech plan and the regulation of communication can be attributed to tactics.

Speech norms are a means of realizing both ethical and communicative norms.

One of the components of the culture of communication is the culture of speech.

Wherein:

The culture of communication requires not only adherence to the norms and rules of the culture of speech (verbal and non-verbal), but also knowledge of the situations of communication in a broad sense and speech etiquette (customs, rituals, etc.);

The culture of speech takes into account and manifests the culture of personality and the culture of relationships between people;

The culture of speech can assume such a pragmatic effect, which will be embodied in the non-speech form of the culture of communication;

The culture of communication assumes that communicants can use not only the literary language, the framework of which the culture of speech is limited, but also other varieties of language that are outside the literary one.

So, the very essence of culture requires a person to be fluent in speech, and from a cultured person - fluency in speech, that is, knowledge of linguistic and non-linguistic means that provide optimal communication, the ability to vary them and choose the most effective ones in accordance with all the components of the communication situation.

Chapter 2. Text in the structure of communication

1. WHAT IS SPEECH ACTIVITY

What is speech activity?

A person is engaged in various types of activities, masters them in order to live and work, acquire knowledge and master skills, the need for which is determined by the nature of the social role chosen by one or another member of society in the process of solving vital problems.

Human activity is different in its goals, tasks, content, methods of obtaining results, etc. So, it is quite obvious that, say, the nature of the activity of a weaver is in many respects different from the nature of the activity of a journalist, teacher, preacher, administrator, etc.

And these differences are due, apart from other factors, primarily to the fact that the activities of a journalist, teacher, preacher, administrator are directly related to a person's ability to communicate, with the ability to achieve their goal with the help of speech actions that have a purposeful nature.

In other words, the activities of a weaver and a journalist can be opposed on the basis of non-communicativeness-communicativeness, which, of course, is largely arbitrary.

In real practice, the communicative and non-communicative activity of a person proceeds in unity, since it is difficult to imagine the process of activity without verbal communication between people involved in this activity. However, the degree and significance of the communicative side (its communicativeness) largely determines its character as a whole.

Thus, a person's ability to communicate, mastering the communicative side of an activity is a prerequisite for its effectiveness, efficiency and success.

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81.2R I76

Ippolitova N.A.

Text in the system of teaching the Russian language at school: Textbook for students ped. universities. - M .: Flinta, Nauka, 1998 .-- 176 p.

ISBN 5-89349-076-2 (Flint)

ISBN 5-02-011332-8 (Science)

The manual analyzes various approaches to the use of text in Russian lessons, reveals the essence of the principle of studying language units on a text basis and the ways of its implementation in the practice of school teaching. The book contains not only theoretical material, but also practical recommendations aimed at improving the methods of studying grammar at school.

The manual is addressed to students of pedagogical universities, but it is also of interest to teachers of the Russian language.

ISBN 5-89349-076-2 (Flint) ISBN 5-02-011332-8 (Science)

When studying the Russian language at school, the construction of phrases, sentences, grouping them in the process of creating an independent statement, their correct spelling and punctuation are a universal and most common method of forming various skills and abilities.

In each section of the Russian language course, the student is guided to the text, since all the analyzed phenomena are interesting and significant not only in themselves, being facts of such a unique system as language, but also as components of any text that is created or perceived in the course of communication. Consequently, the knowledge of linguistic phenomena in the lessons of the Russian language cannot become an end in itself. It should bring students to a new level in mastering the means of communication: from intuitive command of the language to the conscious, correct, skillful use of various means of the language in solving the corresponding communication problems.

However, in our opinion, despite the rich methodological heritage, in the practice of teaching the Russian language at school, a situation remains in which the processes of learning linguistic units and the formation of students' speech skills develop in parallel, with little contact with each other. So, for example, in grammar lessons, schoolchildren receive the sum of knowledge about the meaning, structure and even about the peculiarities of using all units of this level in speech, but at the same time, as proved by many researchers, even the grammatical structure of students' speech does not change significantly, not to mention the actual communication skills and abilities. As a result, a paradoxical situation arises: students can analyze linguistic phenomena, recognize them among other phenomena, enumerate their features, name their properties and capabilities, but at the same time they do not transfer all this knowledge into the sphere of practical activity. Students are still helpless in solving even elementary problems of a speech (communicative) nature. Figuratively speaking, the guys in this case are like “builders” who know what to build from, are familiar with

The abilities and features of all building materials, but they cannot build anything from them, they do not know how. What is the reason for this situation?

Without dwelling on all possible answers to the question posed, let us state only one assumption in this regard. In our opinion, the text is not used enough as a didactic unit in the lessons of the Russian language. But it is the text that is the structure, the basis that unites all the elements of the language, all its units into a definite, harmonious system. It is in the text intended for communication that all linguistic units are presented in a natural situation, in a natural environment. In addition, in the text, linguistic units acquire a new color, new, text-forming, functions. Ignorance of these functions leads to inability to use them in independent speech activity. In a word, the text reveals new properties of the studied linguistic units and presents students with the highest level of their knowledge, which opens the way to improving speech skills. As a didactic unit, the text will allow us to merge together two most important areas in the study of the Russian language at school: knowledge of the language system and knowledge of the norms and rules of communication, speech behavior in various life situations.

Under what conditions does a text become a learning unit? How to use it to achieve organic unity in the study of the language as a system and the development of students' communication skills? And is it possible to achieve this? One of the possible answers to the questions posed is contained in this manual, which will help to draw the attention of students of pedagogical universities to topical problems of methodological science.

Let's consider, firstly, what a text is, and secondly, we will analyze the experience of using the text in Russian lessons, which was accumulated in the theory and practice of teaching the Russian language at school.

PLACE OF THE TEXT IN THE LANGUAGE SYSTEM

Two approaches to understanding the nature of the text

So what is text? Although everyone has an intuitive idea of what a text is (and this idea was formed a long time ago), nevertheless, at present there is no single point of view on what class of phenomena it should be related to: should it be considered a unit of language, the highest level of linguistic systems standing above the sentence, or to consider the text as a purely speech phenomenon, since it is generated in the process of communication and is a product of speech activity.

In this regard, one direction in the study of the text is based on the knowledge of the grammatical nature of the text, the description of its grammatical features, since the text in this case is characterized as a phenomenon that occupies the highest level in the system of linguistic units.

Another direction in the study of the text is associated with its attribution to the phenomena of a speech nature, and therefore, when describing the text, emphasis is placed on such features that reveal its communicative capabilities. This difference in the initial positions in the study of the text is reflected in the definitions of the text, which are contained in the linguistic and methodological literature.

Let's compare some of these definitions. Here is how I.R. Halperin defines the text: “A text is a work of a speech-writing process that has completeness, objectified in the form of a written document, literary processed in accordance with the type of this document, a work consisting of a title (title) and a number of special units ( superphrasal unity), united by different types of lexical, grammatical, logical, stylistic connection, which has a certain purposefulness and pragmatic attitude ”1.

The text, according to G.V. Kolshansky, is a connection between at least two statements, in which a mini-

0 Galperin I.R. Text as an object of linguistic research. - M., 1981.- S. 18.

the smallest act of communication - the transfer of information or the exchange of thoughts between partners 1.

“A text is a written speech work, which belongs to one participant in the communication, completed and correctly formatted,” 2 - this is the point of view of ND Zarubina.

LM Loseva distinguishes the following features of the text: “1) the text is a message (what is communicated) in writing;

the text is characterized by content and structural
perfection;
the text expresses the attitude of the author to the reported (av
toric installation).

On the basis of the above features, the text can be defined as a written message, characterized by semantic and structural completeness and a certain attitude of the author to the communicated ”3.

Distinguishing the features of the text, OI Moskalskaya specially emphasizes the following provisions: “The main unit of speech expressing a complete utterance is not a sentence, but a text, a sentence-utterance is only a special case, a special kind of text. The text is the highest unit of the syntactic level. " And further: “The basis of specific speech works - texts are the general principles of text construction; they do not relate to the field of speech, but to the language system or to linguistic competence. Consequently, the text should be considered not only a unit of speech, but also a unit of language ”4.

An analysis of the above definitions shows that all researchers strive, firstly, to determine the place of a text in the system of language or speech, and secondly, to isolate the actual textual categories inherent only in this unit. For all the differences in these definitions, they obviously have a lot in common. First of all, the text is considered as a literary work, as a product of speech, as the basic unit of speech. Consequently, for all researchers it is indisputable the position that the production of texts and their interpretation occurs in the process of communication or in order to achieve a goal.

1 See: Kolshansky G.V. Linguocommunicative aspects of speech communication // Foreign languages at school. - 1985.- No. 1. - S. 10-14.

^) 3arubina N. D. Text: linguistic and methodological aspects. - M., 1981.- S. 11.

3 Loseva L. M. How the text is built. - M., 1980 .-- P. 4.

4 Moskalskaya O. I. Grammar of the text. - M., 1981 .-- S. 9.

Lei communication. Further, everyone agrees that the text, as a rule, is realized in writing, that the text is a finished, complete work and, finally, that the text has its own internal structure, a certain structure, has the means of connecting its parts that are not allow him to "crumble" into separate sentences.

It would seem that scientists do not have significant differences in approaches to understanding the nature of the text. However, this impression is misleading. The differences relate primarily to the solution of the question of which system the text belongs to: the system of language or speech. No one doubts that this is a speech phenomenon: the text is created to realize the goals of communication and is always associated with the act of communication. And it is precisely this circumstance that is the main indicator for many researchers in deciding the question of which system the text belongs to. The obvious correlation of the text with the act of communication, its speech-making character, the functional orientation of the textual activity, it would seem, convince that the text is, first of all, a speech phenomenon and only speech.

However, many researchers (I. R. Gal'perin, O. I. Moskalskaya, E. I. Shendels and others) adhere to a different point of view. In their opinion, a text is a modeled unit of language 1, a microsystem that functions “in society as the main linguistic unit”, which has semantic communicative completeness in communication 2, “the initial primary value” ”.

This understanding of the text is confirmed by the possibility of typing the “real variety of textual forms and structures of public speech” 4, by describing similar typified contexts, the main communicative types of speech (speech registers), the types of information contained in the texts, etc. Here, for example, is how it is solved the problem of typing text structures in the studies of G. A. Zolotova.

Based on the description of the linguistic organization of texts, G.A.Zolotova distinguishes two types of text (speech), or speech registers:

(at Moskalskaya O.I. Grammar of the text. - M., 1981 .-- S. 11.

2 See: Kolshansky G.V. Communicative function and structure of language
ka. - M., 1984.- S. 35.

3 See: Shendels E.I.
// Foreign languages at school. - 1985. - No. 4. - S. 16-21.

4 See: Zolotova G.A.

riy. Text and context. - M., 1984 .-- S. 164.

Pictorial and informative. Each of these registers has certain characteristics. So, for the pictorial register is characterized by the complexity of time values, the observability of specific actions, etc. The speaker reports what he saw. An informative register is characterized by the simplicity of time values, the unobservability of the action. The main thing in this case is the message about the result of an action or about the timeless qualities and relationships of objects. The speaker informs that he knows about this or that phenomenon, fact. Based on the correlation of the main features of speech registers with genres of text, the selection of which is based on the social and communicative function, G.A. - narrative, informative-descriptive, informative-logical, evaluative-qualifying.

“The speech blocks of the pictorial and informative registers ... - concludes G. A. Zolotova, - and are those constatutory units, from which the texts of various communicative purposes are composed (or into which they can be divided) "1.

This approach to the description of texts indicates that the text acts not only as a concrete unit associated with a real act of communication, but also as an abstract unit of the language of the highest level, "which is the subject of the theory of the linguistic ability of a native speaker" 2. In this regard, along with the term text the term appeared in linguistic literature dis-Zhuyos, that is, an observable, concrete manifestation of language in speech, the realization of a text in speech. Thus, the text is what exists in the language, and the discourse is the text that is realized in speech.

Based on the foregoing, it is legitimate to analyze how the text relates to other units of language, if we take as a basis the provision on the linguistic (and not only speech) character of the text. This issue is most fully considered in studies describing the facts and phenomena of language as “components

1 See: Zolotova G.A. On the question of constitutive units of the text
// In the book: Russian language. Functioning of grammatical categories
riy. Text and context. - M., 1984. - S. 167-170.

2 Karaban V.I. Perceptual implications of the grammar of the text // V
book: Psychological and linguistic nature of the text and features
his perception / Ed. Yu. A. Zhluktenko and A. A. Leontyev. -
Kiev, 1979.- S. 76.

Meaningful, purposeful and cognitively correct, meaningful communication "1. This direction in linguistics is called communicative linguistics. "The subject of communicative linguistics is the study of the structure of the language itself, the general patterns of the organization of speech communication: the interaction of the semantic and syntactic structure of the statement, patterns of text construction ..., the structure of the statement and texts ..." 2. In other words, the peculiarity of the study of linguistic means in this case is that they are considered in real speech acts.

Due to the fact that in all studies of communicative linguistics the basic unit of not only speech, but also language is recognized as a text “uniting units of all lower levels by a common concept, goals and conditions of communication” 3, the ratio of the text with units of other levels is as follows. The meanings of all units of the language are realized in the text, which creates conditions for the existence, manifestation of the meanings of these units. It is in the text that all the means of language become communicatively meaningful, communicatively conditioned, united into a certain system, in which each of them most fully manifests its essential features and, in addition, reveals new, text-forming, functions. Consequently, the final purpose of each language unit is "this is the contribution that it makes to the formation of a text-message" 4.

Hence, another conclusion follows: language units, combining into a sentence and groups of sentences, form the components of the text, its structural elements. “Words, concatenations of words, concatenations of phrases, connections of sentences, connections of complex sentences - all these linguistic structures have their own logical basis, and their functioning in the chain of information exchange is based on the logical-conceptual activity of consciousness” 5. In communication, all units of language, uniting in a certain

1Kolshansky G.V.
M., 1984.- p. 6.

2 Ibid. - P. 10.

3 Bukhbinder V.A. Some applied and theoretical aspects

strange languages. - Kiev, 1978 .-- S. 30-31.

4 Ibid. - S. 37.

5 Kolshansky G.V. Communicative function and structure of language. -
M., 1984.- S. 35.

New structures become a link in the communication process, and not isolated units.

In this regard, it is proposed to even consider the level structure of the language "from above", from the standpoint of the whole text and see the correlation of language and speech units in a new way. So, for example, in the cited work of V.A. Bukhbinder, this correlation is described - from the standpoint of the whole text 1. In this regard, the author, highlighting the levels of the language (phonetic, morphological, lexical, syntactic), also denotes the textual level. Language and speech options correspond to each of the language levels. So, at the morphological level, root morphemes, derivational and inflectional morphemes (linguistic variants) function. They correspond to speech variants - allomorphs. The syntactic level is represented by phrases and sentences (language variants), which correspond to syntagmas and phrases (speech variants).

The textual level is represented by phrasal units and ensembles, which form the text.

Thus, according to the author, linguistic variants are transformed into speech, and the text level combines both linguistic and speech properties of various units, which makes it possible to qualify it both as a unit of language and as a work of speech at the same time.

Consequently, the text is built from speech variants of various levels, into which linguistic units are transformed in the process of communication. It is characteristic that for the designation of speech variants, special terms are used, correlated with the names of the corresponding language variants, but not duplicating these names.

Consequently, for many researchers, sentences and phrases, for example, are not synonyms, but names of different phenomena, because sentences are what exists outside the text, and a phrase (other names: utterance, text) is an element of the text, its nodal unit, facing towards communication. Even if researchers use one term to designate a sentence as a unit of syntax and a sentence as a link in a text, then in any case they emphasize the difference in their linguistic nature and functional purpose.

And one more observation based on the analysis of the correlation of language and speech units. Language options served

" Cm.: Bukhbinder V.A. On some theoretical and applied aspects of text linguistics // In collection: Text linguistics and teaching

P. 37.

foreign languages. - Kiev, 1978. 10

These or those levels of language, in the process of communication, participating in the construction of the text, acquire new properties and functions and become elements of the text. Thus, the text synthesizes linguistic and speech variants of all levels, “combines linguistic essences and speech properties. He is both a unit of language and a work of speech ”1. In our opinion, this is a very significant conclusion, convincingly illustrated and of great methodological significance.

The solution to the question of the nature of the correlation of the text with the linguistic system determines some other disagreements among scientists in understanding its nature. Thus, researchers who study text as an element of the language system consider it as a static object, as a result of speech activity. Scientists who correlate a text with a specific speech act primarily study the mechanisms of text formation, the mechanisms of its generation. However, there are no significant contradictions in these approaches.

In fact, everyone recognizes and realizes that the language has a special education, a special phenomenon, in the words of M. M. Bakhtin, a "coherent sign complex" - a text that is built according to the laws of the language, containing the lexical means necessary for this purpose, corresponding pronouns, temporary and modal forms that can be reproduced and repeated when constructing other texts. These are constructed texts, imaginary texts, like sentences in grammar, behind them there is a language system. To become a unit of communication, this "sign complex" must become an utterance, that is, a unit with a concept, objective content, completeness, meaning (and not just meaning). The statement requires a reciprocal understanding, and therefore exists only in a number of other statements. “A statement,” writes MM Bakhtin, “is determined ... by its attitude ... directly to other statements within a given sphere of communication. Outside of this relationship, it does not really exist (only as a text) ”2.

Thus, one and the same "sign complex" can be analyzed in different ways: as a product of speech activity, a text constructed according to a special model that is realized in certain speech situations, and as an utterance,

1Bukhbinder V.A. Some theoretical and applied aspects
takh linguistics of the text // In collection: Linguistics of the text and teaching ino
strange languages. - Kiev, 1978 .-- S. 35.

2 Bakhtin M. M.

M., 1979.- S. 30.

Formed in a number of other statements that are generated in the process of communication and relate to each other on the basis of a common concept and the desire for mutual understanding of the participants in communication. In this case, one must proceed from the fact that it is in the process of communication that certain types of utterances are formed, that is, speech genres that have, according to M.M.Bakhtin, “definite and relatively stable typical forms of building the whole "(emphasis added by the author) ". Consequently, any coherent sign complex can be considered both in the language system as a grammatical phenomenon, and" in the whole of an individual utterance and speech genre "as a speech phenomenon. These two points of view" should not be mutually impenetrable for each other. each other and should not simply mechanically replace each other, but should organically combine ... on the basis of the real unity of the linguistic phenomenon. " to find an expedient way of analyzing both individual units of the language and units connected into a complex of signs. Therefore, the following provisions of M. M. Bakhtin's research are no less important for us: dictionaries and grammar, but from specific statements ... We learn the forms of language only in the forms of statements and together with these forms ... Forms of language and typical forms of expression, that is, speech genres, come into our experience and into our consciousness together and in close connection with each other. Learning to speak means learning to build utterances ... Speech genres organize our speech in almost the same way as grammatical (syntactic) forms organize it ”3. Therefore, “the study of a statement as real unit of speech communication will allow you to more correctly understand the nature of language units (as a system - words and sentences) ”4.

We add to this that the object of study at school can be, first of all, typified statements extracted from the situation of real speech communication, but conditionally correlated with it.

1Bakhtin M. M. The problem of the text in linguistics, philology and other
in the humanities // In the book: Aesthetics of verbal creativity. -
M., 1979 .-- S. 257.

2 Ibid. - S. 244.

3 Ibid. - S. 257.

4 Ibid. - S. 245.

Thus, the text (utterance) will be analyzed as a product (result) of speech activity, but taking into account the mechanisms and conditions that determine its structure and content as a whole.

Based on the foregoing, it can hardly be argued that the text is objectified only in the form of a written document. Communication is carried out both in writing and orally. Consequently, the subject of analysis should be not only written statements (texts), but also samples of sounding speech, which can be presented to students in gramophone and tape recording, as well as in the form of excerpts from fiction and journalistic works.

Structural elements of the text

All units of the language, falling into the text, contribute to the communication process. But, of course, the main element of the text is a sentence (statement, phrase, text). A sentence in the text is recognized and perceived not by itself, but "in relation to its connections with other sentences, as a part of the whole, as a component, a" cell "of the text" 1. This is the minimum communicative unit of the text, in the words of G. V. Kolshansky, "the lower link of the text."

It should be borne in mind that when constructing the text, we select sentences "from the point of view whole(Emphasis by the author) a statement that is presented to our speech imagination and which determines our choice. The idea of the form of the whole utterance, that is, of a certain speech genre, guides us in the process of our speech ”2.

Thus, by itself, outside the whole utterance, the sentence is not a communicative unit, because it, as a rule, does not have a semantic usefulness: “sentences are not exchanged, just as words are not exchanged ... and phrases, - sentences are exchanged that are built using language units: words, phrases, sentences ... "3.

1Shendels E.I. Text grammar and sentence grammar //
Foreign languages at school. - 1985. - No. 4. - S. 16-21.

2 Bakhtin M. M. Aesthetics of verbal creativity. - M., 1979 .-- S. 261.

3 Ibid. - S. 253.

In the structure of the text, individual sentences can be combined into groups, which are given different names by different researchers: phrasal unity and phrasal ensembles (V. A. Bukh-binder); over-phrasal unity; complex syntactic whole; Union of Textems (E. I. Shendels); prosaic stanza (G. Ya. Solganik). The most common designation for a group of sentences related in meaning is a complex syntactic whole (SSC) and a supraphrasal unity (SFU). These are complex structural unities, consisting of "more than one independent sentence", possessing "semantic integrity in the context of coherent speech" and acting "as part of complete communication" 1.

It should be noted that not all sentences in the structure of the text are combined into groups; there are also so-called free sentences that are not included in the group, but nevertheless are connected with the group by internal semantic relations.

These are proposals that contain various copyright deviations, remarks. Such proposals are a link between two SSC (SFU), a means of designating a new micro-theme.

In addition, in the text, some researchers highlight the so-called communicatively strong sentences, the understanding of which is possible without referring to the content of other sentences. Such proposals are to a certain extent isolated from the surrounding structures and are not included in the SSC (SFU) 2. However, the semantic content of the text unites all the sentences and the STS into a single whole.

In turn, groups of sentences are also combined into larger blocks, which are called in different studies either textual, or communicative blocks, or predicative-relational complexes, or fragments.

Even larger associations are associated with such chunks of text as paragraph, paragraph, part, chapter 3.

Of significant methodological importance is the selection of a paragraph, the content and compositional structure of which has great explanatory power and allows students to demonstrate many rules for constructing the text as a whole. A paragraph usually covers only one topic. From this point on

Lew it is brightly, vividly emphasized in the central sentence, with which all other sentences are closely connected. There are various ways of spreading the content of the central sentence, which determine the structure of the paragraph as a whole.

The allocation of STS and paragraphs in the structure of the text (utterance) is essential for the methodology of teaching students a language: according to certain internal (genre) laws "".

Over-phrasal unity, functioning in the whole text, can acquire great communicative significance and be considered (analyzed) as more or less independent speech works. In this regard, the point of view of O. I. Moskalskaya on the structure of the text and the nature of text elements seems to be interesting. O. I. Moskalskaya speak! about the possibility of two approaches to the text and highlights two understandings of it. Firstly, there are so-called microtexts - complex syntactic wholes or overphrasal unities, that is, utterances. Secondly, there are texts as whole speech works, communicative texts - macrotexts Microtexts are syntactic units, they relate i syntactic phenomena. Macrotext is a concept that defies definition in terms of grammar. It seems that such a selection of micro- and macro-texts once again confirms the position that a text is a syntactic structure, which allows it to be considered a unit of language and a speech work. In this regard, it is also important that microtexts are easily modeled. The microstructure model can be explained by the rules of grammar. All this makes it possible to consider (analyze) the microstructure of the text, abstracting from the conditions of communication, which is important for the formation of speech (communicative) skills in students. I the basis for the creation (and analysis) of macro-texts are laws that are conditioned by communicative principles, which depend on a specific activity situation 2.

1 See: Galperin I.R.
vania. - M., 1981.- S. 69.

2 See: Zarubina N. D. Text: linguistic and methodical expert
pects. - M., 1981.- S. 16-25.

3 See: Solganik G. Ya. Stylistics of the text.- M., 1997. - S. 48-82.

1 Meshcheryakov V.N., Okhomush E.A. Typology of educational texts. -Dnepropetrovsk, 1980 .-- S. 21-22.

1 Cm.: Moskalskaya O. I. Text - two understandings and two approaches //] book: Russian language. Functioning of grammatical categories. Tex and context. - M., 1984. - S. 154-162.

So, sentences and groups of sentences are the main communicative elements (units) of the text, forming a chain of communicative units: text - SFU (SSC, union of tex-topics, groups of sentences, communicative blocks, paragraphs, text ensembles) - sentences (phrases, statements, texts). They first of all make it possible to convey a certain content with the help of information contained in the text, to express this or that meaning with the help of sentences-statements and superphrasal unities in which a thought or message is enclosed.

What role do all other systemic units of the language play in the structure of the text? They perform a text-forming function, take part in its design not so much as communicative units, but as combat elements 1. As a rule, they act as means of interphrase communication. "Interphrase connection is a connection between sentences, SSTs, paragraphs, chapters and other parts of the text, organizing its semantic and structural unity" 2. The semantic connection between sentences in the text is provided by the corresponding lexical-grammatical means. Most often, sentences in the text are linked by a chain or parallel link. The chain link is realized by repeating in one form or another any member of the previous sentence, expanding part of its structure in the next sentence. Repetition in this case expresses the structural correlation of sentences, their closest connection.

"With a parallel connection, sentences are not linked to one another, but are compared, while due to the parallelism of structures, depending on the lexical" content ", comparison or opposition is possible" 3.

Obviously, in the text, not only individual sentences should be connected, but also groups of sentences - SSC (SFU). The connection between groups of sentences, between parts of the text is carried out distantly, that is, through the most informative, communicatively significant parts of the text. Thus, the distant connection plays an essential role in the compositional design of the text, in the designation of its parts that serve the most optimal expression of the content or its perception.

1 See: Shendels E.I. Text grammar and sentence grammar
// Foreign languages at school. - 1985.- No. 4. - S. 16-21.

2 Loseva L. M. How the text is built. - M., 1980 .-- S. 9.

3 Solganik G. Ya. Syntactic stylistics. - M., 1973 .-- S. 132.
16
Each of the named types of communication is realized with the help of the corresponding means of the language. So, to connect parts of the text, groups of sentences, unions, particles, introductory words, interrogative sentences, etc. are used.

To implement a chain connection between individual sentences in the SSC (SFU), syntactic repetitions, synonyms, pronouns, words with temporal and spatial meaning, etc. are used. For the implementation of parallel communication, such a means as the parallelism of the construction of sentences is appropriate, expressed in the use of verbs with a single time plan, the same word order, anaphoric elements, etc.

Even from this superficial analysis of the communication features of the communicative elements of the text, it can be concluded that linguistic units, functioning in the text, acquire new functions, new features. They cannot be found when considering the structural and semantic characteristics of individual, isolated sentences.

Thus, the text has a certain structure, expressed in the relationship of individual sentences and parts of the text. Any text has a corresponding compositional design, which is manifested not only in complete, complete speech works, but also in the structure of the SSC (SFU).

Usually SSTS (SFE) have a three-part composition: beginning, middle part, ending. In the beginning, the topic (micro topic) of the text (statement) is formulated, in the middle part this topic is developed, in the end the topic is summed up, which is emphasized by special linguistic means. Special linguistic means are used in the middle part of the STS, and, which is especially important, in the beginning. There are certain stable forms of expression of the beginning of a thought, the transition from one thought to another, the completion of the topic (micro topic) of the statement. All of them are described in more or less detail in the corresponding linguistic and methodological literature 1.

The compositional design of the text helps to more optimally reveal its content and meaning, which, as a rule, are indicated (or can be indicated) in the title (heading) of the text.

1 See: Loseva L. M. How the text is built. - M., 1980; Velichko L. I. Work on the text at the lessons of the Russian language. - M., 1983; Solganik G. Ya. Syntactic stylistics. - M., 1973; Zarubina N. D. Text: linguistic and methodological aspects. - M., 1981; Burvikova N. D. Typology of texts for audiences and extracurricular work. - M., 1988, etc.

o-.1210 1 J

And, finally, any text created in the process of communication must be literary processed: it must be given the appropriate genre design, depending on the nature of the information that underlies its content (narration, description, reasoning), and the corresponding stylistic coloring - depending on the goals and conditions of communication.

As a rule, genre features and stylistic coloring of the text are also expressed by the corresponding linguistic means.

So, in the narration, to convey actions in their temporal connections, first of all, the possibilities of the temporal forms of the verb are used, the means that provide a connecting enumeration of events. In the description, which is based on spatial relations, language categories are used that reveal the concomitant signs of facts, phenomena, objects: nominal constructions, forms of the present tense of verbs, words with qualitative and spatial meaning. For reasoning, where causal relationships between facts, phenomena, events are revealed, the use of rhetorical questions, subordinate alliances, emphasizing the nature of cause-and-effect relationships between sentences and parts of the text is characteristic.

The stylistic coloring of the text is also created using certain linguistic units. So, for example, literary texts are characterized by the use of elements that emphasize the author's attitude to what he is talking about: emotionally colored vocabulary, pictorial and expressive means of language, words and constructions in a figurative sense, etc. On the contrary, in scientific prose, categories that contribute to the objectification of information prevail (indefinitely personal constructions and constructions with the meaning of compatibility of action), as well as forms and constructions that provide consistency and evidence of reasoning (rhetorical questions, introductory and modal words, etc.).

Thus, in order to create a correct text that corresponds to the goals and conditions of communication, one must strive to ensure that the following conditions are met: “... compliance of the content of the text with its title (heading), completeness in relation to the title (heading), literary processing, characteristic of this functional style, the presence of superphrasal unity, united by different ... types of communication, the presence of purposefulness and a pragmatic attitude ”1.

1 See: Galperin I.R. Text as an object of linguistic research. - M., 1981.- S. 25.

The following text categories have been identified and described in the literature: informativeness, completeness, integrity, coherence, retrospection, prospecting, presupposition, sequence.

Let us briefly characterize some of the named categories of text.

The category of information content is inherent only in the text and is the most important in a number of other text categories. As you know, it is expressed in the genres of narration, reasoning, description. The content of any complete text is information, that is, “the ratio of meanings and messages, which gives a new aspect of phenomena, facts, events. This ratio is subject to change as the text progresses ”1. I.R.Galperin identifies the following types of information contained in the text: content-factual (SFI), content-conceptual (SKI), content-subtext (SPI). Content-factual information contains messages about facts, events, processes. Content-conceptual - reveals the author's understanding of the relationship between these phenomena, facts, events. This is the author's intention and its meaningful interpretation. Content-subtext information reveals a hidden meaning extracted from the description of facts, phenomena, events.

Learning the text, we strive to reveal its conceptual information, to penetrate into its deep structure 2.

Adequate understanding of the text is ensured by presupposition. This is a special text category, a situational background that provides perception and understanding of the text, “revealing the connections between statements and based on certain assumptions of the semantics of words, phrases and sentences included in the text” 3.

The text conveys a certain sequence of facts that unfold in time and space according to special rules depending on the content and types of text.

In this regard, in the process of creating and interpreting the text, such textual categories as retrospection (elements that ensure the return of the reader or listener to

1 See: Galperin I.R. Text as an object of linguistic research
vania. - M., 1981 .-- S. 38.

2 Ibid. - S. 27-37.

3 Kolshansky G.V. Contextual semantics. - M., 1980. - P. 86.

From the editor. From the editor Educational and communicative function of communication

N. A. Ippolitova Pedagogical rhetoric in questions and answers

Foreword

Section I Pedagogical communication

Chapter 1 Specificity of pedagogical communication

Chapter 2 Types of communication: professional conditionality characteristics

FROM THE EDITOR

"PROSPECT RUSSIAN LANGUAGE AND SPEECH CULTURE Course of lectures PROSPECT" Moscow UDC 811.161.1: 808.5 (075.8) BBK 81.2Rus-923 I76 Ippolitova N. A., Knyazeva O. KH, ... "

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RUSSIAN LANGUAGE

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RUSSIAN LANGUAGE AND CULTURE OF SPEECH

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N. A. Ippolitova
Pedagogical rhetoric in questions and answers

Section I
Pedagogical communication

Chapter 1
Specificity of pedagogical communication

Chapter 2
Types of communication: professional conditionality characteristics