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Without the Russian pioneers, the map of the world would be completely different. Our compatriots - travelers and navigators - have made discoveries that have enriched world science. About the eight most notable - in our material.
Bellingshausen's first Antarctic expedition
In 1819, the navigator, captain of the 2nd rank, Thaddeus Bellingshausen led the first Antarctic expedition around the world. The purpose of the voyage was to explore the waters of the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian oceans, as well as to prove or disprove the existence of the sixth continent - Antarctica. Having equipped two sloops - "Mirny" and "Vostok" (under the command), Bellingshausen's detachment went to sea.
The expedition lasted 751 days and wrote many bright pages in the history of geographical discoveries. The main one - - was made on January 28, 1820.
By the way, attempts to open the white mainland were made earlier, but did not bring the desired success: there was not enough luck, or maybe Russian perseverance.
So, the navigator James Cook, summing up his second circumnavigation, wrote: “I went around the ocean of the southern hemisphere in high latitudes and rejected the possibility of the existence of the mainland, which, if it can be found, is only near the pole in places inaccessible to navigation.”
During the Antarctic expedition of Bellingshausen, more than 20 islands were discovered and mapped, sketches were made of the views of Antarctica and the animals living on it, and the navigator himself went down in history as a great discoverer.
“The name of Bellingshausen can be directly put on a par with the names of Columbus and Magellan, with the names of those people who did not retreat before the difficulties and imaginary impossibilities created by their predecessors, with the names of people who went their own way, and therefore were the destroyers of barriers to discoveries, by which epochs are designated, ”wrote the German geographer August Petermann.
Discoveries of Semenov Tien-Shansky
Central Asia in early XIX century was one of the least explored areas of the globe. An indisputable contribution to the study of the "unknown land" - as geographers called Central Asia - was made by Peter Semenov.
In 1856, the main dream of the researcher came true - he went on an expedition to the Tien Shan.
“My work on Asian geography led me to a detailed acquaintance with everything that was known about inner Asia. In particular, the most central of the Asian mountain ranges, the Tien Shan, attracted me to itself, on which the foot of a European traveler had not yet set foot and which was known only from scarce Chinese sources.
Semenov's research in Central Asia lasted two years. During this time, the sources of the Chu, Syrdarya and Sary-Jaz rivers, the peaks of Khan-Tengri and others were put on the map.
The traveler established the location of the Tien Shan ranges, the height of the snow line in this area and discovered the huge Tien Shan glaciers.
In 1906, by decree of the emperor, for the merits of the discoverer, they began to add a prefix to his surname - Tien Shan.
Asia Przewalski
In the 70s-80s. XIX century Nikolai Przhevalsky led four expeditions to Central Asia. This little explored area has always attracted the researcher, and traveling to Central Asia was his old dream.
Over the years of research have been studied mountain systems Kun-Lun , the ranges of Northern Tibet, the sources of the Yellow River and the Yangtze, basins Kuku-burrow and Lob-burrow.
Przhevalsky was the second person after Marco Polo to reach lakes-bogs Lob-burrow!
In addition, the traveler discovered dozens of species of plants and animals that are named after him.
“Happy fate made it possible to make a feasible study of the least known and most inaccessible countries of inner Asia,” Nikolai Przhevalsky wrote in his diary.
Around the world Krusenstern
The names of Ivan Kruzenshtern and Yuri Lisyansky became known after the first Russian round-the-world expedition.
For three years, from 1803 to 1806. - this is how long the first circumnavigation of the world lasted - the ships "Nadezhda" and "Neva", having passed through the Atlantic Ocean, rounded Cape Horn, and then by the waters Pacific Ocean reached Kamchatka, Kuril Islands and Sakhalin. The expedition refined the map of the Pacific Ocean, collected information about the nature and inhabitants of Kamchatka and the Kuriles.
During the voyage, Russian sailors crossed the equator for the first time. This event was celebrated, according to tradition, with the participation of Neptune.
A sailor dressed as the lord of the seas asked Kruzenshtern why he had come here with his ships, because earlier Russian flag not seen in these places. To which the expedition commander replied: "For the glory of science and our fatherland!"
Expedition of Nevelskoy
Admiral Gennady Nevelskoy is rightfully considered one of the outstanding navigators of the 19th century. In 1849, on the transport ship Baikal, he went on an expedition to the Far East.
The Amur expedition continued until 1855, during which time Nevelskoy made several major discoveries in the area of the lower reaches of the Amur and the northern shores of the Sea of Japan, and annexed vast expanses of the Amur and Primorye to Russia.
Thanks to the navigator, it became known that Sakhalin is an island that is separated by the navigable Tatar Strait, and the mouth of the Amur is accessible for ships to enter from the sea.
In 1850, the Nikolaevsky post was founded by the Nevelsky detachment, which today is known as Nikolaevsk-on-Amur.
“The discoveries made by Nevelsky are invaluable for Russia,” wrote Count Nikolai Muravyov-Amursky , - many previous expeditions to these lands could achieve European fame, but not one of them achieved domestic benefit, at least to the extent that Nevelskoy did it.
North Vilkitsky
The purpose of the hydrographic expedition of the Arctic Ocean in 1910-1915. was the development of the Northern Sea Route. By chance, the captain of the 2nd rank Boris Vilkitsky assumed the duties of the head of navigation. The icebreaking ships Taimyr and Vaygach put to sea.
Vilkitsky moved along the northern waters from east to west, and during the voyage he managed to draw up a true description of the northern coast Eastern Siberia and many islands, received the most important information about currents and climate, and also became the first who made a through voyage from Vladivostok to Arkhangelsk.
Members of the expedition discovered the Land of Emperor Nicholas I. I., known today as New Earth- this discovery is considered the last of the significant on the globe.
In addition, thanks to Vilkitsky, the islands of Maly Taimyr, Starokadomsky and Zhokhov were put on the map.
At the end of the expedition, the First World War began. Traveler Roald Amundsen, having learned about the success of Vilkitsky's voyage, could not resist exclaiming to him:
“In peacetime, this expedition would stir up the whole world!”
Kamchatka campaign of Bering and Chirikov
The second quarter of the 18th century was rich in geographical discoveries. All of them were made during the First and Second Kamchatka expeditions, which immortalized the names of Vitus Bering and Alexei Chirikov.
During the First Kamchatka campaign, Bering, the leader of the expedition, and his assistant Chirikov explored and mapped the Pacific coast of Kamchatka and Northeast Asia. They discovered two peninsulas - Kamchatsky and Ozerny, Kamchatsky Bay, Karaginsky Bay, Cross Bay, Providence Bay and St. Lawrence Island, as well as the strait, which today bears the name of Vitus Bering.
Companions - Bering and Chirikov - also led the Second Kamchatka Expedition. The goal of the campaign was to find a route to North America and explore the islands of the Pacific.
In Avacha Bay, the expedition members founded the Petropavlovsk prison - in honor of the ships of the voyage "Saint Peter" and "Saint Pavel" - which was later renamed Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky.
When the ships set sail for the shores of America, by the will of evil fate, Bering and Chirikov began to act alone - because of the fog, their ships lost each other.
"Saint Peter" under the command of Bering reached the western coast of America.
And on the way back, the expedition members, who had many difficulties, were thrown by a storm onto a small island. Here the life of Vitus Bering ended, and the island on which the expedition members stopped to spend the winter was named after Bering.
"Saint Pavel" Chirikov also reached the shores of America, but for him the voyage ended more safely - on the way back he discovered a number of islands of the Aleutian ridge and safely returned to the Peter and Paul prison.
"Non-Yasak Lands" by Ivan Moskvitin
Little is known about the life of Ivan Moskvitin, but this man nevertheless went down in history, and the reason for this was the new lands he discovered.
In 1639, Moskvitin, leading a detachment of Cossacks, set sail for the Far East. The main goal of the travelers was to "find new unclaimed lands", to collect furs and fish. The Cossacks crossed the rivers Aldan, Maya and Yudoma, discovered the Dzhugdzhur ridge, which separates the rivers of the Lena basin from the rivers flowing into the sea, and along the Ulya river they entered the Lamskoye, or Sea of Okhotsk. Having explored the coast, the Cossacks opened the Taui Bay and entered the Sakhalin Bay, rounding the Shantar Islands.
One of the Cossacks said that the rivers in the open lands “are sable, there are many animals, and fish, and the fish is big, there is no such thing in Siberia ... there are so many of them - just run a net and you can’t drag it out with fish ... ".
The geographical data collected by Ivan Moskvitin formed the basis of the first map of the Far East.
Everything that we now know was once discovered by people - pioneers. Some crossed the ocean for the first time and found a new land, someone became the discoverer of space, someone was the first to dive in a bathyscaphe into the world's deepest cavity. Thanks to the ten pioneers below, today we know the world for what it really is.
- Leif Eriksson/Leifur Eiriksson is the first European of Icelandic origin who, according to some scholars, was the first to visit the continent of North America. Around the 11th century, this Scandinavian sailor lost his course and landed on some coast, which he later called "Vinland". Documentary, of course, there is no evidence of exactly in which part of North America he moored. Some archaeologists claim that they managed to discover Viking settlements in Newfoundland, Canada.
- Sacajawea, or Sacagawea / Sakakawea, Sacajawea is a girl of Indian origin, on whom Maryweather Lewis and his partner William Clark completely relied on during their expedition, the path of which ran through the entire American continent. The girl walked with these researchers more than 6473 kilometers. On top of that, the girl had a newborn baby in her arms. During this journey in 1805, Sacagawea found her lost brother. The girl is mentioned in the movie "Night at the Museum" and "Night at the Museum 2".
- Christopher Columbus / Christopher Columbus - a navigator of Spanish origin who discovered America, but due to the fact that he and his expedition were looking for a sea route to India, Christopher believed that the lands he had discovered were Indian. In 1492, his expedition discovered the Bahamas, Cuba and a number of other islands in the Caribbean. Christopher set sail for the first time at the age of 13.
- Amerigo Vespucci is the man after whom the continent America was named. Although, in fact, Columbus made this discovery, it was American Vespucci who documented the “find”. In 1502 he surveyed the coast South America, and it was then that the well-deserved glory and honor came to him.
- James Cook / James Cook - a captain who managed to sail much further into southern waters than any of his contemporaries. Cook owns a proven fact about the falsity of the northern route through the Arctic from the Atlantic to the Pacific. It is known that Captain James Cook made 2 round-the-world expeditions, mapped the islands in the Pacific Ocean, as well as Australia, for which he was later eaten by the natives. That's how gratitude is.
- William Beebe is a 20th century naturalist explorer. In 1934, he descended 922 meters on a bathysphere and told people that "the world under water is no less strange than on another planet." Although how does he know how to live on other planets?
- Chuck Yeager is a general in the US Air Force. In 1947, the first one broke the sound barrier. In 1952, Chuck flew at twice the speed of sound. Chuck Yeager, in addition to setting speed records, was a trainer for pilots of such space programs as Apollo, Gemini and Mercury.
- Louise Arne Boyd/Louise Boyd known to the world also under the nickname "Ice Woman". She got this nickname thanks to her explorations of Greenland. In 1955, she flew over the North Pole and was the first woman to do so in an airplane. She also opened an underwater mountain range in the Arctic Ocean.
- Yuri Gagarin / Yuri Gagarin - April 12, 1961, the first of all people living on our planet, was in space. His first flight lasted as much as 108 minutes. It was a real achievement in astronautics.
- Anousheh Ansari is the first female space tourist. She made her flight in September 2006. To her achievements, one can add the fact that she was the first of all those who have been in orbit to blog on the Internet from space.
The great Russian travelers, whose list is quite long, pushed the development of maritime trade, and also raised the prestige of their country. The scientific community learned more and more information not only about geography, but also about the animal and plant world, and most importantly, about people who lived in other parts of the world and their customs. Let us follow in the footsteps of the great Russian travelers their geographical discoveries.
Fyodor Filippovich Konyukhov
The great Russian traveler Fyodor Konyukhov is not only a famous adventurer, but also an artist, an honored master of sports. He was born in 1951. From childhood, he could do what would be quite difficult for his peers - swimming in cold water. He could easily sleep in the hayloft. Fedor was in good physical form and could run for long distances - several tens of kilometers. At the age of 15, he managed to swim across the Sea of Azov using a row fishing boat. Fedor was significantly influenced by his grandfather, who wanted the young man to become a traveler, but the boy himself aspired to this. Great Russian travelers often began to prepare in advance for their campaigns and sea voyages.
Konyukhov's discoveries
Fedor Filippovich Konyukhov participated in 40 trips, repeated Bering's route on a yacht, and also sailed from Vladivostok to the Commander Islands, visited Sakhalin and Kamchatka. At the age of 58, he conquered Everest, as well as the 7 most high peaks in a team with other climbers. He visited both the North and South Poles, on his account 4 round-the-world voyages, he crossed the Atlantic 15 times. Fyodor Filippovich displayed his impressions with the help of drawing. Thus he painted 3,000 paintings. The great geographical discoveries of Russian travelers were often reflected in their own literature, and Fedor Konyukhov left behind 9 books.
Afanasy Nikitin
The great Russian traveler Athanasius Nikitin (Nikitin is the patronymic of a merchant, since his father's name was Nikita) lived in the 15th century, and the year of his birth is unknown. He proved that even a person from a poor family can travel so far, the main thing is to set a goal. He was an experienced merchant who, before India, visited the Crimea, Constantinople, Lithuania and the Moldavian principality and brought overseas goods to his homeland.
He himself was from Tver. Russian merchants traveled to Asia to establish ties with local merchants. They themselves carried there, mostly furs. By the will of fate, Athanasius ended up in India, where he lived for three years. Upon returning to his homeland, he was robbed and killed near Smolensk. The great Russian travelers and their discoveries remain forever in history, because for the sake of progress, brave and courageous wanderers often died on dangerous and long expeditions.
Discoveries of Athanasius Nikitin
Afanasy Nikitin became the first Russian traveler to visit India and Persia, on the way back he visited Turkey and Somalia. During her wanderings, she took notes "Journey Beyond the Three Seas", which later became a guide for studying the culture and customs of other countries. In particular, medieval India is well described in his notes. He crossed the Volga, the Arabian and Caspian Seas, the Black Sea. When the merchants near Astrakhan were robbed by the Tatars, he did not want to return home with everyone and fall into a debt hole, but continued his journey, heading to Derbent, then to Baku.
Nikolai Nikolaevich Miklukho-Maclay
Miklouho-Maclay comes from a noble family, but after the death of his father, he had to learn what it means to live in poverty. He had the nature of a rebel - at the age of 15 he was arrested for participating in a student demonstration. Because of this, he not only ended up under arrest in the Peter and Paul Fortress, where he stayed for three days, but was also expelled from the gymnasium with a further ban on admission - so the opportunity was lost for him to get higher education in Russia, which he subsequently did only in Germany.
A well-known naturalist, drew attention to an inquisitive 19-year-old boy and invited Miklouho-Maclay on an expedition, the purpose of which was to study marine fauna. Nikolai Nikolaevich died at the age of 42, while his diagnosis was "severe deterioration of the body." He, like many other great Russian travelers, sacrificed a significant part of his life in the name of new discoveries.
Discoveries of Miklouho-Maclay
In 1869, Miklukho-Maclay, with the support of the Russian Geographical Society, left for New Guinea. The shore where he landed is now called Maclay Coast. After spending more than a year on the expedition, he discovered new lands. The natives learned from a Russian traveler how pumpkin, corn, and beans are grown, and how to take care of fruit trees. He spent 3 years in Australia, visited Indonesia, the Philippines, the islands of Melanesia and Micronesia. He also convinced local residents not to interfere with anthropological research. For 17 years of his life, he studied the indigenous population of the Pacific Islands, Southeast Asia. Thanks to Miklukho-Maclay, the assumption that the Papuans are a different kind of person was refuted. As you can see, the great Russian travelers and their discoveries allowed the rest of the world not only to learn more about geographical research, but also about other people who lived in new territories.
Nikolai Mikhailovich Przhevalsky
Przhevalsky was favored by the emperor's family, at the end of the first trip he had the honor to meet Alexander II, who transferred his collections to the Russian Academy of Sciences. His son Nikolai really liked the works of Nikolai Mikhailovich, and he wanted to be his student, he also contributed to the publication of stories about the 4th expedition, granting 25 thousand rubles. The Tsarevich always looked forward to letters from the traveler and was glad even for a short news about the expedition.
As you can see, even during his life, Przhevalsky became quite famous person and his works and deeds received great publicity. However, as sometimes happens when great Russian travelers and their discoveries become famous, many details from his life, as well as the circumstances of his death, are still shrouded in mystery. Nikolai Mikhailovich had no descendants, because having understood in advance what fate awaited him, he would not allow himself to condemn his beloved to constant expectations and loneliness.
Discoveries of Przewalski
Thanks to Przhevalsky's expeditions, Russian scientific prestige received a new impetus. During 4 expeditions, the traveler traveled about 30 thousand kilometers, he visited Central and Western Asia, the territory of the Tibetan Plateau and the southern part of the Takla Makan desert. He discovered many ridges (Moscow, Zagadochny, etc.), described major rivers Asia.
Many have heard of (subspecies but few people know about the richest zoological collection of mammals, birds, amphibians and fish, a large number plant records and herbarium collection. In addition to the animal and plant world, as well as new geographical discoveries, the great Russian traveler Przhevalsky was interested in peoples unknown to Europeans - Dungans, northern Tibetans, Tanguts, Magins, Lobnors. He created How to Travel Central Asia, which could serve as an excellent guide for researchers and the military. Great Russian travelers, making discoveries, always gave knowledge for the development of sciences and the successful organization of new expeditions.
Ivan Fyodorovich Kruzenshtern
The Russian navigator was born in 1770. He happened to become the head of the first round-the-world expedition from Russia, he is also one of the founders of Russian oceanology, an admiral, a corresponding member and an honorary member of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg. The great Russian traveler Krusenstern also took an active part when the Russian Geographical Society was created. In 1811 he happened to teach at the Naval Cadet Corps. Subsequently, after becoming director, he organized the highest officer class. This academy then became a naval academy.
In 1812, he set aside 1/3 of his fortune for militia(World War II begins). So far, there have been publications three volumes books "Traveling around the world", which were translated into seven European languages. In 1813, Ivan Fedorovich was included in the English, Danish, German and French scientific communities and academies. However, after 2 years, he goes on an indefinite leave due to a developing eye disease, which complicated the situation and a difficult relationship with the Minister of the Navy. Many famous sailors and travelers turned to Ivan Fedorovich for advice and support.
Krusenstern's discoveries
For 3 years he was the head of the Russian expedition around the world on the ships "Neva" and "Nadezhda". During the voyage, the mouths of the Amur River were to be explored. For the first time in history, the Russian fleet crossed the equator. Thanks to this journey and Ivan Fedorovich, the eastern, northern and northwestern shores of the Sakhalin Island appeared for the first time on the map. Also, by virtue of his labors, the Atlas South Sea”, supplemented by hydrographic notes. Thanks to the expedition, non-existent islands were erased from the maps, the exact position of other geographic points was determined. Russian science learned about the trade wind countercurrents in the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, the water temperature was measured (depths up to 400 m), its specific gravity, color and transparency. Finally, the reason why the sea shone became clear. Also, data appeared on atmospheric pressure, ebb and flow in many areas of the World Ocean, which were used by other great Russian travelers in their expeditions.
Semyon Ivanovich Dezhnev
The great traveler was born in 1605. A sailor, explorer and merchant, he was also a Cossack chieftain. He was originally from Veliky Ustyug, and then moved to Siberia. Semyon Ivanovich was known for his diplomatic talent, courage and ability to organize and lead people. Geographical points (cape, bay, island, village, peninsula), premium, icebreaker, passage, streets, etc. bear his name.
Dezhnev's discoveries
Semyon Ivanovich 80 years before Bering passed the strait (called the Bering Strait) between Alaska and Chukotka (completely, while Bering passed only part of it). He and his team opened a sea route around the northeastern part of Asia, reached Kamchatka. Nobody had known before that about the part of the world where America almost converged with Asia. Dezhnev passed the Arctic Ocean, bypassing the northern coast of Asia. He mapped the strait between the American and Asian coasts, and after the ship was shipwrecked, his detachment, having only skis and sleds, traveled 10 weeks before (while losing 13 out of 25 people). There is an assumption that the first settlers in Alaska were part of the Dezhnev team, which separated from the expedition.
Thus, following in the footsteps of the great Russian travelers, one can see how the scientific community of Russia developed and rose, knowledge about outside world which gave a huge impetus to the development of other industries.
Without the Russian pioneers, the map of the world would be completely different. Our compatriots - travelers and navigators - made discoveries that enriched world science. About the eight most notable - in our material.
Bellingshausen's first Antarctic expedition
In 1819, the navigator, captain of the 2nd rank, Thaddeus Bellingshausen led the first Antarctic expedition around the world. The purpose of the voyage was to explore the waters of the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian oceans, as well as to prove or disprove the existence of the sixth continent - Antarctica. Having equipped two sloops - "Peace" and "Vostok" (under the command of Mikhail Lazarev), Bellingshausen's detachment went to sea.
The expedition lasted 751 days and wrote many bright pages in the history of geographical discoveries. The main one - the discovery of Antarctica - was made on January 28, 1820.
By the way, attempts to open the white mainland were made earlier, but did not bring the desired success: there was not enough luck, or maybe Russian perseverance.
So, the navigator James Cook, summing up his second circumnavigation, wrote: “I went around the ocean of the southern hemisphere in high latitudes and rejected the possibility of the existence of the mainland, which, if it can be found, is only near the pole in places inaccessible to navigation.”
During the Antarctic expedition of Bellingshausen, more than 20 islands were discovered and mapped, sketches were made of the views of Antarctica and the animals living on it, and the navigator himself went down in history as a great discoverer.
“The name of Bellingshausen can be directly put on a par with the names of Columbus and Magellan, with the names of those people who did not retreat before the difficulties and imaginary impossibilities created by their predecessors, with the names of people who went their own way, and therefore were the destroyers of barriers to discoveries, by which epochs are designated, ”wrote the German geographer August Petermann.
Discoveries of Semenov Tien-Shansky
Central Asia at the beginning of the 19th century was one of the least explored areas of the globe. An indisputable contribution to the study of the "unknown land" - as geographers called Central Asia - was made by Peter Semenov.
In 1856, the main dream of the researcher came true - he went on an expedition to the Tien Shan.
“My work on Asian geography led me to a detailed acquaintance with everything that was known about inner Asia. In particular, the most central of the Asian mountain ranges, the Tien Shan, attracted me to itself, on which the foot of a European traveler had not yet set foot and which was known only from scarce Chinese sources.
Semenov's research in Central Asia lasted two years. During this time, the sources of the Chu, Syrdarya and Sary-Jaz rivers, the peaks of Khan-Tengri and others were put on the map.
The traveler established the location of the Tien Shan ranges, the height of the snow line in this area and discovered the huge Tien Shan glaciers.
In 1906, by decree of the emperor, for the merits of the discoverer, they began to add a prefix to his surname - Tien Shan.
Asia Przewalski
In the 70-80s. XIX century Nikolai Przhevalsky led four expeditions to Central Asia. This little explored area has always attracted the researcher, and traveling to Central Asia was his old dream.
Over the years of research, mountain systems have been studied Kun-Lun , the ranges of Northern Tibet, the sources of the Yellow River and the Yangtze, basins Kuku-burrow and Lob-burrow.
Przhevalsky was the second person after Marco Polo to reach lakes-bogs Lob-burrow!
In addition, the traveler discovered dozens of species of plants and animals that are named after him.
“Happy fate made it possible to make a feasible study of the least known and most inaccessible countries of inner Asia,” Nikolai Przhevalsky wrote in his diary.
Around the world Krusenstern
The names of Ivan Kruzenshtern and Yuri Lisyansky became known after the first Russian round-the-world expedition.
For three years, from 1803 to 1806. - this is how long the first circumnavigation of the world lasted - the ships "Nadezhda" and "Neva", having passed through the Atlantic Ocean, rounded Cape Horn, and then reached Kamchatka, the Kuril Islands and Sakhalin by the waters of the Pacific Ocean. The expedition refined the map of the Pacific Ocean, collected information about the nature and inhabitants of Kamchatka and the Kuriles.
During the voyage, Russian sailors crossed the equator for the first time. This event was celebrated, according to tradition, with the participation of Neptune.
A sailor dressed as the ruler of the seas asked Kruzenshtern why he had come here with his ships, because the Russian flag had not been seen in these places before. To which the expedition commander replied: "For the glory of science and our fatherland!"
Expedition of Nevelskoy
Admiral Gennady Nevelskoy is rightfully considered one of the outstanding navigators of the 19th century. In 1849, on the transport ship Baikal, he went on an expedition to the Far East.
The Amur expedition continued until 1855, during which time Nevelskoy made several major discoveries in the area of the lower reaches of the Amur and the northern shores of the Sea of Japan, and annexed vast expanses of the Amur and Primorye to Russia.
Thanks to the navigator, it became known that Sakhalin is an island that is separated by the navigable Tatar Strait, and the mouth of the Amur is accessible for ships to enter from the sea.
In 1850, the Nikolaevsky post was founded by the Nevelsky detachment, which today is known as Nikolaevsk-on-Amur.
“The discoveries made by Nevelsky are invaluable for Russia,” wrote Count Nikolai Muravyov-Amursky , - many previous expeditions to these lands could achieve European fame, but not one of them achieved domestic benefit, at least to the extent that Nevelskoy did it.
North Vilkitsky
The purpose of the hydrographic expedition of the Arctic Ocean in 1910-1915. was the development of the Northern Sea Route. By chance, the captain of the 2nd rank Boris Vilkitsky assumed the duties of the head of navigation. The icebreaking ships Taimyr and Vaygach put to sea.
Vilkitsky moved through the northern waters from east to west, and during the voyage he managed to compile a true description of the northern coast of Eastern Siberia and many islands, received the most important information about currents and climate, and also became the first who made a through voyage from Vladivostok to Arkhangelsk.
The expedition members discovered the Land of Emperor Nicholas II, known today as Novaya Zemlya - this discovery is considered the last of the significant ones on the globe.
In addition, thanks to Vilkitsky, the islands of Maly Taimyr, Starokadomsky and Zhokhov were put on the map.
At the end of the expedition, the First World War began. Traveler Roald Amundsen, having learned about the success of Vilkitsky's voyage, could not resist exclaiming to him:
“In peacetime, this expedition would stir up the whole world!”
Kamchatka campaign of Bering and Chirikov
The second quarter of the 18th century was rich in geographical discoveries. All of them were made during the First and Second Kamchatka expeditions, which immortalized the names of Vitus Bering and Alexei Chirikov.
During the First Kamchatka campaign, Bering, the leader of the expedition, and his assistant Chirikov explored and mapped the Pacific coast of Kamchatka and Northeast Asia. They discovered two peninsulas - Kamchatsky and Ozerny, Kamchatsky Bay, Karaginsky Bay, Cross Bay, Providence Bay and St. Lawrence Island, as well as the strait, which today bears the name of Vitus Bering.
Companions - Bering and Chirikov - also led the Second Kamchatka Expedition. The goal of the campaign was to find a route to North America and explore the islands of the Pacific.
In Avacha Bay, the expedition members founded the Petropavlovsk prison - in honor of the ships of the voyage "Saint Peter" and "Saint Pavel" - which was later renamed Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky.
When the ships set sail for the shores of America, by the will of evil fate, Bering and Chirikov began to act alone - because of the fog, their ships lost each other.
"Saint Peter" under the command of Bering reached the western coast of America.
And on the way back, the expedition members, who had many difficulties, were thrown by a storm onto a small island. Here the life of Vitus Bering ended, and the island on which the expedition members stopped to spend the winter was named after Bering.
"Saint Pavel" Chirikov also reached the shores of America, but for him the voyage ended more safely - on the way back he discovered a number of islands of the Aleutian ridge and safely returned to the Peter and Paul prison.
"Non-Yasak Lands" by Ivan Moskvitin
Little is known about the life of Ivan Moskvitin, but this man nevertheless went down in history, and the reason for this was the new lands he discovered.
In 1639, Moskvitin, leading a detachment of Cossacks, set sail for the Far East. The main goal of the travelers was to "find new unclaimed lands", to collect furs and fish. The Cossacks crossed the rivers Aldan, Maya and Yudoma, discovered the Dzhugdzhur ridge, which separates the rivers of the Lena basin from the rivers flowing into the sea, and along the Ulya river they entered the Lamskoye, or Sea of Okhotsk. Having explored the coast, the Cossacks opened the Taui Bay and entered the Sakhalin Bay, rounding the Shantar Islands.
One of the Cossacks said that the rivers in the open lands “are sable, there are many animals, and fish, and the fish is big, there is no such thing in Siberia ... there are so many of them - just run a net and you can’t drag it out with fish ... ".
III. 2. SCIENTISTS: GEOGRAPHERS, CARTOGRAPHERS, ASTRONOMERS
Beheim Martin (1459–1506)- German scientist, merchant and navigator, who was in the Portuguese service for a long time. Creator of the oldest surviving globe. In 1484, Beheim first appeared in Lisbon for trading purposes. In 1488 he settled in Terceira (Azores) and received the post of court astronomer and cartographer. They say that Columbus met with M. Beheim and discussed the project of sailing to India in westbound. M. Beheim was also close to the "circle of mathematicians" - a society of court scientists who dealt primarily with physics, astronomy and navigation. Information has been preserved that M. Beheim participated in the voyage of Diogo Kahn to the coast of Africa (1484). The expedition lasted 19 months, during which time the Portuguese discovered previously unknown regions of the Gambia and Guinea, established contacts with the Wolof people, reached the mouth of the Congo River and returned with a load of spices (pepper and cinnamon). In 1490, M. Beheim returned to Nuremberg on business. Georg Holtzschuer, a member of the city council who traveled to Egypt and the Holy Land and was interested in geographical discoveries, persuaded him to stay in the city and create a globe that would reflect the latest discoveries of the Portuguese. By 1492 the globe was ready. M. Beheim's globe is a metal ball 507 mm in diameter, covered with a geographical map reflecting the knowledge of Europeans about the world at the end of the 15th century, including the discoveries of the Portuguese in West Africa. There are no indications of latitude and longitude on the map modern method, but there is the equator, meridians, tropics and images of the signs of the zodiac. Brief descriptions of various countries and images of their inhabitants are also presented.
Rice. . Globe M. Beheim
Baudin Jean (1530–1596)- French writer, philosopher, Renaissance thinker and statesman. J. Bodin sought to explain the development of human society by natural causes. He notes the influence of climate mainly on the physiological and mental properties human body and thus on the national character and political institutions of the people. J. Bodin considers the climatic conditions of his native France to be ideal. In addition to temperature, he takes into account the humidity of the climate, pointing out the unhealthy nature of hot marshy countries, and winds, draws a parallel between the nature of the winds and the customs of people. According to J. Bodin, the mountainous relief and the border position make people warlike, rude, and freedom-loving. The fertility of the country pampers its inhabitants; the scarcity of soils is compensated by the development of the mental abilities of the population. Moreover, climate and other natural conditions affect individual human individuals, and not human society. Society itself is seen as arithmetic sum individuals. The influence of production on man is overlooked.
Major writings : "The method is easy to understand history" (1566), "An answer to the "Paradoxes" of Mr. Maltrois, concerning the monetary situation and the rise in price of all things" (1668), "Six books on the state" (1676), "The spectacle of nature" (mid-1690- X).
Bruno Giordano (1548–1600)- Italian philosopher, active supporter of the teachings of N. Copernicus. The axis of D. Bruno's philosophy is new concept space and nature, essentially different from the medieval one. He represents pantheistic natural philosophy, the main idea of which is self-propelled matter, from itself giving rise to all the diversity of forms of its being. Developing the heliocentric theory of Copernicus, D. Bruno expressed ideas about the infinity of nature and an infinite number of worlds of the Universe, asserted the physical homogeneity of the world (the doctrine of the five elements that make up all bodies - earth, water, fire, air and ether), taught about the internal kinship and coincidence of opposites. In infinity, he believed, being identified, the straight line and the circle, the center and the periphery, the form and matter, etc. merge. astronomical discoveries: about the infinity of the Universe, about the fact that the stars are distant suns, about the existence of planets unknown in his time within our solar system, about the rotation of the Sun and stars around the axis, about the fact that in the Universe there are countless bodies similar to our Sun, etc. D. Bruno refuted medieval ideas about the opposition between the Earth and the sky and opposed anthropocentrism, speaking about the habitability of other worlds.
Main works: "On Cause, Beginning and One" (1584), "On Infinity, the Universe and the Worlds" (1584), "120 Articles on Nature and the Universe Against the Peripatetics" (1586), "On the Trinity Minimum and Measurement" (1589), " On the immeasurable and countless” (1589).
Bacon Francis (1561–1626)- English philosopher and political figure, founder of English materialism. He proposed a classification of sciences, which represented an alternative to the Aristotelian one, and for a long time was recognized as fundamental by many European scientists and philosophers. The division of all sciences into historical, poetic and philosophical is determined by F. Bacon by a psychological criterion. F. Bacon considered induction, i.e. experience, experiment, the only possible way to study the nature of objects and phenomena, to reveal the true laws of objective reality. Anticipating the increasing role of science in the development of society, he urged the development of a new scientific methodology. F. Bacon considered it necessary to create a correct method, with the help of which it would be possible to gradually ascend from single facts to broad generalizations. In antiquity, all discoveries were made only spontaneously, while the correct method should be based on experiments (purposefully set experiments), which should be systematized in "natural history". In general, F. Bacon speaks of induction not only as one of the types of logical inference, but also as the logic of scientific discovery, the methodology for developing concepts based on experience. F. Bacon substantiated the main principles of organization and management of scientific and technological progress and rational use of natural resources.
Major writings : "Experiments, or instructions moral and political" (1597), "Introduction to the interpretation of nature" (1603), "Considered and seen" (1607), "Refutation of philosophy" (1608), "Description of the intellectual world" (1612), "New Organon" (1620), "New Atlantis" (1623-1624).
Waldseemüller Martin (Ilacomilus)(1470–1527) - German cartographer, known for compiling the first map of the world (1507), which reflected the discoveries of Amerigo Vespucci - the definition of America as a continent (before that, only a few islands of the New World were indicated on maps). This is the first map in history to list a continent under the name "America". He also created a globe that shows, like a map, America as a new continent. He brought new trends in the image of Eastern Europe at the beginning of the 16th century, releasing several maps in which he tried to reflect new geographical discoveries and geographical information. For example, he translated the letters of Amerigo Vespucci about the New World (“The Four Voyages of Amerigo Vespucci”.
Major works: "Cosmographiae Introductio" (1507), "Universalis cosmographia secundum Ptholomaei traditionem et Americi Vespucii aliorumque lustrationes" (1507), "Carta itineraria europae" (1520), "Introduction to Cosmography" (1507), "Map of Voyages" (1516).
Rice. . Map by M. Waldseemüller
Hondius Yodocus (1563–1612)- Flemish cartographer and publisher of atlases and maps. In 1584 he moved from Flanders to London, where he studied with R. Hakluyt and E. Wright, and in 1593 he settled in Amsterdam, where he began to specialize in the production of maps and globes. He is a renowned cartographer for his early maps of the New World and Europe. In 1600, he made a celestial globe, with twelve new constellations of the southern hemisphere. In 1604, J. Hondius bought printed forms of the Mercator World Atlas. He added about forty of his own maps to the atlas and published an expanded edition in 1606 under the authorship of Mercator, and credited himself as the publisher. This atlas was repeatedly reprinted and today is known as the Mercator-Hondius Atlas. Largely thanks to the merits of J. Hondius, Amsterdam was the center of cartography in Europe in the 17th century.
Rice. . World map from the atlas of J. Hondius
Varenius (Waren) Bernhard (Bernhardus Varenius) (1622–1650)- German-Dutch geographer. His main work "General Geography" (1650) is the first attempt to create a detailed theoretical concept of geography, corresponding to a new stage in the development of philosophy and science, an attempt to "isolate" geography as an independent branch of knowledge. B. Varenius defines geography as applied mathematics, which shows the state of the globe and its parts. It pays great attention to distance, angles, dimensions, performance through geometric figures. B. Varenii divides geography into general geography, which studies the "amphibious circle" and private geography, which describes countries (chorography) and their parts, up to individual localities (topography). As for the "amphibian ball", which B. Varenius considers as a subject of geography, here we are talking about the spheres of the Earth. At the same time, “land” is allocated, where, in addition to rocks, included herbs, trees and animals; "waters" - oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, swamps and mineral waters; "atmosphere" - air, clouds, rains, etc. Moreover, these three parts are not identified with the planet, but have upper and lower boundaries. Considering individual areas, the scientist puts forward various classification and dynamic approaches. This scientist understood the need for a differentiated study of the surface shell of the Earth and thereby tried to theoretically substantiate the need for differentiation of geography, the development of its individual branches. The work of B. Varenius served more than a century study guide in geography and in many of its aspects is the basis of modern physical geography. Great importance has developed by him a peculiar program of regional studies, in which he separated questions related to the characterization of the nature of individual countries from questions characterizing their population and economy. Being an adherent of mechanistic philosophical views, B. Varenius considered the globe as a human dwelling and sought to give its most accurate, scientifically reliable description, as well as to show the connection between individual natural phenomena in their geographical distribution (change natural belts with latitude, etc.).
Major writings : "Description of Japan" (1649), "General Geography" (1650).
Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1512)- the greatest Italian artist, scientist, engineer, inventor, multifaceted genius of the Renaissance.
In geological surveys, Leonardo was of the opinion that the power of water and wind main reason formation of the earth. Leonardo mistakenly believed that sea waters are the main source of groundwater, and the latter in turn feed the rivers; he underestimated the evaporative power of the sun's rays and the role of atmospheric precipitation in feeding rivers. He made accurate and profound conclusions about fossilized deposits, the formation of sedimentary rocks, the explanation of marine deposits in the mountains of Italy. In the works of Leonardo da Vinci there are also some considerations about geomorphological processes - the erosive and accumulative work of rivers; he recognized the vertical movements of the earth's surface. No less remarkable are Leonardo's ideas on physical astronomy and geology. He believed that the twinkling of stars is a subjective phenomenon, depending on the properties of our eye; that the moon shines not by its own, but by the light reflected from the sun. As a cartographer, Leonardo was far ahead of his time. He used a deep knowledge of perspective, imagination and artistic talent to create such masterpieces as, for example, the map of Tuscany. The best evidence of Leonardo's geographical knowledge is the first map of America drawn by him on the instructions of Amerigo Vespucci, which is stored in the London Museum. His works contain a number of notes of a geographical nature relating to Italy, France, Asia Minor, the issue of swimming in water and flight complete the idea of the artist's immense interest in various natural phenomena, in different countries and peoples.
Major writings : "On the fall of heavy bodies, connected with the rotation of the Earth", "On the flame and air", "The Book of Water", "Treatise on Painting".
Rice. . Map of Tuscany by Leonardo da Vinci (1502)
Galileo Galileo (1564–1642)- Italian philosopher, physicist and astronomer, one of the founders of exact natural science, poet, philologist and critic. He fought against scholasticism, considered experience to be the basis of knowledge. He laid the foundations of modern mechanics: put forward the idea of the relativity of motion, established the laws of inertia, free fall and the motion of bodies on an inclined plane, the addition of motions; discovered the isochronism of pendulum oscillations; was the first to investigate the strength of beams. He built a telescope with a 32x magnification and discovered mountains on the Moon and determined their height by the length of the shadow, discovered 4 satellites of Jupiter, phases near Venus, spots on the Sun. G. Galileo explained the origin of the tides by the rotation of the Earth around its axis. He actively defended the heliocentric system of the world, for which he was put on trial by the Inquisition (1633), which forced him to renounce the teachings of N. Copernicus. Inventor of the telescope (1608), thermometer (1612).
Major writings : "On Motion" (1590), "Mechanics" (1593), "Discourse on Bodies in Water"(1612), "Dialogue on the two main systems of the world - Ptolemaic and Copernican" (1632), "Conversations and mathematical proofs concerning two new branches of science ..." (1638).
Guicciardini Ludovico (1521–1589)- Italian scientist, representative of a Florentine trading company in Antwerp. The creator of the first economic and geographical work in history - "Description of the Netherlands", published in 1567 and withstood 35 editions in 7 languages. This work consisted of two parts: according to modern terminology - sectoral and regional. The first part contained materials on the name of the country, its geographical position, climate, surface structure, soil fertility within the then existing borders of the Netherlands, which included Holland, Belgium, Luxembourg, Northern France. There were also chapters on rivers, on the role of the sea and forests; life, customs, crafts, trade and administration were described. The second part of the book was the main one in terms of volume and was devoted to the characterization of the 17 provinces of the country, and this characterization was not stereotyped, although it had a number of common places similar to the sections in the first part of the book. At the same time, the description of the provinces contained a quantitative description of the economy and indicated the reasons for its development. At the same time, the main attention was paid to natural conditions and economic and geographical location. A large place was occupied by the description of the settlements of each province.
Main labor : "Description of the Netherlands" (1567).
Descartes Rene (Latinized name - Cartesius) (1696-1650)French philosopher, mathematician and naturalist. The creator of a dualistic concept that recognizes opposite and irreducible to each other beginnings - material (“extension”) and spiritual (“thinking”) substances. This concept had a significant impact on the development of philosophy and natural science. R. Descartes advocated experimental knowledge and the practical application of the findings of science; he developed analytic geometry and the theory of mathematical deduction. R. Descartes' goal was to describe nature with the help of mathematical laws. He attached paramount importance to the question of the method of cognition. Focusing on the logic of mathematical knowledge, he made rationalistic deduction the core of his methodology. In his writings, R. Descartes affirmed the ability of the human mind to unlimited knowledge of nature and saw the ultimate goal of knowledge in the dominance of man over the forces of nature, in the discovery and invention of technical means, in the knowledge of causes and effects. R. Descartes outlined the first modern theory winds, clouds and precipitation; gave a correct and detailed description and explanation of the phenomenon of the rainbow.
Major writings : "Discourse on Method" (1637), "Reflection on the First Philosophy" (1641), "Principles of Philosophy" (1644), "The World, or a Treatise on Light" (1664), "Meteors" (1637).
Kepler Johannes (1571–1630)- German mathematician, astronomer and optician. I. Kepler improved the heliocentric system of Copernicus, established new laws of motion of celestial themes. I. Kepler showed that the planets move in ellipses around the Sun (Kepler's first law), the planets move faster when they are closer to the Sun (Kepler's second law), and that the planets' period of revolution is commensurate with their distance from the Sun (Kepler's third law). I. Kepler lived at the time of the opening of the telescope, was a defender Galileo's discoveries and the system of the world of N. Copernicus, according to which the planets move around the Sun, and not around the Earth. I. Kepler explained the origin of tides by the attraction of the Moon.
Major writings : "The Secret of the World" (1596), "New Astronomy" (1609), "Dioptric" (1611).
Rice. . Keplerian Model of the Solar System (1596)
Copernicus Nicholas (1473–1543)- Polish astronomer, mathematician and economist, creator of the heliocentric system of the world. The heliocentric system in the version of N. Copernicus was formulated in the following provisions: a) orbits and celestial spheres do not have a common center; b) the center of the Earth is not the center of the universe, but only the center of mass and orbit of the Moon; c) all the planets move in orbits, the center of which is the Sun, and therefore the Sun is the center of the world; d) the distance between the Earth and the Sun is very small compared to the distance between the Earth and the fixed stars; e) the daily movement of the Sun is imaginary and is caused by the effect of the rotation of the Earth, which rotates once every 24 hours around its axis, which always remains parallel to itself; f) The Earth (together with the Moon, like other planets), revolves around the Sun, and therefore those movements that the Sun seems to make are nothing more than the effect of the Earth's movement; g) this movement of the Earth and other planets explains their location and specific characteristics of the movement of the planets. A new look at the structure of the Universe, presented in gheliocentric systemN. Copernicus contributed to the transition of geography to a new quality.
Major writings : "Comments" (1515),"On the rotations of the celestial spheres" ( 1543).
Rice. . Heliocentric system of the world by N. Copernicus
Mercator (Kremer) Gerard (1512–1594)- Flemish cartographer and geographer. Known as an author map projection bearing his name. G. Mercator first used this conformal cylindrical projection when compiling a navigation map of the world on 18 sheets (1569). In 1532 he worked with Gemma-Friese on the creation of globes of the Earth and the Moon; at the same time he was engaged in the manufacture of precise optical instruments, as well as teaching geography and astronomy. In 1534 G. Mercator created his own workshop for making astronomical instruments and surveying estates. Then he began to develop the mathematical foundations of cartography. In 1537 he issued a map of Palestine on 6 sheets, and in 1538 - a map of the world (on which he first showed the location of the southern mainland). In 1540 he made a map of Flanders. In 1541, G. Mercator created a globe of the Earth, 10 years later - a globe of the Moon, 1551 - a celestial globe depicting stars and constellation figures. In 1544 G. Mercator published a map of Europe on 15 sheets. On it, for the first time, he correctly showed the outlines mediterranean sea. In 1563, G. Mercator compiled a map of Lorraine, in 1564 - the British Isles (on 8 sheets), in 1572 - a new map of Europe on 15 sheets, and in 1578 - engraved maps for the new edition of Ptolemy's Geography ", then began work on the Atlas (this term was first proposed by G. Mercator to refer to a set of maps). The first part of the Atlas with 51 maps of France, Germany and Belgium was published in 1585, the second with 23 maps of Italy and Greece - in 1590 and the third with 36 maps of the British Isles was published after the death of Mercator by his son Rumold in 1595. All maps G. Mercator are distinguished, in comparison with those who preceded them, with greater accuracy, clarity and elegance of decoration, which caused even his contemporaries to call him the luminary of all land writers and the Ptolemy of his age.
Main works: Amplissima Terrae Sanctae descriptio ad utriusque Testamenti intelligentiam (1537), Literarum latinarum, quas italicas, cursoriasque vocant, scribendarum ratio (1540),English, Scotiæ et Hiberniæ nova descriptio"(1564)," Nova et aucta orbis terræ descriptio ad usum navigantium emendate accomodata"(1569), "Chronologia" (1569), " Ptolemäus Karten "(1578), "Chronology" (1569), "Atlas, or Cartographic considerations about the creation of the world and the view of the created" (1595).
Rice. . World map from the atlas of G. Mercator
Rice. . Map of Russia from the atlas of G. Mercator
Munster Sebastian(1489–1552) - German Hebraist scholar, Franciscan friar. Osogreat fame and recognition was his "Universal Cosmography" -an extensive work of six books. Five of them describe countries, primarily European ones. Particularly successful is the description of Germany, which occupied three books. One book containeddescription of the rest of the world. The chapters on Africa and America were filled with fantasticplots. Nevertheless, the book was in demand and withstood many reprints. This is a significant collection of historical, geographical and biological data for that time, which greatly contributed to the spread of geographical knowledge and served as a model for subsequent compilers of cosmography. Presented in a public and entertaining way, the cosmography of S. Munster over the course of a century has withstood 24 editions in the original and has been published many times in translations in Latin, French, Italian, English, and Czech. In addition to maps, it contained portraits of sovereigns, with their coats of arms, and many drawings. The map of Muscovy placed in the cosmography of S. Munster deserves great attention: this is the first experience of such an image of the East European Plain, based on modern more or less reliable news, and not on the legends of classical antiquity.
Main labor : "Dictionarium trilingue" (1530), "Cosmographia" (1544), "Germania descriptio" (1530), "Mappa Europae" (1536), "General Cosmography" (1544).
Rice. . Map of the New World by S. Munster
Rice. . Map of Muscovy S. Munster
Newton Isaac (1643–1727)English physicist, mathematician and astronomer. He formulated the law of universal gravitation and outlined the theory of planetary motion. In a classic"The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy" (1687), he presents the physical laws that determine many natural processes. Based on the analysis of pendulum observations at various latitudes, I. Newton quite accurately determined the shape and dimensions of the Earth, its certainflattening at the poles. Descartes believed that the earth was elongated towards the poles. I. Newton established the environmentmass terrestrial matter, 5–6 times the density of water. The actual average density of the earth's firmament is 5.52 g/cm 3 . I. Newton determined the role of solar heat for terrestrial processes. He believed that if the Earth were in the place of Saturn, all the earth's water would freeze, if it moved to the place of Mercury, it would evaporate. I. Newton derived a mathematical relationship between the wind and sea currents: the force that sets the water in motion is proportional to the difference in the speeds of air and water. Newton created the first scientific theory of tides and explained the causes of tide-forming forces. For a long time, I. Newton taught physical geography, the basis of which was the geography of Varen.
Main works: "The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy" (1687), "General Arithmetic, or the Book of Arithmetical Synthesis and Analysis", "Optics, or a Treatise on Reflections, Refractions, Bendings, and Colors of Light".
Ortelius Abraham (1527–1598)- Flemish cartographer. His first cartographic work was a large map of the world on eight sheets in 1564. In 1565 he published a map of Egypt, and in 1567 a map of Asia. In 1570, the first edition of his "Theatrum Orbis Terrarum" ("Spectacles of the earthly world", "Theatre of the World") was published, which consisted of 70 cardson 53 sheets with long text about the depicted territories and the list of geographicalobjects. The list of authors includes 87 names of cartographers of the Renaissance. Among the maps are a map of the world, maps of continents and individual countries and regions of Europe. Significantthe proportion was historical maps. There is a map of "Russia, or rather, the Greatof the Moscow State” by the Englishman Anthony Jenkinson, who has repeatedly visited Moscow.Among the maps of this collection were the works of G. Mercator. The maps of the atlas of A. Ortelius were repeatedly refined and reprinted all together and separately. In new editions, historical maps occupied an increasing share. These were the cards Ancient Greece, ancient rome, maps of Belgium, Spain, Britain,Germany, Gaul, Pontus Euxinus, Israel and Judea and other territories in relation to past eras. A thorough study of the works of ancient authors allowed A. Ortelius to create an independent historical atlas. In 1578, A. Ortelius published a historical and geographicala dictionary in which the names of geographical objects are given with an explanation of their meaning and meaning.
Major writings : “The spectacle of the earthly world” (“Theater of the World”) (1570), “Andhistorical-geographical dictionary (1578).
Rice. . World map from the atlas of A. Ortelius (1570)
Rice. . Map of Europe from the atlas of A. Ortelius (1572)
Xu Xia-Ke (1586–1641) – Chinese explorer, geologist. Xu devoted more than 30 years of his life to travel. His research made a major contribution to geographical science and for the first time made it possible to identify connections and patterns in the mountain and river systems of China. In 1607, a young explorer sets off on his first trip to Lake Taihu, south of the mouth of the river. Yangtze. This journey marked the beginning of campaigns to the north, south and west of the country, to little-explored areas. In 1609, he undertook a longer journey from the south to the north of China, through the coastal provinces of Jiangsu and Shandong, visiting the famous Mount Taishan in Shandong, and from the coast of the Bohaiwan Bay he went to Beijing. In 1613, Xu set off on a new journey - from the mouth of the river. The Yangtze south through Hangzhou, Shaoxing to Ningbo, from where it runs along the coast of the East China Sea to Leqing. At the same time, he visited the Tiantaishan and Yandanshan mountains in Zhejiang province. After visiting Nanjing, in 1616 Xu headed up the Yangtze to the city of Jiujiang; from here he turned south, visited Lake Poyang in Central China, which is of great navigable importance, and, passing the cities of Poyang, Fulyang, Xioning, Jiande and Pucheng near the border of Fujian with Jiangxi, reached the Wuyishan mountains. On the way back, he visited the Huangshan mountain range, located in the southern part of Anhui Province. In 1618, having repeated the previous route - along the Yangtze valley, Xu from Jiujiang went to the Lushan mountain range and on the way back again visited the Huangshan range. In 1620, the traveler undertook a campaign on the coast of Fujian. He passed from the mouth of the Yangtze to the south through Zhejiang and, reaching Nanping, went down to the sea along the Minjiang valley. The final destination of this journey was the city of Xinhua, located on the coast of the Taiwan Strait, south of Fuzhou. In 1623, Xu visited the mountainous regions of Songshan, Taihe Shan and Huashan, located in the Huang He basin and the lower reaches of the Yangtze, and in 1628 he set off on a great wandering in the South China Mountains. Passing from Nanping in a southwestern direction to the source of the Jiulongjiang River, he descended along the valley of this river to Longqi and further along the seashore, overcoming mountain spurs with difficult passes, deep gorges and turbulent streams, proceeded through Chaoan to Hoiyan (east of Canton). In 1629, Xu retraces north to Beijing, from where he travels northeast to Panshan, located at the Great Wall of China. In the next three years, Xu travels three times to the southeast of the country, laying new routes in the South China mountains, he visits the eastern part of Zhejiang. Xu's last journey to southwestern China was the largest and lasted from 1636 to 1640. Xu headed from Jiangyin to the southwest, then the traveler along the valley of the Liujiang River descended to the south of Guangxi province, bypassed it along the border with Guangdong and Vietnam and returned to the north of Guangxi through Yongning, continuing from Yishan on his way northwest to the present capital of the province Guizhou - Guiyang. Returning through Xingyi and Anshun to Kunming, Xu entered the most difficult part of his journey - westward through the high ridges of western Yunnan to the borders of Burma. Here he crossed the upper reaches of the Mekong and Salween rivers and reached the final point of his journey - Mount Jijiushan, located near the Burmese border. Xu's path ran mainly through sparsely populated and not at all inhabited mountainous regions.
Major writings : "Notes on Xu Xia-ke's travels".
