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Topic "SLAVIC PEOPLES OF CENTRAL AND SOUTH-EASTERN EUROPE"
1.Introduction 3 1.1 History of the Slavs 4-5 1.2. Ethnogenesis of the Slavs 5-6 2.Languages 6 2.1. Craft 6-7 3. Religion 8 4. The Epic of Mark Kraljevic 9 5. Who was involved in the treatment of diseases? ten
Introduction
The SLAVS are the largest group of European peoples, united by a common origin and linguistic affinity in the Indo-European language system. The Slavs, like all modern peoples, arose as a result of complex ethnic processes and are a mixture of previous heterogeneous ethnic groups. The history of the Slavs is inextricably linked with the history of the emergence and settlement of Indo-European tribes. Four thousand years ago, a single Indo-European community begins to disintegrate. The formation of the Slavic tribes took place in the process of separating them from the numerous tribes of a large Indo-European family. In Central and Eastern Europe, a language group is separated, which, as shown by genetic data, included the ancestors of the Germans, Balts and Slavs. They occupied a vast territory: from the Vistula to the Dnieper, individual tribes reached the Volga, crowding the Finno-Ugrians. In the 2nd millennium BC. The Germanic-Balto-Slavic language group also experienced fragmentation processes: the Germanic tribes went to the West, beyond the Elbe, while the Balts and Slavs remained in Eastern Europe. The words "Slavs" in those ancient times did not have. There were people, but differently named. One of the names - Wends, comes from the Celtic vindos, which means "white. This word has survived to this day in the Estonian language. Ptolemy and Jordan believe that the Wends are the oldest collective name of all Slavs who lived between the Elbe and the Don at that time. divided into three subgroups: southern (Bulgarians, Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, Macedonians, Montenegrins, Bosnians), eastern (Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians) and western (Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, Lusatians). The total number of Slavs in the world is about 300 million people, including Bulgarians 8.5 million, Serbs about 9 million, Croats 5.7 million, Slovenes 2.3 million, Macedonians about 2 million, Montenegrins less than 1 million, Bosnians about 2 million ., Russians 146 million (of them in the Russian Federation 120 million), Ukrainians 46 million, Belarusians 10.5 million, Poles 44.5 million, Czechs 11 million, Slovaks less than 6 million, Luzhichians - about 60 thousand The Slavs make up the bulk of the population of the Russian Federation, the Republics of Poland, the Czech Republic, Croatia, Slovakia, Bulgaria, the State Community of Serbia and Montenegro, live also in the Baltic republics, Hungary, Greece, Germany, Austria, Italy, America and Australia. Most of the Slavs are Christians. The data of archeology and linguistics connect the ancient Slavs with a vast area of Central and Eastern Europe, bounded in the west by the Elbe and the Oder, in the north by the Baltic Sea, in the east by the Volga, in the south by the Adriatic.
History of the Slavs
The Slavs were engaged in arable farming, cattle breeding, various crafts, lived in neighboring communities. Numerous wars and territorial movements contributed to the disintegration by the 6th – 7th centuries. generic ties. In the 6-8 centuries. many of the Slavic tribes united in tribal unions and created the first state formations: in the 7th century. the first Bulgarian kingdom and the state of Samo arose, which included the lands of the Slovaks, in the 8th century. - the Serbian state of Raska, in the 9th century. - The Great Moravian state, which absorbed the lands of the Czechs, as well as the first state of the Eastern Slavs - Kievan Rus, the first independent Croatian principality and the Montenegrin state of Duklja. Then - in the 9-10th centuries. - Christianity began to spread among the Slavs, which quickly became the dominant religion.
From the second half of the 19th century. the desire of many Slavic peoples to create their own, independent states became obvious. On the Slavic lands, socio-political organizations began to operate, contributing to the further political awakening of the Slavic peoples who did not have their own statehood (Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, Macedonians, Poles, Lusatians, Czechs, Ukrainians, Belarusians). Unlike the Russians, whose statehood was not lost even during the Horde yoke and had a nine-century history, as well as the Bulgarians and Montenegrins who gained independence after Russia's victory in the war with Turkey in 1877-1878, most of the Slavic peoples were still fighting for independence.
National oppression and the difficult economic situation of the Slavic peoples in the late 19th - early 20th centuries. caused several waves of their emigration to more developed European countries in the USA and Canada, to a lesser extent - France, Germany. The total number of Slavic peoples in the world at the beginning of the 20th century. was about 150 million people (Russians - 65 million, Ukrainians - 31 million, Belarusians 7 million; Poles 19 million, Czechs 7 million, Slovaks 2.5 million; Serbs and Croats 9 million, Bulgarians 5 , 5 million, Slovenes 1.5 million) At that time, the bulk of the Slavs lived in Russia (107.5 million people), Austria-Hungary (25 million people), Germany (4 million people) , American countries (3 million people).
After the First World War (1914-1918), international acts fixed the new borders of Bulgaria, the emergence of the multinational Slavic states of Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia (where, however, some Slavic peoples dominated over others), the restoration of national statehood among the Poles. In the early 1920s, the creation of their own states - socialist republics - of Ukrainians and Belarusians, who entered the USSR, was announced; however, the tendency towards Russification of the cultural life of these East Slavic peoples - which became apparent during the existence of Russian Empire- persisted.
At the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries. became again topical issue about the commonality of the destinies of all Eastern Slavs: Ukrainians, Belarusians, Great Russians, as well as southern Slavs. In connection with the intensification of the Slavic movement in Russia and abroad, in 1996-1999, several agreements were signed, which are a step towards the formation of a union state of Russia and Belarus. In June 2001, a congress of the Slavic peoples of Belarus, Ukraine and Russia was held in Moscow; in September 2002, the Slavic Party of Russia was founded in Moscow. In 2003, the State Community of Serbia and Montenegro was formed, which declared itself the legal successor of Yugoslavia. The ideas of Slavic unity are regaining their relevance
After the February Revolution of 1917, attempts were made to create the Ukrainian and Belarusian statehood. In 1922, Ukraine and Belarus, together with other Soviet republics, were the founders of the USSR (in 1991 they declared themselves sovereign states). The totalitarian regimes established in the Slavic countries of Europe in the second half of the 1940s with the dominance of the administrative-command system had a deforming effect on ethnic processes (violation of the rights of ethnic minorities in Bulgaria, ignorance of the autonomous status of Slovakia by the leadership of Czechoslovakia, aggravation of interethnic contradictions in Yugoslavia, etc.) .). This was one of the most important reasons for the national crisis in the Slavic countries of Europe, which led here, starting from 1989-1990, to significant changes in the socio-economic and ethnopolitical situation. Modern processes of democratization of the socio-economic, political and spiritual life of the Slavic peoples create qualitatively new opportunities for expanding interethnic contacts and cultural cooperation, which have strong traditions. The territory of modern Slavic states corresponds more or less to Central Europe, Eastern Europe and North Asia and consists of the following countries: Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Transnistria (unrecognized state), Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Serbia, Slovenia, Croatia, Montenegro, Poland, Czech Republic and Slovakia.
Ethnogenesis Slavs
This is the process of the formation of the ancient Slavic ethnic community, which led to the separation of the Slavs from the conglomerate of Indo-European tribes. Currently, there is no generally accepted version of the formation of the Slavic ethnos.
One of the major Slavic historians, the Czech scientist P.I. Shafarik believed that the ancestral home of the Slavs should be sought in Europe, in the vicinity of their related tribes of the Celts, Germans, Balts and Thracians. He believes that the Slavs already in ancient times occupied vast areas of Central and Eastern Europe, and in the IV century. BC. under the onslaught of the Celts, they moved beyond the Carpathians.
However, even at this time they occupy very vast territories - in the west - from the mouth of the Vistula to the Neman, in the north - from Novgorod to the sources of the Volga and Dnieper, in the east - to the Don. Further, in his opinion, it went through the lower Dnieper and Dniester along the Carpathians to the Vistula and along the watershed of the Oder and Vistula to the Baltic Sea.
In the late XIX - early XX centuries. acad. A.A. Shakhmatov developed the idea of two Slavic ancestral homelands: the region within which the Proto-Slavic language was formed (the first ancestral homeland), and the area that the Proto-Slavic tribes occupied on the eve of settling in Central and Eastern Europe (the second ancestral homeland). He proceeds from the fact that initially a Balto-Slavic community emerged from the Indo-European group, which was autochthonous in the Baltic. After the collapse of this community, the Slavs occupied the territory between the lower reaches of the Neman and the Western Dvina (the first ancestral home). It was here that, in his opinion, the Proto-Slavic language was formed, which later formed the basis of all Slavic languages. In connection with the great migration of peoples, the Germans at the end of the 2nd century AD. move south and release the river basin. Vistula, where the Slavs come (the second ancestral home). Here the Slavs are divided into two branches: western and eastern. The western branch moves to the area of the r. Elbe and becomes the basis for modern West Slavic peoples; the southern branch, after the collapse of the Hunnic empire (second half of the 5th century AD), was divided into two groups: one of them inhabited the Balkans and the Danube (the basis of modern South Slavic peoples), the other - the Dnieper and Dniester (the basis of modern East Slavic peoples).
The most popular hypothesis among linguists about the ancestral home of the Slavs is the Wislo-Dnieper. According to such scientists as M. Vasmer (Germany), F.P. Filin, S. B. Bernstein (Russia), V. Georgiev (Bulgaria), L. Niderle (Czech Republic), K. Moshinsky (Poland) and others ., the ancestral home of the Slavs was located between the middle course of the Dnieper in the east and the upper reaches of the Western Bug and Vistula in the west, as well as from the upper reaches of the Dniester and Southern Bug in the south to Pripyat in the north. Thus, the ancestral home of the Slavs is defined by them as modern northwestern Ukraine, southern Belarus and southeastern Poland. However, in the studies of individual scientists, there are certain variations. SB Bernshtein supports A.A. Shakhmatov's hypothesis about the initial division of the Slavs into two groups: western and eastern; from the latter, the eastern and southern groups emerged in due time. This explains the great closeness of the East Slavic and South Slavic languages and a certain isolation, in particular phonetic, of the West Slavic languages.
The problem of the ethnogenesis of the Slavs was repeatedly addressed by B.A. Rybakov. His concept is also connected with the Vistula-Dnieper hypothesis and is based on the unity of the territories of the Slavic ethnos for two millennia: from the Oder in the west to the left bank of the Dnieper in the east.
According to the degree of their proximity to each other, Slavic languages are usually divided into 3 groups: East Slavic, South Slavic and West Slavic. The distribution of Slavic languages within each group has its own characteristics. Each Slavic language includes a literary language with all its internal varieties and its own territorial dialects... Dialectal fragmentation and stylistic structure within each Slavic language are not the same.
Branches of Slavic languages: East Slavic branch: Belarusian, Old Russian, Old Novgorod dialect, West Russian, Russian Ukrainian, Ruthenian
The ancient Slavs also developed handicraft production. They made household items from clay, wood, bone, horn. They knew textile production... The processing of metal, from which agricultural implements and weapons were made, were distinguished by a high level. The Slavs also knew how to make jewelry from non-ferrous metals. Those tribes that lived on the seashore and in general on waterways knew how to build single-tree boats that served for long journeys. The Slavs traded with non-Slavic peoples: they sold prisoner-of-war slaves, bought weapons, jewelry, and precious metals. Coin was used for calculations foreign origin, but the small number of coins found during excavations indicates that the money was used irregularly. The Slavs lived in huts built of wood and covered with straw, reeds or wood. The dwelling had clay floors and stone ovens.
The Slavs of the 6th century possessed all the typical merits and demerits of barbarians. Byzantine writers recognized the courage of the Slavs, their love of freedom, honesty, “democratic instinct”, hospitality, indicated the existence of patriarchal slavery in them. But the Slavs were cruel in the war. Personal courage, combined with ferocity, replaced the Slavs for what they lacked in the art of war and in weapons in a clash with the Eastern Roman Empire.
In the field of family life of the Eastern Slavs, the period of the formation and development of the Old Russian nationality was characterized by the withering away of the clan and the strengthening of the monogamous family. Many ancestral customs have become a thing of the past. Russkaya Pravda limited blood feud to the circle of only the closest relatives (parents, children, brothers, nephews), and there was already a noticeable desire to replace it with monetary fines. In the foreground is a large family, which includes parents and “their adult children with offspring. They brought a dowry to the family of the future husband. At the same time, a feudal clan was formed and strengthened, the economic basis of which was the ownership of land and serfs. The surviving ancient buildings and materials of archaeological excavations indicate the high development of wooden and stone architecture. Buildings built of wood were distinguished a wealth of architectural forms, in particular the complexity of the silhouettes of houses, crowned with many intricate roofs and domes; stone buildings, mainly churches * were erected at first according to Byzantine models of brick, but they also had a number of distinctive ancient Russian features. public organization... Even from the period of Indo-European unity, the Slavs carried out the developed family relationships, single marriage and types of blood, by the father, kinship. Proto-Aryan words testify to this: father, mother, son, daughter, brother, sister, strict, father-in-law, brother-in-law, yatrov (wife of brother-in-law), daughter-in-law. After that, in the era of life together, they developed terms to denote kinship by mother and wife (ouch, maternal uncle, etc.). The patriarchal Proto-Slavic family, inhabiting the whole, constituted a community united by ties of blood kinship, otherwise - a clan. The clan community bore a common name from its ancestor (with the ending in ichi, ovichi, vtsy), jointly owned property and was governed by its elder (headman, ruler, ruler), who maintained peace and harmony in the community, resolved misunderstandings in its environment and ordered labor of its members. Originally, the elder was the natural head of the family — the father, grandfather, sometimes great-grandfather, and, upon death, his eldest or most capable (by choice) son. The clan, growing later, broke up into several clans, which, realizing their kinship, formed the next stage of social organization - brotherhood (the Montenegrins still retain traces of this organization in the form of brotherhoods celebrating a common church holiday of one saint who replaced the old ancestor - the forefather ). The brotherhood, expanding in the future, or uniting with other brotherhoods, formed a tribe, headed by zhupans, governors, princes, who had the meaning of clan elders and leaders in the war.
Religion: The religion of the ancient Slavs is a set of religious beliefs and attitudes that developed in pre-Christian Slavic culture, as well as ways of organizing spiritual experience and behavior. Historically, the religion of the Slavs goes back to the religion of the most ancient Indo-Europeans. It acquired a relative integrity and originality in the era of Slavic unity, which lasted until the second half of the 1st millennium AD. The gradual settlement led to the emergence of differences in religious beliefs and cults; in addition, some forms of religious life appeared, borrowed by the Slavs from neighboring peoples. Information about the religion of the ancient Slavs was preserved mainly in the oral tradition. The only written source, "Velesova Kniga", raises serious doubts among experts about its authenticity. Slavic ideas about the sacred were associated with the ideas of superhuman strength, life-giving and filling existence with the ability to grow. There was a developed system of concepts denoting supernatural forces. The highest category was made up of the gods. The concept "God" means - giving a share, an inheritance, wealth. The gods, as in ancient religion, were divided into heavenly, underground and earthly. Perun, the patron god of princely power, squads and military craft, belonged to the heavenly gods. He had the anthropomorphic appearance of a warrior, sometimes equestrian. Stribog is the god of atmospheric phenomena, and above all of the wind. Dazh-god or Dazhdbog is a giving god who correlated with the sun. Hora (solar - compare Horus or Horus among the ancient Egyptians) and Simargl (the mythological image of a huge eagle correlated with the upper world). The underground gods include, first of all, the Earth, the "Mother of the earth," "The bread-maker", which among the Slavs does not have an erotic coloration and is subsequently identified with Mokosh. Mokosh is a female deity who is endowed with only positive qualities. However, the Slavs also had ideas about evil female deities who needed to make bloody human sacrifices. Belee was considered the male underground god, who was also called the animal god and was believed to bestow abundant offspring, and therefore wealth. Clairvoyance was considered another property of Beles. Earthly gods are the gods of the world inhabited by people. Their responsibility extends to cultural activities, social and family relations, everyday life and the environment. First of all, this is Svarog - the god of fire, put at the service of man. The succession of generations originating from common ancestors is personified in the image of the Family, next to which women in labor are mentioned - virgins of fate who determine the fate, the fate of the newborn. There were ideas about the gods associated with the professional pursuits of people. Along with ideas about higher gods, there were beliefs in gods of a lower level, spirits, werewolves. A significant detachment was called demons, who were attributed to malice and destructive power. The demons were classified as spirits dangerous to visit places: the wilderness (wood goblin), swamps (swamp, swamp) whirlpools (water). Midday inhabited the field. Outwardly, demons were represented in human, animal, or mixed forms. The most dangerous group was a group of half-demons of human origin - these are people who have not lost their way of life - ghouls, ghouls, witches, mermaids. They harm the human race and must be feared. There was also the personification of diseases: passing, fever, mara, kikimora, etc. The Slavs had a belief in the immortality of the soul, in its posthumous existence. During the burial, it was necessary to observe all the subtleties of the ceremony, and only in this case the soul finds peace and subsequently will help the descendants. Slavs resorted to different form burials, often cremation. A special place in the understanding of the world among the Slavs was occupied by water. They believed that water is the element that connects the living and the other world.
The epic of Mark Kraljevich:
Marko Kraljevic (1335 - May 17, 1395) - the last ruler of the Kingdom of Prilep in Western Macedonia (1371-1395), self-appointed: samodrzhts vsѣm Srblѥm (rus: autocrat of all Serbs), hero of the epic of the Serbian peoples, historical figure. In songs and legends, he acts as a fighter against the Turkish enslavers, a public defender. The oldest recordings of songs about Marko Kraljevic belong to XVI century... The epic image of Marko Kralevich is heavily mythologized; the features of Svyatogor are transferred to it. In the Serbian epic, Marko-Korolevic plays a prominent role, everywhere being the protector of the Serbian people against the Ottomans, with whom he is at war or friendship. Many Serbian epics or heroic (youth) songs are dedicated to him.
The people gave their favorite a mythical character: they gave him a pitchfork in posestrim, gave him a voice better than a pitchfork, made him live for 300 years and ride a horse Shartse, who sometimes speaks with the owner in a human voice and whom Marko-Korolevich loves more than his brother. The death of Marko the Prince is surrounded by mystery. According to some stories, Marko-Korolevich was killed by some Karavlash governor with a golden arrow in the mouth when the Turks fought with HYPERLINK "https://ru.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%D0%9A%D0%B0 % D1% 80% D0% B0% D0% B2% D0% BB% D0% B0% D1% 85% D0% B8 & action = edit & redlink = 1 "\ o" Caravlakhs (page missing) "with caravlachs and Marko-Korolevich helped the Turks. Others say that Sharats somehow went too deep into the water, so that both the horse and the rider drowned, and they still show this place near Negotin. According to third stories, in one battle so many people were killed that both people and horses swam in blood. Marko-Korolevich raised his hands to the sky and exclaimed: "God, what should I do." God had mercy and carried him along with his horse into one cave, where Marko the Prince and sleeps to this day. His sword is hidden under a large stone, but little by little it moves out of the rock: the horse, standing in front of the master, is gradually chewing wheat from a large bag. When the whole sword comes out and the horse chews up all the wheat, then Marko the Prince will wake up and go to protect his people. Finally, there is in V. Karadzic's collection a song about the death of Marko-Korolevich, which tells that he killed his Sharts, broke his sword and threw his buzdovan (battle club) so that they would not get to another, and he himself, having written his will, lay down under a tall tree and fell asleep. The hegumen and the novice who walked by did his will and buried him.
The hero-defender Marko-Korolevich is only in the epic and the lips of the people in Serbia; in the same places where, according to epics, he acted (in Old Serbia, in the vicinity of Prilep and the Kosovo field), a bad memory has been preserved about him: there he is called Marko the rapist (Marko-zulumџiјa), Marko-rip-head (Marko -deli-bash). According to Goethe, Marko-Korolevich. corresponds to Greek Hercules and Persian Rustem. We can say that Marko-Korolevich is the same folk hero as our Ilya Muromets.
Who was involved in the treatment of diseases?
Healing and ceremonies were used in the treatment of diseases. Healers, sorcerers, sorcerers, witches, triches, sorcerers, sorcerers were engaged in this. They possessed knowledge and abilities that helped a person solve both physical illnesses and other problems.
The most forbidden Christian church the concept of "Magus" is also one of the oldest names for a person with supernatural powers. Magi, sorcerers were people of a special rank who influenced the state and social life. Since the priests from ancient times were called sorcerers among the Slavs, and their activities were called sorcery, then later this word became synonymous with magic and sorcery. The Magi knew many meteorological signs, the power and effect of various herbs and skillfully used hypnosis. In some cases, the Slavs and the princes were perceived as magicians or were them, being both warriors and magicians. The Magi also possessed serious knowledge of alternative medicine. They successfully treated patients with herbal and animal medicines, were well versed in medicinal plants... They were treated with minerals, metals, ash and secret means; knew diet therapy and reflexology earlier and better than the Chinese; perfectly mastered acupressure and various types of massage; chiropractic and manual therapy; mastered bone-setting and the art of joint treatment; knew how to successfully heal wounds of different origins and injury; were proficient in surgery, including energy; possessed obstetric and gynecological methods; were able to use physical and therapeutic means of treatment: moxibustion, acupuncture, bloodletting, energy massage, compresses and applications, mud therapy, mineral waters and aerosols, clay therapy, hydrotherapy, cold therapy, etc .; originally treated rheumatism, sciatica, sprains of muscles and ligaments, teeth and toothaches, blood pressure, eye diseases, diseases of the heart and blood vessels; effectively treated, even today incurable, complex mental illnesses and much more. And the training of a knowledgeable person began with the study of the foundations of the universe, knowing which it was possible to understand the essence of various therapeutic techniques.
One of the most important limitrophic zones on the planet - Eastern Europe, stretching in a wide strip from the Baltic to the Aegean Sea - is a single whole geographically, historically, geopolitically, with all the relative diversity of ethnic groups, languages and religions in this space. This means that it is unthinkable and incorrect to consider the Slavic and non-Slavic countries and peoples of Eastern Europe in isolation from each other. At the same time, for more than half a century in all universities of our country, Slavic studies have been studied and taught in separate departments and within separate courses, while the history of Greece, Albania, Romania, Hungary modestly huddles in general courses of foreign (European) history. As a result, students who have gone through such an education system do not have a coherent picture of Eastern Europe.
A different approach was in pre-revolutionary Russia. Although both the early and late Slavophils really paid the main attention to the foreign Slavs, they never forgot about their foreign-speaking neighbors. We will not now dwell on the attention that in Russia in the 19th - early 20th centuries was paid to the Christians of the East (Georgians, Armenians, Arabs, Assyrians, Copts, Ethiopians), but we will only touch on the peoples of Eastern Europe. Russian Slavophiles of various directions, as a rule, distinguished three categories among the Slavic peoples: Orthodox Slavs, Slavic Catholics (except for Poles) and Poles. Their attitude towards non-Slavic peoples differed in a similar way.
Speaking about the Greeks, one should bear in mind, first of all, the chance that Russia missed in the first third of the 19th century. When the prominent Russian diplomat and patriot Ioannis Kapodistrias became the first president of independent Greece, St. Petersburg not only did not take care of the stability of his power, but imposed a Western parliamentary constitution instead of organic Orthodox laws on Greece. Kapodistrias was soon killed, and Greece came under the influence of the Western powers. The Russian emperors did not abandon their attempts to return her to the orbit of their influence, but even when the Grand Duchess Olga Konstantinovna, a Russian patriot and pupil of the Slavophile General Kireev, became the queen of the Hellenes, she found herself isolated in the political arena of Greece and could not seriously influence even her husband George I of Glucksburg. By the end of the 19th century, against the background of the Greeks' distrust of Russia, anti-Greek sentiments had grown among Russian thinkers and publicists. Only Konstantin Leontiev and Tertiy Filippov clearly gave preference to the Greeks over the Bulgarians and Serbs, but on the whole Russian Pan-Slavism acquired an increasingly pronounced anti-Greek orientation. They feared giving Constantinople to the Greeks more than leaving it in the hands of the Turks. But even at this time, the voice of the prominent Russian Slavic scholar Vladimir Lamansky, who created the doctrine of the unity of the Greco-Slavic "middle world" and the need for the closest cultural interaction between Russia and Greece, did not stop.
Hungary after 1848 and especially after 1867 had a well-deserved reputation as a cruel persecutor and oppressor of the Slavs and Romanians (in fairness, we note that after the defeat in the First World War, the situation of the Hungarians themselves in Czechoslovakia and Romania will become incomparably worse - they will turn out to be the same disenfranchised lower caste deprived of elementary human rights, which is now the case for Russians in Latvia and Estonia). The quite sensible position of Nikolai Danilevsky, according to which the Hungarians, along with the Romanians and the Greeks, should "willingly or unwillingly" enter the Slavic federation, contributed to the fact that certain episodes of Russian negotiations public figures with Hungarian politicians took place. Magyar stubbornness made itself felt, and nevertheless, certain shifts towards the recognition of national rights for the Slavs and Romanians of Transleitania took place. The Russians did not experience such problems with the Hungarians as they did with the Austrian Poles.
Romania in during the XIX century has always remained in the field of vision of the best Russian thinkers and statesmen, although now this is thoroughly forgotten. Alexander I abandoned Moldavia and Wallachia just as recklessly as he abandoned Galicia and Bukovina, Serbia and Greece, but under Nicholas I the Danube principalities were ruled by Count Kiselev. Truth, Crimean War transferred Romania to the camp of the principal enemies of Russia and the Greco-Slavic culture, and only Bessarabia (present-day Moldova), saved by Russia in 1812, retained its former identity and did not give in to Romanization one iota even in the terrible years from 1918 to 1940.
The XX century has changed a lot in the destinies and self-consciousness of the peoples of Eastern Europe. First of all, let us note the unique role of Romania - the only one of two dozen Eastern European countries, which in the past century gave birth to a large galaxy of scientists, intellectuals, and world-class writers. The legacy of Codreanu and Eliade entered the golden fund of all mankind. Since the unprecedented spiritual and cultural upsurge in Romania in the 20th century came almost entirely from Orthodoxy, this could contribute to building a bridge between Russia and Romania. Unfortunately, the issue of Moldova and its identity is so fundamental that concessions on it are impossible, and this makes rapprochement with the Romanians extremely problematic.
But if Orthodox Romanians for Russians remain "strangers among their own", then before our eyes unique opportunity to see "our own among strangers" in Hungarian Catholics. That call modern world- the world of "tolerance", abortion, gay pride parades and private central banks - which Hungary abandoned, would deserve praise even if there were serious contradictions between Russians and Hungarians. But there are no such contradictions. Hungary's territorial claim to the Magyar-inhabited cities and villages of Transcarpathia like Beregovo, which became part of the USSR in 1947, does not affect the interests of the Great Russians and Little Russians and may well be satisfied. The service that the Hungarian Jobbik party rendered to Russia quite recently, having achieved exclusion from the alliance of the European right-wing parties of Tyagnibok's Svoboda, is so great that it would be nice to thank the Hungarians. In conclusion, let us refer to the Italian politician, the leader of Italian Eurasianism and a great friend of Russia, Claudio Mutti, who in 2012 devoted an entire article to proving the inevitability of Hungary's future as a member of the Eurasian Union (perhaps alongside the European Union) and as a Russian outpost in Eastern Europe. Perhaps Hungary can really share this role with Slovakia.
The people of Greece and Cyprus, pressed on both sides by the greedy European Union and Erdogan's neo-Ottoman project, are turning towards Russia and the planned Eurasian Union before our eyes. The recent triumphant trip of Alexander Dugin and his interviews with Greek magazines - bright to certificate. If we remember that the authoritative professor Dimitris Kitsikis rehabilitated at a new level Lamansky's concept of the Greco-Slavic "middle world", then the prospect of a turn of Greece and Cyprus towards Russia becomes quite realistic.
Finally, Russians should abandon stereotypes about Albania. Today, admiration for the European Union and the United States in this country (unlike Kosovo) is no more than in Serbia, Montenegro or Bulgaria, but the attitude towards Russians is even warmer. Affects half a century of the Stalinist regime, when all Albanians learned Russian, in contrast to the Yugoslavs; but the real absence of contradictions between our peoples is also reflected. Thus, Albania, especially after the restoration of justice in Kosovo, may well become an additional support for Russia in Eastern Europe.
A similar reassessment of the roles of "friends" and "aliens" can be made, of course, in relation to the Slavs. Perhaps the Russians do not always realize that the Poles and Croats, Czechs and Serbs are no longer what we knew them in tsarist or Soviet times. But this is a topic for another conversation.
Summary of theoretical questions
Study plan of the topic
1. Tribes and peoples of Eastern Europe in antiquity.
2. Influence of geographical features: natural environment and people.
3. Eastern Slavs in the VII-VIII centuries.
Basic concepts: Indo-European community, paganism, tribal unions, military democracy, veche, prince, squad, tribute.
The Slavs are among the Indo-Europeans (Aryans). These peoples with related languages (Indo-European language family) inhabit a significant part of the Eurasian continent. Indo-Europeans (Aryans), in addition to the Slavs, are: Germans, Celts, Romans, Greeks, Iranians, Hindus. Linguists have established that the division of the Indo-European language into separate branches (Indo-Iranian, Slavic, Germanic) occurred at the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. The question of where the Europeans came from remains open. According to the most convincing versions, their roots go back to Asia Minor in the 7th millennium BC, Northern Mesopotamia, Western Syria, and the Armenian Highlands. There is an assumption that the homeland of the Aryans is the Chelyabinsk region. The separation of the ancient Slavs from the Indo-European unity took place in the II - I millennium BC. The general self-name "Slavs" (in ancient times - "Slovene") means verbal, speaking in contrast to other tribes, speaking in incomprehensible languages(dumb, Germans). In the VI century. AD the Slavs have already been mentioned several times in foreign sources. The era of the Great Nations Migration, which put an end to the Roman Empire, displaced the Slavic tribes, which had been invaded by the Germans and the steppe nomads - the Huns. The Slavs, pushed by the increase in their numbers, were forced to look for new places to live. At that time, they advanced into the territory of the Balkan Peninsula. The first wave of the Great Migration was associated with the Germans. In the second - third centuries, across the Russian Plain from north to south - from the regions of the Baltic and Denmark - to the Crimea, to the Balkans and from there - to South Asia- the Germanic tribes of the Goths moved. The Gothic historian Jordan has a mention of the Mordovians, Vesi, Mary, Esthes and the Onega Chud, which became part of the Gothic kingdom, created by the leader of the Goths Germanarich and extending to the entire Russian Plain. Under the pressure of the Huns and Slavs, the Goths were driven out of the Black Sea region to the west, setting in motion other Germanic tribes bordering on the Roman Empire.
So consistently, for almost a whole millennium, the southern steppes of present-day Russia were the subject of a dispute between past tribes: the Goths were replaced by the Huns, the Huns by the Avars, the Avars by the Ugrians and Khazars, the Khazars by the Pechenegs, the Pechenegs by the Cumans, and the Cumans by the Tatars. Beginning with the Huns, Asia sent one nomadic tribe after another to Europe. Penetrating through the Urals or the Caucasus in the Black Sea region, the nomads kept close to the Black Sea coasts, in the steppe zone, convenient for nomadism, and did not go far to the north, into the forest spaces of present-day central Russia. The forests here saved the permanent local population from the final defeat of the alien hordes, which consisted mainly of slavs and finns .
As for the Slavs, the most ancient place of their residence in Europe was, apparently, the northern slopes of the Carpathian Mountains, where the Slavs under the name of Wends, Antes and Sklavens were known even in Roman, Gothic and Hunnic times. From here the Slavs dispersed in different directions: to the south (Balkan Slavs), to the west (Czechs, Moravians, Poles) and to the east (Russian Slavs). The eastern branch of the Slavs came to the Dnieper probably as early as the 7th century. and, gradually settling, reached Lake Ilmenya and the upper Oka.
In the middle of the 1st millennium A.D. among the Slavs, the process of disintegration of the primitive communal system was coming to an end. This was facilitated by the widespread use of iron, the development of agriculture and cattle breeding, the birth of handicrafts. The area of settlement of the Union of Sklavins was the lands to the west of the Dniester, and tribal union antov - the Dniester and the Middle Dnieper. At the turn of the 5-6 centuries. the ants, together with the sklavins, fought against Byzantine Empire... In the VIII - IX centuries. Slavs are divided into three large groups:
- South Slavs ( Sklavins - the ancestors of the Bulgarians, Macedonians, the Serbor-Croatian people);
- Western Slavs (Wends - the ancestors of Poles, Czechs, Slovaks);
- Eastern Slavs (Antes - the ancestors of Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians).
The problem of the origin and settlement of the Slavs still remains controversial in historical science, but in general, different points of view are reduced to two concepts (see Fig. 6).
| Migration Plain) |
Rice. 6 "Concepts of the origin and settlement of the Slavs."
2. Influence of geographical features: natural environment and people.
The interaction of a person with the environment in the process of production activities largely influences the national character. The following factors influenced the formation of the society of the Eastern Slavs:
1. Huge spaces (colonization of territories).
2. Difficult climatic conditions (continental natural environment, the presence of enormous natural resources led to an extensive type of agriculture due to the expansion of cultivated areas; uniformity of economic activity).
3. Neighborhood with the nomadic peoples of Eurasia.
4. The predominance of community traditions.
Ancient Slavic tribes played an important role in the ethnic geography of Eastern Europe in the 1st millennium AD. NS. The earliest written evidence, dating back to the 1st – 2nd centuries, says that they occupied a large area of Central and Eastern Europe. Ancient historians and geographers of this period - Pliny, Tacitus, Claudius Ptolemy - they were known under the name of "Wends", a group of tribes that lived, according to their information, in the territory from the north to the Carpathian Mountains in the south, along the banks of the Vistula River (Vistula) ... The name "Slavs" is sometimes associated with the name of one of the tribes of the Wends ("Suovens" according to Ptolemy), which later becomes the main one for the designation of the entire ethnic group. Gothic historian of the 6th century Jordan has already reported about three related tribal alliances - Venets, Antes and Sklavens, and he called the territory from the Dniester to the Dnieper as the place of residence of the Antes, and from the Sava to the upper Vistula to the Dniester. Byzantine authors of the 6th-7th centuries Procopius of Caesarea, Theophylact Simokatta and others described the Slavs inhabiting the Danube and the north of the Balkan Peninsula.
Modern historical science, based on this fragmentary information, as well as on the data of archeology, ethnology and place names, has generated quite a lot of theories about the origin and place of the initial settlement of the Slavs. However, most of these hypotheses agree that the Slavs are the autochthonous population of Central and Eastern Europe, and the main period of their separation into an independent ethnos from the Indo-European linguistic community falls on the 1st millennium BC. NS. The main territory of the initial settlement of the Slavs (in a broad sense) can be considered the lands from the Oder in the west to the middle reaches of the Dnieper in the east and from the coast of the Baltic Sea (between the Vistula and the Oder) in the north to the Northern Carpathian region in the south. On this territory, there are traces of several archaeological cultures that took part in the ethnogenesis of the Slavs: Luzhitskaya, Pomorskaya, Pshevorskaya, Zarubinetskaya, Chernyakhovskaya and some others. Most researchers consider the cultures of the Prague type (Prague-Penkovo and Prague-Korczak) to be the immediate predecessors of the Slavs, the distribution area of which fits into the delineated space.
The great migration of peoples and the folding of separate Slavic groups
In the I-II centuries. n. NS. the ancient Slavs coexisted in the north with the Germans and Balts, who were also part of the northern group of Indo-European tribes. In the southeast lived the Indo-Iranian tribes - the Scythians and Sarmatians, in the south - the Thracians and Illyrians, in the west - the Germans. Further settlement and ethnic history of the Slavs are closely related to significant movements of the Germanic, Scythian-Sarmatian and other tribes.
In the II-V centuries. Germanic tribes of Goths and Gepids made the transition from the southern coast of the Baltic Sea and the lower reaches of the Vistula, through the Slavic lands, to the Northern Black Sea coast. Apparently, under the influence of this advance among the Slavs, isolation into the eastern and western branches is outlined. In the IV-VII centuries. in a huge space Central Asia and Eastern Europe, many tribes are in motion. This process is known as the Great Nations Migration. In the second half of the 4th century. made a transition to the west through the Don, the Northern Black Sea region to the Central and Hunnic tribal union. This union was formed in the II-IV centuries. as a result of the mixing of the Turkic-speaking tribes of the Xiongnu (Sünnu), who originally lived in, with the autochthonous population of the Southern Urals and the Ugric tribes. The Huns defeated the Sarmatian-Alanian tribes that occupied the territories between the Caucasus, Don and Volga, and then the Goths in the Northern Black Sea region. After that, one part of the Goths (Ostrogoths) became part of the Hunnic tribal union, and the other (Visigoths) made a long journey across Europe to Southern Gaul and. The Huns themselves at the end of the 4th century. formed a state that subjugated the tribes and peoples of the Northern Black Sea region, the Danube region, and the Southern Carpathian region. In the middle of the 5th century. the leader of the Huns Attila tried to extend his power to Western Europe, but was defeated in the Cataluan battle and after his death the state of the Huns disintegrated.
From the end of the 5th century. the tribes of the Antes and Sklavins move south to the Danube, to the North-Western Black Sea region, then the Ants tribes through the lower reaches of the Danube, and the tribes of the Sklavins from the north and north-west invade the Balkan provinces of Byzantium, as a result of which the Balkans are settled by the Slavs and the southern group begins to form Slavic tribes. Simultaneously with this process, there is a settlement of the Slavs in the northwestern and northeastern directions. They inhabit the lands along the Lower Elbe and the southwestern coast of the Baltic Sea, as well as the Upper Dnieper.
In the middle of the VI century. across the Volga-Don steppes, the tribal union of the Avars (Obry or Aubri of the Russian chronicles) invaded the Northern Black Sea region, the main role in which the Turkic-speaking tribes played. Having devastated the lands of the Antes, in the 560s. the Avars invaded Pannonia (the middle course of the Danube), where they founded the Avar Khaganate. The kaganate did not have precise and permanent boundaries. It is known that the Avars raided Byzantium, Slavs, Franks, Lombards and other tribes and peoples with the aim of plundering and collecting tribute. Since the 20s. VII century as a result of defeats from the Byzantines and the rebellious Slavic tribes, a gradual weakening and disintegration of the Kaganate begins. This process was completed at the turn of the 8th – 9th centuries, when the Avar Kaganate suffered a decisive defeat from the Frankish kingdom of Charlemagne, who was in alliance with the southern Slavs. By the end of the IX century. the Avars were assimilated by the peoples of the Danube and the North-Western Black Sea region.
Assimilation(ethnologist.) - the fusion of one people with another, with the loss of one of them of their language, culture, national identity.
In the second half of the VI century. The steppes of Central Asia and the territories between the Volga and Don were united under one state - the Turkic or Turkut kaganate, formed by a Turkic-speaking (basically Avar) tribal union. This state disintegrated in the very early VII v. to the West Türkic and East Türkic kaganates. The Western Türkic Kaganate, which included the Northern Black Sea region and the territory between the Don, Volga and the Caucasus, did not last long, since already in the middle of the 7th century. Bulgarians invaded here (in modern science it is customary to call them Proto-Bulgarians) - also a Turkic-speaking nomadic tribe. They formed their state here - Velikaya, the central part of which was located in the lower reaches of the Don and on the eastern coast. At the turn of the VII-VIII centuries. Proto-Bulgarians were divided. One part - "Black Bulgarians" - continued to roam the steppes between the Don and the Caucasus and gradually disappeared into the mass of other ethnic groups in this region. There is a version that it is from them that the name of one of the modern peoples - the Balkars comes from. Another part, the so-called "horde of Khan Asparukh", went west, to the area of the lower Danube, where over time it was assimilated by the local Slavic tribes(this community formed the basis of the modern Bulgarian people). At the end of the 7th century. here the First Bulgarian Kingdom was formed. Finally, the third group made the transition to the northeast (to the middle Volga and Lower Kama). On this territory, the assimilation of the local Finno-Ugric population by the Proto-Bulgarians led to the formation of the ethnos and the state of the Volga Bulgars (or Bulgarians).
In the VIII century. large group Ugric tribes - the Magyars, who lived before that along Yaik and Ori, made the transition to the west, through the Volga and Don to the Black Sea steppes, and then further to the middle Danube.
Under the influence of the Great Migration of Peoples, the Slavs were forced to develop new territories, their linguistic and ethnic community was gradually broken, and as a result, three existing Slavic groups were formed: western, eastern and southern. South Slavs settled down on Balkan Peninsula(Thrace, North, Dalmatia, Istria) up to the coast of the Adriatic Sea and the valleys of the Alps, on the banks of the Danube and up to the Aegean Sea. Western Slavs settled between in the west and the Vistula in the east, the Baltic Sea coast in the north and the middle Danube in the south.
Resettlement of the Eastern Slavs at the end of the 1st millennium AD. NS.
The most complete picture of the settlement of the East Slavic and neighboring tribes at the turn of the 1st – 2nd millennium is provided by a comparison of the information from the Russian chronicle collection of the beginning of the 12th century. - "Tale of Bygone Years" (hereinafter - PVL) with other written sources and archaeological, ethnographic, linguistic materials. The PVL calls the place of the initial settlement of the Slavs the middle and lower reaches of the Danube, "where the land of the Ugric and Bulgarian lands is now," where the Slavs, according to the chronicler, came from Asia after the Babylonian pandemonium and the so-called "mixing of languages." This plot, based on a biblical legend, is not confirmed by archaeological data, but when further presenting the history of the Slavs, the author of the Tale provides more reliable information. He reports that the Slavs were divided into three groups - western, southern and eastern, and that the eastern Slavs began to settle in a northeastern direction, gradually occupying vast territories of Eastern Europe. Even more important is the listing of the East Slavic tribal unions in the chronicle with a description of the territories of their residence.
According to these data, the forest-steppe region of the Middle Dnieper, between the mouths of the Desna and Ros rivers, was inhabited by a tribal union of glades. Its name was due to the fact that the meadow, according to the words of the chronicle, is "in poly seyahu". Their largest center was Kiev, which emerged from several villages on the "mountains", or rather the hills, located on the right bank of the Dnieper. To the west of the meadows, in Polesie, in the basins of the Teterev, Uzh, Goryn rivers, to the Pripyat in the north lived the Drevlyans. The landscape peculiarity of this region in the chronicle is emphasized by the fact that the Drevlyans are "sadosha in the forests", hence the name of the tribal union. The most famous of the Drevlyan cities is Iskorosten. To the north of the Drevlyans, between Pripyat and Dvina, the Dregovichi lived. In the modern language and some Western Russian dialects, the word "dryagva" means "swamp". Along the Western Dvina, the Dregovichi came into contact with the Polotsk people, in relation to whom the chronicler indicated that they "drove along the Dvina and nailed the Polotsk river for the sake of, even flowing into the Dvina, in the name of Polota."
The area of settlement of the Ilmen Slovenes in the north reached the Neva River, Lake Nevo (Ladoga), and in the west, somewhat retreating from the coast of the Gulf of Finland, went south along the Narova River and Lake Peipsi. The author of the PVL reports that it was Slovenes who founded Novgorod. It is characteristic that the Slovenes, unlike other tribes, "were nicknamed by their own name," that is, they retained the common name of the Slavs. Obviously, this was due to the fact that this part of the Slavic ethnic community, as it moved into new territory, found itself in a foreign language environment. The self-name "Slavs" (modified - "Sklavens", "Sklavins", "Suovens", etc.) originally had the meaning of "owning a word, speech", and emphasized the difference from foreigners who did not speak Slavic. Therefore, the Ilmenian Slovenes, neighboring with the Finno-Ugric and Baltic tribes, retained this ethnonym. In a similar way, the ethnonyms "Slovaks" and "Slovenes" arose, since these peoples also found themselves on the periphery of the Slavic settlement, surrounded by foreign-speaking tribes.
The upper reaches of the Dnieper, Volga and Western Dvina, reaching Lake Pskov in the west, were occupied by the Krivichi, whose tribal center was Smolensk on the Dnieper. On the left bank of the Dnieper, along the river Sozh and its tributaries, there was an area of settlement of the Radimichi, and along the Oka, in its upper reaches, there was Vyatichi. The chronicler explains the names of these two unions of tribes not by the geographical features of their places of residence, but by the names of the ancestors - Radim and Vyatko. To the north-east of the meadows, in the rivers of the Desna, Seim and Sula, lived northerners. This term also has a "geographical" origin, since the PVL describes the Slavic tribes, from the point of view of the glades, for which such a designation of their northern neighbors is quite natural. In addition, according to the assertion of the author of the chronicle, the northerners descended from the Krivichi, therefore, they moved to the Middle Dnieper region from the north, which could also serve as a motive for the name.
To the west of the Glades and Drevlyans lived Buzhanians, "riding along the Bug", who later received the name Volhynians. The territory inhabited by them covered both banks of the Western Bug and the upper reaches of the Pripyat. It is possible that the predecessor of the Buzhans (Volynians) was a tribal union known to the chronicler under the name of the Dulebs and disintegrated by the 10th century. The Eastern Slavs also included the white tribes, which occupied mainly the northwestern slopes of the Carpathian Mountains. The most southern tribes of the Eastern Slavs were Ulic and Tivertsy, who inhabited the Dniester coast and the lands between the Southern Bug and the Prut. True, their ethnicity is quite controversial. Some researchers suggest that these were Turkic-speaking or Iranian-speaking tribes, which were under the strong cultural influence of the Slavs.
It is worth emphasizing once again that the listed ethnonyms denoted large unions of tribes that had internal subdivisions. However, written sources do not provide information about them, therefore, their identification is possible only on the basis of archaeological data. Nevertheless, the annalistic collection repeatedly emphasizes the unity of all East Slavic tribes, which was based on the common language.
Thus, the territory of settlement of the Eastern Slavs, according to the PVL, appears to be very extensive. Its border in the west ran from the confluence of the Neva into the Gulf of Finland along the coast to the river. Narva; stretched along the Peipsi and Pskov lakes; crossed the Western Dvina in the middle course; then from the middle course of the Nemunas it passed to the headwaters of the Vistula; through the northern part of the Carpathian Mountains went south to the Seret River and along the Danube to. The northern border of the settlement of the East Slavic tribes from the Neva ran along the southern tip of Lake Nevo (Ladoga), the rivers Syas, Chagoda, Sheksna, to the Volga, to the Nerl to the Klyazma, from the Klyazma to the Moskva River, along it to the Oka and, capturing the upper Don , Oka, Seima, went down the river Psel to the Dnieper. In the south, from the mouth of the Psela, the border went up the Dnieper and, before reaching the Ros River, went west to the Southern Bug, and then along the Bug to, known in antiquity as the Russian.
These boundaries of the East Slavic population were formed by the end of the 9th - the beginning of the 10th century. It is quite natural that they are rather arbitrary. Contact with neighboring peoples in the border areas led to significant displacements. This is reflected in the fact that in a number of cases there is an exit of the East Slavic population to neighboring territories. Three directions can be noted in this settlement. One - to the lower Danube and the Balkans - at the time of formation Old Russian state largely weakened. The second is to the north and northeast. Already by the end of the 9th - the beginning of the 10th century. The Slavic population from the vicinity of Novgorod reaches the Onega and Beloye lakes, the Svir, Sheksna rivers and settles in the territories occupied by the Finno-Ugric tribes. A similar situation developed in the Oka-Klyazma interfluve, where the Vyatichi and Krivichi entered. The third direction is the southern regions. There were a number of difficulties in the settlement and development of fertile forest-steppe and steppe lands, among which protection from nomads seems to be one of the main ones. The Slavic population either moved forward or rolled back. However, individual streams of Slavs penetrated far enough. Some oriental authors of the 9th-10th centuries. only fragmentarily mention the existence of the Slavic population on the territory of the Khazar Kaganate already in the VIII century. The Slavs appear on the Don, where the center of colonization at the end of the 10th century. became the settlement of Belaya Vezha (on the site of the Khazar city of Sarkel), at the intersection of the land route with the Don water main. The Slavic population is also advancing on the coast of the Azov (Surozh) and Black (Russian) seas.
Geography of the non-Slavic population of Eastern Europe
The sources make it possible to map the main tribal groups that inhabited at that time various territories of Eastern Europe and adjacent to the East Slavic tribes. The territories from the Danube to the Vistula and the Western Bug were occupied by the tribes of the Western Slavs: the Moravians, the Vislians, and the Mazovians. In the southwest from the end of the 9th century. the neighbors of the eastern Slavs were the Hungarians (Magyars), who mixed here with the Slavic, Avar and other populations, the Romanesque tribes of the Vlachs (Volochs), and along the lower Danube, the southern Slavs (Bulgarians).
The northwestern neighbors of the eastern Slavs were the Letto-Lithuanian (Baltic) tribes. The area of their settlement covered the Eastern Baltic from the lower reaches of the Vistula to Lake Pskov. These included the Prussians who inhabited the Baltic Sea coast between the mouths of the Vistula and Neman. The land on the right bank of the Western Dvina up to Lake Pskov was occupied by the Letgola (Latgalians) tribe, and their neighbors in the south and southwest were Zimegola (Semigallians). The coast of the Baltic Sea (Western) was inhabited by the Kors (Curonians). The area of settlement of the Yatvingians and Lithuania encompassed the basin of the Viliya River between the Western Bug and the Neman, and between the mouth of the Neman and the Western Dvina there lived the zhmud (Samogit) tribe, in the middle reaches of the Neman the aukshtaites were adjacent to them. In the XI-XII centuries. In the basin of the Protva River, a tributary of the Moskva River, lived the Golyad tribe, which also belonged to the group of Baltic tribes. Once surrounded by the Slavs, it was very quickly assimilated by them.
The forest regions of the north and north-east of the East European Plain were occupied by the Finno-Ugric tribes. Chud (Esty) inhabited the territory from Lake Peipsi to the Gulf of Finland and Riga. Further south, along the coast of the Gulf of Riga, at the mouth of the Western Dvina inhabited the Liv (Liv) tribe. Later it gave the name of this territory (Livonia, Livonia) and the Livonian Order. The coast of the Gulf of Finland between the rivers Neva and Narova was inhabited by a tribe. A Korela was located along the Neva and around Ladoga. A significant territory between Ladoga, Onega and Beloye lakes, bounded in the north by the Svir, and in the east by Sheksnaya, was inhabited by the whole (Vepsians). PVL calls the entire indigenous population of the city of Beloozero. To the northeast of Lake Beloe, in the Onega and Northern Dvina basins, lived tribes that received the name Chudi Zavolochskaya in Russian sources. The tribes that lived in the Upper Kama region and the Vychegda basin are known as Perm. (approximately from Sheksna to Oka) and the shores of the Rostov and Kleshchina lakes were inhabited by the Merya tribe. Rostov owes its origin to the Merians. Their neighbors were the cheremis (mari) who lived on the left bank of the Volga. The middle course of the Oka was occupied by a meschera, and the lower one was occupied by Muroma. The tribal center of the latter was the city of Murom. The Mordovian tribes lived on the right bank of the middle Volga. Separate Mordovian settlements went far to the west along the Oka, Tsna and Khopru. To the south, along the Volga, there were lands inhabited by Burtases, who were ethnically close.
To the east and southeast of the Finno-Ugrians and the Eastern Slavs, the Turkic-speaking tribes were located. These include the Volga-Kama Bulgars (Bulgarians), whose area of settlement in the east began from the confluence of the Belaya River into the Kama, in the west it stretched to the middle Volga, and in the south it reached. The steppe territory, lying in a strip from the Yaik basin (Ural), through the lower Volga and to the lower Dnieper, was an area of settlement of nomadic tribes. During and after the Great Migration, this zone was a very busy highway for the movement of various ethnic groups from Central Asia to Europe. Around the end of the 9th century. The steppes between the Don and the Southern Bug were occupied by the Pechenegs, which were a conglomerate of tribes of Turkic and Finno-Ugric origin. However, by the middle of the XI century. the Pechenezh tribes were replaced by the Polovtsy (Kipchaks), who were neighbors Eastern Slavs before the Tatar-Mongol invasion of the XIII century. Since that time, the eastern written sources call the vast steppe territory from to the Northern Black Sea region Desht-i-Kipchak, and the Russians call the Polovtsian steppe.
Settlement and ethno-linguistic affiliation. The territories occupied by non-Slavic peoples in the European part of Russia are mainly located in the eastern and northwestern parts of the region. With rare exceptions, they do not currently form mono-ethnic areas anywhere, living in stripes. At the same time, the majority of the rural population in these areas is non-Slavic, and Russians prevail among the urban residents.
The non-Slavic population of the European part of Russia, excluding later settlers, according to the linguistic classification, belongs to two language families: Altai and Ural-Yukagir.
Representatives of the Altai family are concentrated in the regions of the Middle and Lower Volga regions, as well as in the Urals. The only people belonging to the Mongolian branch of this family are the Kalmyks, who first appeared on the territory of the Lower Volga region in the 30s. XVII century from Dzungaria - one of the regions located in the northwest of Central Asia. The Tartars, Bashkirs, Chuvashs, Kryashens and Nagaybaks belong to the Turkic branch of the Altai language family. Tatars, Kryashens and Nagaybaks speak various dialects of the Tatar language. The languages of the Tatars and Bashkirs belong to the Kypchak subgroup of the Turkic languages, and the Chuvash - to the Bulgar.
The peoples of the Ural-Yukaghir language family live both in the Middle Volga and Ural regions, and in the north-west of the European part of the country. The extreme northeast of Eastern Europe is occupied by the Nenets, a people whose ethnic territory also includes the northern regions of Siberia from the Urals to the Taimyr Peninsula. The Nenets speak the Nenets language of the Samoyedic group of the Ural-Yukagir language family.
The rest of the peoples of the Ural-Yukagir language family living in the European part of Russia belong to the Finnish group of the Finno-Ugric branch. In the Urals and Kama regions, there are ethnic groups who speak the languages of the Permian (Finno-Permian) subgroup. The Komi-Zyryan language is native to two peoples - the Komi-Zyryan and the Komi-Izhemtsy. Most of the Permian Komi use the Permian Komi language. Only a small ethnographic group of them - the Komi-Yazvins, living separately in the northeast Perm Territory, an independent language was formed. The southernmost people of the Perm (Finnoperm) subgroup are the Udmurts living in the interfluve of the river. Vyatka and Kama. Besermians settled in the northwest of Udmurtia, speaking one of the dialects of the Udmurt language.
In the Middle Volga region, there are two peoples of the Volga-Finnish subgroup of the Finnish group. These include the Mari, most of whom speak the Meadow (meadow-eastern) Mari language, and the western group, which mainly occupies the right bank of the Volga, speaks the Mountain Mari language. The Mordovians also developed two independent languages: Moksha and Erzyan.
In the north-west of the European part of Russia there are ethnic groups who speak the Baltic-Finnish languages of the Finnish group: Ingrian Finns, Vod, Izhora, Setos, Vepsians, Karelians. The Karelian language is represented by three significantly different dialects - Karelian proper, Livvik and Ludik, which are more correct to consider independent languages... Setu is spoken in one of the dialects of the Estonian language. A special position within the Baltic-Finnish subgroup is occupied by the Sami language, which contains about a third of the original, Dofin vocabulary.
Among other non-Slavic ethnic groups that began to actively settle in the European part of Russia since the 18th century, the most significant in number are Germans, Jews and Gypsies. For Germans and Jews, the native languages of the Germanic group of the Indo-European language family are German and Yiddish, although most of them use Russian in everyday life. The gypsy language belongs to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages.
Among the East European Roma, the Russian-Roma (North Russian), Lovar (Carpathian-Gypsy) and Kotlyar (Kelderar) dialects of this language are widespread.
According to the 2010 All-Russian Population Census, the Tatars are the largest ethnic group in Russia after the Russians. Of the total number of 5.3 million people. in the Republic of Tatarstan they are home to 2 million people, in the Republic of Bashkortostan - about 1 million people. and more than 1.2 million people. in other regions and republics of the Volga and Ural regions. The second largest Turkic people are the Bashkirs - 1.6 million people. They make up a significant part of the population of Bashkortostan - about 1.2 million people. The number of Chuvashes exceeds 1.4 million people. More than half of them - over 0.8 million people. concentrated within the Chuvash Republic. 30 thousand Kryashs out of the total number of 35 thousand people. are residents of the Republic of Tatarstan. Of 8.1 thousand nagaybaks, about 7.7 thousand people. live in Chelyabinsk region... The overwhelming majority of Kalmyks - 163 thousand out of 183 thousand people. - are residents of the Republic of Kalmykia.
Komi-Zyryans are mainly settled in the Komi Republic. More than 202 thousand Komi-Zyryans out of the total number of 228 thousand people were recorded here. The majority of Komi-Izhemtsi also live here - 13 thousand out of 16 thousand people. The number of Perm Komi is 94 thousand people, of which 81 thousand people. - the population of the Perm Territory. Of 552 thousand Udmurts, 411 thousand people. - residents of the republic of the same name. Significant groups of the Udmurt population are also settled in neighboring regions. The total number of Mari reaches 548 thousand people, of which more than half - 291 thousand people. concentrated within the Republic of Mari El. Mordva is the largest Finnish-speaking people Russian Federation, amounting to 744 thousand people. Less than half of all Mordovians live in the Republic of Mordovia - 333 thousand people.
Of the Baltic-Finnish ethnic groups, the largest in number are Karelians - about 61 thousand people. Most of them are about 46 thousand people. - lives in the Republic of Karelia. Of the 20.3 thousand Ingrian Finns, 8.6 thousand people are concentrated in Karelia, in Leningrad region and St. Petersburg - 6.9 thousand people. The Vepsian population is more than 5.9 thousand people, of which more than 3.4 thousand are residents of Karelia, about 1.4 thousand people. lives in the Leningrad region. Setu predominantly live in the Pskov region (123 out of 214 people). Of the 266 Izhora residents in the Leningrad region and St. Petersburg, 206 people were recorded. A total of 64 people. called themselves Vody, 59 of them are residents of the Leningrad Region and St. Petersburg. Sami - indigenous population Kola Peninsula. In the Murmansk region, 1.6 thousand Sami live out of a total of 1.8 thousand people.
The German population of the Russian Federation is 394 thousand people, but in the European part of the country its number is less than in Siberia. The number of Jews in Russia is 157 thousand. About half of the Jewish population lives in two largest cities- Moscow (53 thousand people) and St. Petersburg (24 thousand people). The Roma population of Russia is 205 thousand people, while a third of them (about 69 thousand people) live in four southern regions of the country: Stavropol, Krasnodar Territories, Rostov and Volgograd regions.
Anthropologically, the non-Slavic peoples of the European part of Russia belong to both the Caucasian and Mongoloid large races. Some ethnic groups of the Finnish group of the Finno-Ugric branch of the Ural-Yukagir language family, living mainly in the eastern and northern regions of the European part of Russia, have signs of the Mongoloid race, which distinguishes them into special transitional subarctic (according to V.V.Bunak) and Uralic races ... The Sami belong to the subarctic race. Among the phony-speaking ethnic groups of the Urals and Volga regions, there are groups belonging to the Subural type of the Ural race (Komi-Zyryans, Komi-Izhemtsy, Komi-Permians, Udmurts, Mari, Mordva-Moksha).
Mordva-Erzya, northern and western groups of Komi-Zyryans, Baltic-Finnish ethnic groups (Ingermanland Finns, Vods, Izhorians, Karelians and Vepsians) are more Caucasoid, possessing only a slight Mongoloid admixture and belong to the White Sea-Baltic minor race, within which the eastern Baltic and White Sea types. Among them, the most widespread is the Eastern Baltic type, and the White Sea type is characteristic of the northern groups of Karelians, Komi-Zyryans, and Komi-Izhemtsy.
The complexity of the formation of the Turkic-speaking peoples of the European part of the country was reflected in their anthropological appearance. Most of the Chuvashes, Tatars, Kryashens, Nagaybaks, and the northwestern groups of Bashkirs belong to the Subural type of the Ural race. The southeastern groups of Bashkirs are dominated by the features of the South Siberian race. The Astrakhan Tatars living in the Lower Volga region belong to the same race. Kalmyks are typical Mongoloids of the Central Asian race.
Gypsies belong to the North Indian type of the Indo-Amir small race of the large Caucasian family. Most Jews belong to the Armenoid (pre-Nasiatic) race. But as a result of mixing with other Caucasians, among them there are representatives of various variants of the large Caucasian race.
Among the non-Slavic peoples of the European part of Russia, there are adherents of different confessions. The only ethnic group for which the traditional religion is Buddhism in the form of Lamaism are the Kalmyks. The Bashkirs, as well as most of the Tatars, adhere to the Sunni direction of Islam. The national religion of the Jews is Judaism. Christianity is represented by all three major denominations. Ingrian Finns are Lutherans. Among the Germans there are both Lutherans and Catholics. Most of the ethnic communities in the region are considered Orthodox. Among them, the Old Believers stand out, including some of the Karelians, the Komi-Zyryans and the Komi-Permians. Part of the Mari retains pagan beliefs. Elements of paganism can be traced to varying degrees among the majority of ethnic groups professing Orthodoxy, but they are most pronounced among the Sami, Udmurts and Chuvashes.
