VII. Start of religious reformation

The beginning of the Reformation in Europe is associated with the name Martin Luther. Martin Luther challenged the Catholic Church in Wittenberg in Saxony. This happened after arriving in this area of \u200b\u200bthe German preacher Johanna Tetzel, who sold an indulgence to collect money for Lion's Pope X. Indulgence has been criticized for a long time, on the part of Catholic theologists (scholars in the field of religion), but their financial success ensured this practice, As it was too profitable to stop her.

In response, Luther on October 23, 1514 placed a document with 95 theses (statements) on the door of the city church. Luther's abstracts were not radical, but they attracted an extensive audience, and, thanks to the latest achievements in the field of printed business, they were widely separated and read them everywhere.

The initial criticism of the church on the part of Luther was directed against the sale of indulgences, but he continued to attack the essence of the Catholic teaching about the liberation (faith in what the bread and wine turn into the body and the blood of Christ during the communion), the celibacy of the priests and the primacy of Dad. He also called for reform of religious orders, monasteries and the return of simplicity of an earlier church.

Lutheran church

The reformation in Europe has spread after a call, which Luther threw the official church. He won many followers, but initially Luther wanted only to reform the existing church, and not create a completely new system.

A few attempts were made to reconcile the Luther with religious authorities. In 1521, he was called to present his views in front of the Imperial Parliament in Worms in the presence of the Emperor of the Sacred Roman Empire of Charles V, which ruled most of Europe. Luther refused to renounce his views and, being already excommunicated from the church dad, he was now declared the emperor outside the law.

In response, he founded an independent church and began to translate the Bible into German. The Bible editions came out in Latin. Luther's edition for the first time allowed people to read the Bible in their native language.

Part of the power of Luther's teachings was in his appeal to her German identity. Germany at that moment consisted of many independent states that nominally submitted to the emperor Karl V. The German princes wanted to preserve their power, and they saw in the teaching of Luther the way to simultaneously get rid of the imperial and from church control over Germany. What began as a religious dispute soon became a political revolution.

In 1524, the peasant war broke out in the south-western part of Germany as a result of economic difficulties in the region. League of German princes, supported by Luther, severely suppressed the uprising in 1526. The uprising led the Luther's horror, as well as the secular leaders, against which it was directed.

One after another Northern German states - Saxony, Hesse. Brandenburg, Braunschweig and others - took Lutheran. Each state captured control over the church, strengthening the power of the ruler over his people.

World response

The call of Lutheranism was not limited to Germany. In 1527, the King of Sweden Gustav Vaza, who achieved independence from Denmark and Norway in 1523, captured church lands to provide funds for his new state. Then he reformed a new state church in accordance with Lutheran Rules.

A similar process of adaptation of Lutheranism occurred in Denmark and Norway in 1536. In England, the gap with the Roman Church occurred after Dad refused to approve the divorce of Heinrich VIII with his wife Ekaterina Aragon. Heinrich replaced dad as head of the English church.

Political consequences

The political response to the Lutheran Reformation was headed by Emperor Karl V, but his extensive possessions in Europe led him to conflict, incl. And with France. War between these two powers, as well as between Karl and the growing power of Muslim Ottoman Empire In the Mediterranean and the Balkans, he meant that he could not devote all his resources to destroy Lutheranism in Germany.

Karl won Lutheran in the battle of Mülberg in 1547, but could not politically destroy them. The religious and political compromise were finally achieved after the world in Augsburg in 1555, according to which the emperor gave a decree to choose each prince in his empire between Catholicism and Lutheranism, and distribute this faith among his subjects.

Luther himself was a conservative theologian and respected order. But many of those who followed him were much more radical.

Zwingli and Calvin

In Zurich, U. Zwingley drew the city in Lutheran faith. His 67 theses in 1523 were adopted by the city councils as an official doctrine. However, he did not agree with Luther regarding the nature of the Eucharist (Bread and Wine, which take during the communion) and began to lead the Swiss church on a more radical, not recognizing the hierarchy direction. His death in 1531 during the protection of Zurich from Catholic Cantons (provinces) of Switzerland slowed down the impetus to the Reformation in Switzerland.

Jean Calvin, who began to create a new religious center in Geneva, subsequently became a key figure associated with Protestant reform in Switzerland. Calvin moved to a new reformed faith in 1533 and settled in Geneva in 1536. There, he developed a more severe form of Protestantism, based on his own reading of Scripture and its deep academic preparation, where the purpose was emphasized - the power of God over all the actions of a person.

Although Calvin himself did not develop any practical theory of resistance to the wicked power, such a power of the Catholic Church or Catholic rulers, many of his followers were ready to defend their views using force on the basis of his teachings. Like Luther, he emphasized the direct communication of the individual with God without the mediation of Pope or priests and the Bible championship as the basis of all preaching and teachings. The Bible is now widely applied to modern languages, not in Latin - the language of the church.

Unlike Luther, however, who believed in the political subordination to the Church by the state, Calvin preached that the church and the state should act together to create a divine society in which religious beliefs and strict code of behavior should define every aspect of everyday life.

Calvinism spread to Scotland, the Netherlands and in many parts of France, where his followers were known as Huguenots, as well as in various areas of German states, in Bohemia and Transylvania. Calvinism also inspired Puritan movement in England, and later in North America, where his adherents wanted to clear the Anglican Church from the Catholic elements remaining in it, in particular, from the power of the bishops and other "papist" jewelry - church apparels, utensils and music.

Answer Catholics

The initial response of Catholics to the reformation was excommunication from the Church of those who rebelled against her. When it became clear that this would not help defeat the Reformation, the Catholic Church began to reform himself on the basis of internal appeals to church reformwho were much preceded by Luther's performance.

After three meetings in the Trident in the Italian Alps in 1545-1563. The Catholic Church began counterfeiting. Catholic counterformation developed successfully, intensifying Catholicism and theologically, and politically, although more authoritarian orthodoxy was established.

Poland, Austria and Bavaria have become completely Catholic, but at a time, in Germany, the world presented in Germany, the strong Calvinist (Huguenotskaya) presence in France caused long religious wars, which ended only after the Nante Edict in 1598 proclaimed religious tolerance in 1598 . At the end of the century, apparently, 40% of the population of Europe followed one or other reformed belief.

Protestantism

Reformation Protestantism doctrines Doreformation movements of the Reformation Church Postreformation movements "Great Awakening" Restorationism In addition to the economic and national negle, humanism and the changed intellectual medium in Europe served as a premediation. The critical spirit of the Renaissance was allowed to take a fresh look at all the phenomena of culture, including religion. Revival for individuality and personal responsibility helped to critically revise the church structure, having carried out a kind of revisionism, and the fashion for ancient manuscript and the original sources drew the attention of people to the inconsistency of the tweight and modern church. People with an awakened reason and worldly worldview became critical to the religious life of their time in the person of the Catholic Church. Forerunities Reformation John Viklif Economic pressure multiplied by the infringement of national interests caused a protest against Avignon dads in the XIV century in England. John Vilkif, Professor of Oxford University, proclaimed the need to destroy the entire papal system and secularization of the monastery-church land, became the expressive of dissatisfaction. Vicklife with disgust referred to "captivity" and split and after 1379 began to oppose the dogmatism of the Roman Church with revolutionary ideas. In 1379, he encroached on the authority of Pope of Roman, expressing the idea that Christ, and not Pope, is the head of the church in his writings. He argued that the Bible, and not the Church, is the only authority of the believer and that the church should be built in the image of the New Testament. To reinforce your views, Viklikif made the Bible accessible to people in their native language. By 1382, the first complete translation of the New Testament was completed into English. Nikolai Gerfordsky finished the translation of most of the Old Testament into English in 1384. Thus, for the first time the British had full text Bible in your native language. Viklikifa went even further and in 1382 he opposed the dogma on the liberation, although the Roman Church believed that the essence of the elements changes with unchanged outdoor. The Vikelief argued that the substance of elements remains unchanged that Christ is spiritually present during this sacrament and is felt faith. The look of Viklikif meant to recognize that the priest is not able to influence the salvation of man by prohibiting him to take the body and blood of Christ with the Eucharist. And although the views of Viklikif were convicted in London and in Rome, his doctrine of equality in the church was applied to the economic life of the peasants and contributed to the peasant uprising of 1381. Students from the Czech Republic, who studied in England, brought his teachings to their homeland, where it became the soil for the ideas of Jan Gus. The Czech Republic at that time was experiencing the dominance of the German clergy, who was undertaking to acquire sites on the Kuttenbean mines. Jan Gus, Pastor of the Bethlehem Chapel, who studied at the University of Prague and in about 1409, became his rector, read the writings of Wicklif and learned his ideas. Gus's sermons fell during the rise of the Czech National Consciousness, who opposed the power of the Sacred Roman Empire in the Czech Republic. Gus offered the reform of the Church in the Czech Republic, similar to the one that Vikliphy proclaimed. In an effort to stop the people's discontent, the emperor Sigismund I and Pope Martin V initiated the church cathedral in Constance, on which Yan Gus and his companion Jerome Prague were proclaimed with heretics and burned on a fire. John Vicklif proclaimed. Lutheran Reformation Reformation in Germany The beginning of the Reformation in Germany In Germany, which is to the beginning XVI century Still remained a politically fragmented state, almost all classes were dissatisfied with the church: the peasants ruined the church tire and posthumous defeats, the products of artisans could not compete with the products of monasteries, which was not taxed, the church expanded its land ownership in cities, threatening to turn citizens in life debtors . All this, as well as huge amounts of money that the Vatican exported from Germany, and the moral decomposition of the clergy, served as a reason for the speech of Martin Luther, who October 31 1517 nailed to the doors of Wittenberg Castle Church "95 theses". In them, Dr. Theology opposed the sale of indulgences and the power of the Pope over the liberation of sins. In his teaching preached, he proclaimed that the church and clergy are not an intermediary between a person and God. He announced false claims of the papal church on the fact that it can give people through the sacraments of "vacation sins" and "Saving Soul" by virtue of the special powers from God, which she allegedly endowed. The main position, nominated by Luther, said that a person reaches the "salvation of the soul" (or "excuse") not through the church and its rites, but with the help of the faith given to him directly by God. Over the course of this time, Luther had good reasons to hope for the embodiment of their idea of \u200b\u200b"spiritual rebellion": the imperial rule, contrary to the papal Bulle, 1520 and the Worshi Edicut of 1521 did not prohibit the reforming "innovations" finally and irrevocably, transferring the final decision on the future Reichstag or Church cathedral. The convened Reichstags was postponed the consideration of the case to convene the church cathedral, only the forbidden to the Luther printing new books. However, after the movement of a radical burgher group, accompanied by the spontaneous speeches of the masses, an imperial knighthood occurred in the country. In 1523, part of the knights led by Ulrich von Gutetten and Franz von Zikekingen, dissatisfied with his position in the empire, raised the uprising, proclaiming himself by the successors of the work of the Reformation. The tasks of the Raised Movement of Movement Gutten saw in order to prepare the entire German people to such a war that would lead to the elevation of the knighthood and turning it into the dominant political strength In the Empire liberated from the Roman Zasil. A very quickly, the knightly uprising was suppressed, but it showed that Luther's desire to come to the reformation peacefully will not be implemented. The proof of this was soon the peasant war headed by Thomas Münchser. Peasant War of Thomas Munzer The peasant war was the consequence of the interpretation of the peasant masses of the ideas of the Reformation as a call for social transformations. In many respects, the teachings of Thomas Münzer contributed to the teachings, which in his sermons called for metroke, socio-political coup. However, the inability of the peasant masses and the burgherness to rally in the joint struggle led to defeat in the war. After the Augsburg Reichstag, the defensive Shmalkalden Union began to form Protestant princes, the inspiration of the creation of which Philip appeared, Landgraph Hessian. Reformation in Germany after the death of Luther Immediately after the death of Luther Protestants, Germany was waiting for a harsh test. Having won a number of victories over the Turks and the French, the emperor Karl V decided to engage in internal affairs. By concluding an alliance with Pope and Wilhelm Bavarian, he sent his troops to the land of the princes participants of the Schmalkalden Union. As a result of the protestant troops following this, the troops were defeated, in 1547, Wittenberg was captured by the Emperor's troops, which for almost 30 years was the informal capital of the Protestant world (Luther's grave on the order of the emperor was not subjected to a plunder), and Kurfürst Saxon Johann Friedrich and Landgraf Philip was in prison. As a result, at Reichstag in Augsburg on May 15, 1548, Interim was declared - an agreement between Catholics and Protestants, according to which Protestants were forced to go on significant concessions. However, to embody the plan, Carlo failed: Protestantism managed to put deep roots on the German land and has long been a religion not only by princes and merchants, but also peasants and mines, as a result of which Incema met stubborn resistance. Reformation in Denmark and Norway At the request of King Christian, Melanchton sent to Denmark an experienced priest-reformer Johannes Bugogenhagen, who headed the regulation in the country. As a result, the Reformation in Denmark focused on German samples. According to Danish historians, "Denmark with the introduction of the Lutheran Church has become church attitude to for a long time German province. " In 1537, by the decree of the king, a commission was created from "scientists" to develop deposits about the new church, which entered Hans Touain. Luther was familiar with the drawing, and with its approval in September of the same year, the new church law was approved. Reformation in Sweden and Finland Triumph Gustav Wasa. Woman in yellow dress - Catholic church In 1527, the King was proclaimed at Westerossky Rixdag, and the property of the monasteries was confiscated in favor of the crown. The church affairs began to manage secular persons appointed by the king. In 1531, the Archbishop of Sweden was the brother Olaus Lavrenty. Under his leadership in 1536, the Uppsal took place Church Cathedralwhere Lutheran church books were recognized as mandatory for the whole Sweden. Colebat was canceled. In 1571, Lavrentiya Petri was developed "Swedish Church Charter"in which was determined organizational structure and the nature of the self-governing Swedish church. Pastors and laity received the opportunity to choose bishops, but the final approval of candidates was the prerogative of the king. At the same time, it should be noted that due to the lack of a fierce confrontation between Roman Catholics and adherents of the Reformation, which took place in the countries of Central Europe, the differences in the external nature of the services of the reformed and the Roman Catholic church were minimal. Therefore, the Swedish rite is considered to be a sample of a highly charming tradition in Lutherancy. It is also formally believed that the Church of Sweden has an apostolic continuity, so Lavrentini Petri was ordinanced into the bishops of Peter Magnusson, Bishop Westerossky dedicated to his San in Rome. The reformation was carried out in Finland, while the declared part of the Kingdom of Sweden. The first Lutheran bishop in Finland (in Abo) was Mikael Agrikola, which was the first pillar of the Finnish language and translated into Finnish New Testament and parts Old Testament. Reformation in the Baltic States Reformation in the Baltic launched from the land of the Teutonic Order. In 1511, Albrecht Brandenburg was chosen by his grandmaster. He tried to conduct an independent policy from Poland, as a result of which in 1519 the Poles devastated all Prussia. Then Albrecht decided to take advantage of the distribution in Prussia Reformation, in 1525 secularized the Order and received it from the Polish king in Len as a duke. The German emperor lowered Albrecht, dad excused him from the church, but Albrecht did not refuse his business. Reformation processes soon raised the land of the Livonian Confederation. Already in the 1520s, Luther Johann Bugogenhagen, Andreas Button and Sylvester Tegtemeyer appeared here. The reformer of Derpte was Melchior Hoffman. Their sermons found a lively response both among the nobles and among the burghers and the urban poor. As a result, in 1523-1524. The main Catholic churches in Tallinn and Riga were defeated, and the Catholic clergy is expelled. Nikolaus Ramm Part of the Bible was translated into Latvian. In 1539, Riga became part of the Protestant cities. Landtag in Valmiera in 1554 declared freedom of faith in 1554, which actually meant the victory of Lutheranism. But the triumph of one or another creed in different parts of the former Livonian Confederation was largely due to those who began to belong after the Livonian war. Anabaptists After the defeat in the peasant war, the anabaptists did not show themselves for a long time. However, their teaching quite successfully applied, and not only among the peasants and artisans. In the early 1930s, their large number was in West Germany. John Leiden on the baptism of girls Calvinist Reformation Reformation in Switzerland The situation similar to the German, developed in Switzerland, where the authority of the Catholic Church fell due to abuse, debauchery and ignorance of clerics. The monopoly position of the church in the field of ideology here was also undermined by the success of secular education and humanism. However, here, in Switzerland, a purely political ideological premise was added to ideological prerequisites: the local burgherism was striving to turn the confederation of cantons independent from each other to the federation, secularize church lands, prohibit military innovation, which distracted workers from production. However, such moods prevailed only in the so-called city cantons of the country, where capitalist relations were already originated. In more conservative forest cantons, friendly relations with Catholic monarchies of Europe, whose army they supplied mercenaries. The close relationship between the political and ideological protest and gave rise to the reformation movement in Switzerland, the most vivid representatives of which were made to the memory of the redemptive sacrifice of Christ. While Luther went to a union with princes, Zwingli was a supporter of republicanism, an intettator of tyranny monarchs and princes. The ideas of Zwingley were widespread in Switzerland in his life, but after the death of the reformer, they were gradually ousted by Calvinism and other currents of Protestantism. The core position of Jean Calvin was the doctrine of the "universal predestination", according to which God destroyed each person his fate: one - the eternal curse and sorrow, others, chosen, - Eternal salvation and bliss. A person is not given to change his fate, he is able to only believe in his election, applying all his hardworking and energy to achieve success in worldly life. Calvin argued the spiritual nature of the communion, believed that God's grace, when he was accomplished only chosen. The ideas of Calvina spread to Switzerland and beyond, serving the basis for the Reformation in England and the Netherlands Revolution. Reformation in Scotland In Scotland, the initial manifestation of Luther's ideas is severely suppressed: Parliament tried to prohibit the spread of his books. However, this attempt was largely unsuccessful. And only the decisive influence of the political factor (Scottish lords by supporting English Protestantism hoped to get rid of French influence) legalized the Reformation. Reformation in the Netherlands The main preforms of the Reformation in the Netherlands were determined, as in other European countries, a combination of socio-economic, political, cultural change with the discount in various layers of society, the Catholic Church in different layers - its privileges, wealth, defeats, ignorance and immorality of the clergy. An important role in the distribution of reformational ideas also played the opposition to the government conducted by the government, which severely pursued distemper, up to an equalization of heretical views to a crime against the state. J. Lefevr d'Etapl and G. Brixne (Bishop in MO). In the 20s of the 20th year of the XVI century, Lutheranism and Anabaptism received the spread among rich citizens and plebeian masses. The new raising of the reform movement, but already in the form of Calvinism, refers to the 40-50th years. Calvinism was in France by an ideological banner as a social protest of plebeania and a bourgeoisie against feudal exploitation and opposition to the reactionary separatist feudal aristocracy to fastened royal absolutism; The last to strengthen its power used in France is not a reformation, but Catholicism, arguing at the same time independence of the French Catholic Church from the Papal See (royal gallism). The opposition of various layers of absolutism resulted in the so-called religious wars ending with the victory of royal absolutism and Catholicism. Reformation in England Reformation in England was carried out in contrast to other countries "from above", by the will of the monarch Heinrich VIII, which thus tried to break with dad and the Vatican, and also strengthen his absolute power. With Elizabeth, I was compiled the final edition of the Anglican Faith symbol (the so-called "39 articles"). In "39 articles", the Protestant dogmas on the justification of faith, about the sacred Scripture as the only source of faith and the Catholic dogma of the Single-Power of the Church (with some reservations) were recognized. The church became the national and turned into an important support of absolutism, she was headed by the king, and the clergy was subordinate to him as part of the state apparatus of the absolutist monarchy. The divine service was performed by english language. The number of holidays of the Catholic Church has been rejected, the number of holidays has been reduced to the evidence of the icons and relics. At the same time, the sacraments of baptism and communion were recognized, a church hierarchy was preserved, as well as liturgy and a magnificent cult characteristic of the Catholic Church. The tite was still charged, which began to receive in favor of the king and new owners of monastic lands. Russia and Reformation As such, there was no such reformation in Russia. Nevertheless, due to the close contacts with the states of Central Europe, as well as military clashes, the masters began to appear in Russia, as well as prisoners of war, which the Russian kings were allowed to confess their faith. The most popular resettlement occurred during the Livonian War, during which not only artisans, but even the hierarchs of the Lutheran Church fell deep into the Russian kingdom. So in the city of Moscow, as part of the embassy, \u200b\u200bthe bishop of the city of Abo Finnish reformer Mikael Agrikola went. In the poetic "presentation on the company" of the Moscow scribe of Ivan the zealis, who opped the experience of the polemical essays of Ukrainian Zakharia Kopystensky. With Protestant influence, a number of researchers associate the activities of Peter I on the transformation of the Russian Orthodox Church (the abolition of the Patriarchate with the subordination of the Church of the Secondary Authority, restrictions on monasticism). However, to Lutherans in Russia periodically attributed very exotic personalities. In the Old Believer Book "Vinogradov Russian" tells about a certain Vavil, famous for their ascetic feats and burned in 1666: "Falling .. the genus of Inozska, faith Lututorsky, the teachings of artist, all the artistic science last .. In the Slavs of Paris, the Academy By many .. Good and all-increasing challenges of glacolati. " Counterfeiting, Internally, these were the processes that can be called the Reformation in the Catholic Church itself. The IV (participant of Paul III commission) expelled 113 bishops from Rome, who illegally left their dioceses, with him hundreds of monks were sent again to their monasteries. Even the cardinals suspected in immorality were persecuted. In addition, the monastic orders of the new type were established - the theatins, Capuchins, Ursulinki and Jesuits. The latter took up active propaganda of Catholicism both in Protestant countries and in the territories, where there were no Christian missionaries at all. Upon joining the Order of Jesuit gave oath not only to General, but also to the dad itself. In many ways, thanks to the activities of Jesuits, it was possible to return to the Catholic Church with compolutes. Results of the Reformation The results of the reform movement cannot be described unequivocally. On the one hand, the Catholic world, which united all nations Western Europe Under the spiritual leadership of Pope, ceased existence. A single Catholic church was replaced by a multitude of national churches, which were often dependent on the secular rulers, whereas before the clerics could appeal to dad as an arbitrator. On the other hand, national churches contributed to the growth of the national consciousness of the peoples of Europe. At the same time, the cultural and educational level of residents of Northern Europe increased significantly, which before that was the outskirts of the Christian world - the need to study the Bible led to an increase in both primary educational institutions (mainly in the form of parish schools) and higher, which was expressed in Creating universities for training national churches. For some languages, writing was specially designed to be able to publish the Bible on them. The proclamation of spiritual equality stimulated the development of ideas about political equality. So, in countries where the majority made up of reformats, the Miryans seemed great opportunities in the management of the Church, and citizens in the management of the state. The main achievement of the Reformation was that it significantly contributed to the change of old feudal economic relations to new capitalist. The desire for savings, to the development of industry, to the abandonment of expensive entertainment (as well as expensive worship services) contributed to the accumulation of capital, which was invested in trade and production. As a result, Protestant states began to be discovered in the economic development of Catholic and Orthodox. Even the ethics of Protestants contributed to the development of the economy.

Under the name of the Reformation, a major opposition movement against the medieval system of life, which has engulfed Western Europe at the beginning of the new time and expressed in the desire for radical transformations mainly in the religious sphere, which was the result of which there was a new creed - protestantism - in both of its forms: lutheran and reformat . Since medieval Catholicism was not only a creed, but also whole systemdominated over all manifestations historical life Western European peoples, the era of the Reformation was accompanied by movements in favor of reforming and other parties to public life: political, social, economic, mental. Therefore, the reform movement, hugging all the XVI and the first half of the XVII centuries, was a phenomenon very complex and was determined by both the reasons for all countries and the special historical conditions of each people separately. All these reasons were combined in each country in a variety of way.

Jean Calvin, founder of Calvinist Reformation

The unrest, excited in the Reformation Epoch, ended on the continent of the religious and political struggle known as the Thirty-year war ended in the Westphalian world (1648). The religious reform, legalized by this world, was no longer an initial character. In a collision with the reality, followers of a new teaching more and more fell into contradictions, openly glowing with the initial reform slogans of freedom of conscience and secular culture. The dissatisfaction with the results of the religious reform, degenerating in its opposite, gave rise to a special course in the Reformation - numerous sectarianism (anabaptists, independents, leverlera et al.), striving for resolving on religious soil mainly social issues.

Leader of German Anabaptists Thomas Munzer

The era of the Reformation gave all parties to European life new, different from the medieval direction, and laid the foundations of modern building western civilization. The correct assessment of the results of the Epoch of the Reformation is possible only taking into account not only its initial wonderful "Freedom-loving" slogans, but also the deficiencies approved by it on practice New Protestant socio-church system. The Reformation destroyed the religious unity of Western Europe, created several new influential churches and changed - not always to the best for the people - political and social Stroy The countries affected by it. Secularization in the era of the reformation of church estates is completely and next to resolve their powerful aristocrats who rolled the peasantry stronger than the previous one, and in England it was often massively drove him with the lands jew . The destroyed authority of the Pope was replaced by obsessed spiritual intolerance of Calvinist and Lutheran theorists. In the XVI-XVII and even in the next century, it is its narrow-mindedness far exceeded the so-called "medieval fanaticism". In most Catholic states of this time, constantly or temporarily existed (often very broad) tolerance for supporters of the Reformation, but it was not practically in any Protestant country for Catholics. The fierce extermination of the reformers of the subjects of Catholic "ID-owned" led to the death of many largest works of religious art, the most valuable monastic libraries. The era of the Reformation was accompanied by an essential coup in the economy. The old Christian religious principle "Manufacturing for a person" was replaced by other, in fact, atheistic - "man for production." Personality lost its former self-sufficient price. The rates of the Reformation Epoch (especially Calvinists) saw in it just a richness of a grand engineering mechanism, which worked for enrichment with such an energy and non-stop, that the material benefits did not reimburse the mental and spiritual losses arising from this.

Reformation Epoch Literature

Hagen. Literary and religious conditions in Germany in the Epoch of Reformation

Rank. History of Germany in the Epoch of Reformation

Egelhaf. History of Germany in the Epoch of Reformation

Hosisser. History of the Epoch Reformation

V. Mikhailovsky. On the harbingers and predecessors of the Reformation in the XIII and XIV centuries

Fisher. Reformation

Sokolov. Reformation in England

Maurenbrecher. England in the Reformation Epoch

Lucitsky. Feudal aristocracy and Calvinists in France

Erbam. The history of Protestant sects in the Reformation Epoch

Following the beginning of the era of the cultural revival, great geographical discoveries and acute international rivalry in Europe, a grandiose coup in the spiritual sphere began, who adopted the form of religious reformation.

Reformation backgrounds

The concept of "Reformation" means a broad movement for the update of the Catholic Church, which has developed throughout Europe, which eventually led to the formation of new, so-called "Protestant" churches. The Reformation took place in the midst of Italian wars, which were involved almost all European states, which affected the course and features of the reformation in different countries.

The Humanism of the Renaissance was put into the center of attention of a person with his earthly, everyday interests, which was manifested even in the behavior of the high priests of the Catholic Church. At the end of the XV - the first half of the XVI century. The Roman throne one after another was occupied by Pope, distinguished by the desire for luxury, military glory and other far from serving God affairs. These "Renaissance Dads" were famous for unintelligence and uninfusing in the means, without stopping before the murder and other crimes for the sake of achieving their goals. It is clear that their behavior weakened the authority of the church and strengthened the desire for its reform.

The main cause of the reformation was the internal crisis of the Catholic Church itself. The protest against the official church was spoiled from the depths of a religious feeling. It is necessary to take into account that religion was of paramount importance in the spiritual life of a medieval person, determining all his worldview, and through it everyday behavior. That is why any changes in this area had big consequences and had an effect literally on all parties to life.

Throughout the late Middle Ages in the European Society, which was considered a single "Christian Republic", religious flows were spread, supporters of which did the main focus not on the observance of church rites and formal manifestations of faith, and on the internal, individual communication of a person with God. The real life of the church, as it seemed to them, entered the explicit contradiction with Christian verbation. A special indignation caused a mismatch of the lifestyle of servants of the Church to the fact that they preached. Their behavior and policies conducted by Rome provoked as a result of such an acute reaction, which led to the split of the Catholic world. The reform movement, thus, was not anti-Religious, but an anti-carcale. It put the goal to strengthen the true faith in opposition to the spoiled faith of the Catholic clergy.

Disagree caused, first of all, the growing material requests of the Roman Church. All believers paid tenth - a special tax in the amount of 1/10 of all incomes. An open trade in church posts, heavily in the early XVI century. In connection with Italian wars. The ability of the Top Catholic Church to find all new and new sources of wealth seemed inexhaustible. Throughout Europe, there was a huge number of monasteries that had extensive land ownership and other wealth, with a numerous population, the lifestyle of which gave a reason for reproaches in idleness.

The most important role in the success of the Reformation was played by rapid development of a typography, which allowed the Bible to make a more affordable, which created the conditions for the widespread dissemination of new religious ideas.

Germany on the eve of the Reformation

The birthplace of the Reformation was Germany, where all accumulated to the beginning of the XVI century. The problems were felt particularly acute. Great importance There was also the fact that during the centuries in Germany there were peculiar traditions of religious thought, which distinguished it from the rest of Europe. It was here that the popular movement for the "new piety", the participants of which were trying to independently study the Holy Scripture. At the same time, preachers appeared in Germany, called for a simple life in the gospel poverty, they collected numerous followers around them.

The Catholic Church in Germany occupied an exceptionally privileged position compared to other countries. She owned almost the third all German land and managed a huge number of peasants. The church in Germany is more than any other, depended on Rome. The decline of the imperial authorities gave dads the opportunity to practically completely act on the territory of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation.

The most common form of income extraction was the sale of indulgence - special evidence of "release" of sins. In the XVI century Indulgence trafficking has become quite unrecoverable. For the money, the church was ready to forgive not only past pregriction, but also the future, guaranteeing believers impunity and actually encouraging them to live in sin.

The beginning of the Reformation in Germany

The sale of indulgences, launched to finance the construction of the Cathedral of St. Peter in Rome, has acquired a particularly wide range when Dad Lev X (1513-1521). A man who threw him a challenge was the Saxon monk Martin Luther (1483-1546).

The future reformer was born in the family of the Rudopop, who later became the owner of a small copper-smelter enterprise. He managed to get a university education, spent several years in the monastery, and then began teaching theology at the University of Wittenberg, located in the possession of the Duke of Saxon. Good knowledge of church life and perennial reflections over religious problems led Luther to thoughts about the need to clean the Catholic Church from the vices that caused universal perturbation. To achieve this goal, he saw in return to the ideals of early Christianity, when the only authority for Christians was the text of the Bible in his primordial purity.

On October 31, 1517, in accordance with the customs adopted in those days, Luther nodded to the door of the church in Wittenberg, the famous "95 theses" - their objections to the trade in indulgences. This event is considered to be the beginning of the Reformation.

Latin translated from Latin The Abstracts of Luther rapidly spread throughout Germany, forcing millions of his compatriots to think about the situation in their country. Pope's attempt to disprove dangerous thoughts led only to the fact that the attention of the people was even more focused on Luther.

In 1520, Luther made the following, even more decisive step, publishing the appeal "to the Christian nobility of the German nation about the correction of Christianity" and a number of other writings in which the basic dogmas of the Catholic Church refuted and condemned the morals dominated in it. In proof of the seriousness of his intentions Luther, defiantly burned Papal Bulla on the excavation of him from the church.

In 1521, Luther was summoned to Reichstag in Worms, where he appeared before the court of Emperor Charles V. According to the legend, in response to the accusations presented to him, a unlimited reformer decisively stated: "I still do not even be different." The emperor at that time was not to Germany. War was brewing with France, so he was hardly at the very critical moment of the history of Germany, he was in a hurry to leave it for the implementation of his foreign policy ideas. Karl V issued an edict of the condemnation of Luther, but he was disappeared in time in the possessions of the Duke of Saxon Friedrich Wise, who was the first of the major German princes to face the reformation.

Luther has prepared the translation of the Bible into German, which played a colossal role in the history of German culture, giving an impulse to the formation of German literary language. Luther's translation is based on the entire system of German education, which he always attached great importance.

Religious doctrine, based on the ideas of Luther, was called Lutheranism. Currently, it has tens of millions of followers in many countries of the world (they are also called evangelical Christians, or evangelicals).

The main meaning of Lutherancy is reduced to the idea of \u200b\u200b"excuse of faith", which means refusal to external manifestations Religiousness in favor of the internal experiences of each person. Saving the soul was proclaimed by the individual business of a believer that does not require interventions from the official church. The Sacred Scripture was announced by the only authority in matters of faith, which did not need any interpretations, and even more so in the formal solutions of the Church for its confirmation.

Lutheranism argued the unnecessary to the mediator between the man and God - and, thus, the unnecessaryness of the Church as a special organization. The new teaching assumed the rejection of monasses and church property. The place of luxurious, richly decorated Catholic temples came the "cheap church", devoid of unnecessary jewelry and lush rites. From Catholicism, only the fact that it did not directly contradicted Scripture: a cross, altar, organ. The most important thing was that instead of Latin, worship was conducted now in the native language of the believer. Religious life was now focused in church communities headed by preachers - pastors.

Peasant War

Reformation gave rise to universal hopes for the transformation of the German society. The conviction was distributed throughout the country that the world is on the eve of the coup prepared by all course of history. Never before Germany has not experienced such pores of hopes, enthusiasm, faith in a quick update.

Hate for Rome for some time forced the Germans to forget about the difference in interest, but the wider the circle became involved in the movement, the more clearly they were given to know their contradictions and the misfortunes.

The first to defend his interests was the German knighthood. However, the rebellion raised by knights failed, which led to its weakening as an independent public strength and a gradual disappearance with historical arena.

Wide masses in their own way were interpreted by "Christian Freedom" and demanded a decisive way to change the conditions of their lives. The result was the "People's Reformation". By 1525, all Germany was covered by uprisings that received the name of the peasant war. These events occupied an important place in the history of Germany during the transition to a new time. They became a consequence of a sharp deterioration in the conditions of the existence of the peasantry, and the reformation failed under the demands of the peasants the ideological basis.

In the most important document, the peasant war - "12 articles" - emphasized: "The essence of all peasant articles (as clearly seen further) is aimed at understanding this Gospel and live according to him."

These speeches clearly showed that the events began to develop not as the initiator of the Reformation. Luther condemned the rebels, published the appeal "against robbery peasant Horde."

The struggle was extremely fierce in nature, about 100 thousand people died during the suppression of peasant uprisings.

Princely Reformation and results of the Reformation in Germany

After the end of the peasant war, the case of the Reformation took into their own hands the princes that were now the leading position in the events occurring. The period of the Reformation began, which was called "Prince" Reformation. The inclusion of the provincial princes in the reformal movement raised it to a new level.

In the German Empire, there were two categories of princes: the princes of secular and princes of church. There were serious contradictions between them. The Reformation opened the opportunity to expand their possessions by the possessions of church princes before secular princes.

The rapid dissemination of the Reformation throughout the Empire also contributed to the struggle for power between the emperor and princes. The Reformation allowed secular princes to strengthen their position in the empire at the expense of the power of the monarch.

The main content of the "Prince" Reformation was the seizure of monastic lands and the secularization of church possessions, that is, the appeal of church property (mainly land) in secular. Karl V did not immediately intervene in the conflict between the princes and the church. All this time, he was distracted by war in Italy. In 1529, after signing the world in Kamor, Karl V received, finally, the opportunity to do Germany affairs. The first thing the Emperor banned the seizures of monastic and church property and restored the Imperial Edict of 1521 on the ban on Lutheranism. These decisions caused the famous protest of the five princes and 14 imperial cities - supporters of the Reformation. Hence the concepts of Protestantism and Protestant, who have become common names For the entire reform movement and its followers.

The attempt of Karl V restore the church unity of Germany failed. Circumstances related to foreign PolicyForced the emperor for a long time to postpone the struggle against Protestants. Only imprisoned in 1544, the world with France unleashed Karl v hands to combat Protestants. The first religious war in Germany (1546-1547) ended with a decisive victory of the emperor. However, during the second war, 1552 Protestants performed in the Union with the king of France and quickly achieved victory.

Meanwhile, Germany was in a state of almost complete chaos. In 1555, Reichstag was convened in Augsburg, who was destined to bring the line under religious wars in Germany. Prisoner in Augsburg religious world It was founded on principle: "Whose country, that faith" (that is, in each principal, the ruler had the right to establish a religion that chose himself). In the empire, two Christian religions were recognized, equally equal to the law, Catholic and Lutheran.

Seeing the collapse of his ideals, Karl V served from all titles to finish his life in one of the Spanish monasteries.

Results of the Reformation in Germany

As a result of the reformation, there was a complete transformation of Germany. From now on, the empire was split into two unequal parts. Protestantism defeated mainly in the north. The south of the Empire, including the hereditary possessions of Habsburg and Bavaria, remained for the most part Catholic.

Each prince himself established the faith of his subjects, which even more strengthened the fragmentation of Germany and destroyed any opportunities to prevent it in a centralized state for the sample of other European countries.

From the appeal of Martin Luther "To the Christian nobility of the German nation about the correction of Christianity," June 24, 1520

"The time of silence passed, and time to speak." And "maybe God will still want to help his church through the Mijan, since the clergy, to whom it becomes more appropriate, does not pay attention to anything." After all, "all Christianity came in a terrible decline," and "the activities of the Pope contradicts Scripture." The head of the Christian Church "leads such a secular and magnificent lifestyle, to achieve and compare with whom no king, no emperor. In Rome - "Purchase, sale, exchange, exchange, fuss, luxury, deception, robbery, theft, luxury, fornage, meanness and disregard for God in all kinds, so he could not rule the antichrist." There, "no one does not bother, which is legally, and what is illegal, they only think about what brings money, and what - no."

Therefore, "the German nation, bishops and princes must take care of Christianity and the people who are entrusted to manage it and protect his material and spiritual benefits." The German "Christian nobility should oppose the dad as against the universal enemy and the destroyer of Christianity." It should "help the German nation again become Christian and free from the miserable, pagan and non-Christian dad's rule."

"And he wants much more, so that this empire is governed by the Christian German state owner."

References:
V.V. Socks, etc. Andreevskaya / history since the end of XV to end of XVIII century

Reformation - the church-social movement of the XVI century in Europe against the Catholic Church, in which the struggle for religious ideals intertwined with the class struggle of the peasantry and the emerging bourgeoisie with feudals. Became a catalyst for the collapse of the feudal society and the occurrence of incharging forms of capitalism

Causes of Reformation

Catholicism was a whole system that has imposed a framework for the entire culture and social organization European peoples:

— Catholic universalism denied nationality
— Theocratic idea pressed the state
— The clergy had a privileged position in society, subordinating the church care secular estate
— Dogmism provided thoughts too narrow sphere
— The Catholic Church was reborn from the comforter and conductor of ideas of social justice in the cruel feudal land owner and the oppressor
— Inconsistency of the lifestyle of the servants of the Church what they preached
— Incapacity, licenses and corruption of the church bureaucracy
— Growing material demands of the Roman Church: All believers paid the tenth - a tax in the amount of 1/10 of all income. Open trade in church posts
— Existence huge number Monasteries who had extensive land ownership and other wealth, with a numerous idle population
— The sale of indulgences, launched to finance the construction of the Cathedral of St. Peter in Rome, too clearly and cynically demonstrated not the care of the church about the shoes of the flock, but the desire for enrichment, earthly benefits
— The invention of printing
— Discovery of America
— Renewal of interest in ancient culture, accompanied by the flowering of art, for many centuries served exclusively in the interests of the Church

In the fight against the Catholic Church, all the secular institutions of the European Society were united: government, emerging bourgeoisie, crushed by the oppression of the peasantry, intellectuals, representatives of free professions. They fought not in the name of the purity of Christian verbation, not in the name of the restoration of the Bible as the main authority in the affairs of religion, not in the name of the requirements of conscience and religious thought, but because Catholicism prevented the free development of social relations in all spheres of life

Reformation in Europe

The formal start of the Reformation is considered to be October 31, 1517, when the Vicar of the dean of the Order of Augustines Martin Luther unveiled his 95 abstracts against the trading of Pope Indulgences *

• 1520s - Germany
• 1525 - Prussia, Livonia
• 1530s - England
• 1536 - Denmark
• 1536 - Norway
• 1540 - Iceland
• 1527-1544 - Sweden
• 1518-1520 - Switzerland: Zurich, Bern, Basel, Geneva
• 1520-1530 - France: Lutherancy and Anabaptism
• 1550s - France: Calvinism
• 1540-1560s - Netherlands

Reformation figures

• Martin Luther (1483-1546) - Germany
• Philip Melanchton (1497-1560) - Germany
• Hans Touain (1494-1561) - Denmark
• Olaus Petri (1493-1552) - Sweden
• Ulrich Zwingley (1484-1531) - Switzerland
• Jean Calvin (1509-1564) - France, Switzerland
• Thomas Tranmer (1489-1556) - England
• John Noks (1514? -1572) - Scotland
• J. Lefevre (1450-1536) - France
• Bronsne (1470-1534) - France
• M. Agrikola (1510-1557) - Finland
• T. Müntser (1490-1525) - Germany

As a result of the Reformation, some of the believers perceived the ideas of its main figures of Luther and Calvin, turning from Catholics in Lutheran and Calvinists

Martin Luther Brief Biography

• 1483 (1484?), November 10 - Born in Eisleben (Saxony)
• 1497- 1498 - Study at the Lollard School in Magdeburg
• 1501 - 1505 - Study at the University of Erfurt
• 1505 - 1506 - Novice in the monastery of Augustinsev (Erfurt)
• 1506 - accepted monastic vow
• 1507 - ordained in the priestly san
• 1508 - She moves into Wiggenbergek Monastery and enters the theological faculty of Wiggenberg University
• 1512, October 19 - Martin Luther receives the degree of Dr. Bologovo
• 1515 - elected by the vicar of the dean (11 monasteries) of the Order of Augustin.
• 1617, October 31 - Father Martin Luther posted on the doors of the Wittenberg Parish Church of 95 theses about indulgences.
• 1517-1520 - Numerous theological articles with criticism of existing orders in the church
• 1520, June 15 - Bulla Pope LVA X, in which the Luther is offered in a 60-day term to renounce its heretical ideas
• 1520, December 10 - on the City Square of Wiggenberg, the crowd of students and monks under the leadership of Luther burned Papal Bulla and the writings of Luther's opponents.
• 1521, January 3 - Bulla Lion X on the emission of Martin Luther from the Church.
• 1521, May - 1522, March - Martin Luther under the name of Yurgen Jorga hiding in the Wartburg fortress, continuing his journalistic activities
• 1522, March 6 - Return to Wittenberg
• 1525, June 13 - Marriage on Catharina Bohr
  1525, December 29 - the first worship for the new rite, performed by Luther.
• 1526, June 7 - Son Luther Hans was born
• 1527, December 10 - the daughter of Luther Elizabeth, who was deceased on April 3, 1528, was born.
• 1522-1534 - Publicistic activities, translation into German Books of the Prophets and Bible
• 1536, 21-28mmay - in Wittenberg, chaired by Luther held a meeting of the largest theologians of the new faith
• 1537, February 9 - Protestant Congress in Schmalkalden, for which Luther wrote a "symbol of faith."
• 1537-1546 - Publicistics, Connectors in Germany
• 1546, February 18 - Martin Luther died of heart disease

The main idea of \u200b\u200bLutheranism is the salvation of the personal faith, which is given by God, without the help of the Church. The connection of God and man has a personal character, the church is not an intermediary between God and man. All believers are recognized as equal to Christ, the priests lose the position of a special estate. Religious communities themselves invite pastors and choose the governing bodies. The source of creed is the Bible, which the believer has the right to independently explain. Instead of Latin, worship is conducted in the native language of the believer

Brief biography of Jean Calvin

• 1509, July 10 - Born in the French city of Nuayon
• 1513-1531 in Paris, Orleans, Bourget compressed humanitarian sciences, jurisprudence, theology, received a degree of licentia
• 1532, Spring - on own funds Published its first scientific work - Comments on the Treatment of Seneki "About Meekness"
• 1532 - received a doctoral degree in Orleans
• 1532, the second half - became a protestant
• 1533, October - wrote a speech "On Christian Philosophy" for the rector of the University of Nicolas Kopa, for which he has undergone persecution
• 1533-1535 - as the author of Kramol speech hid in the south of France
• 1535, Winter - Fearing for your life, fled to Switzerland
• 1536, the first half - lived in Basel and the Italian town of Ferrara at the courtyard of the Duchess of Ferrars, the daughter of King Louis Xii, published his main work "Establishment of Christian Faith"
• 1536, July-1538, Spring - lived in Geneva, until he was expelled
• 1538-1540 - Bern, Zurich, Strasbourg
• 1540, September - Marriage on the widow idette the corder
• 1541, September 13 - Return to Geneva by decision of the city council
• 1541, November 20 - presented the draft charter of the Church, which was approved by the General Assembly of citizens

The Charter provided for the election of 12 elders. In the hands of elders, the judicial and controlling power was concentrated. Everything state device Geneva received a strict religious character. Gradually, all city authorities concentrated in the Small Council, which Calvin had an unlimited influence.
The laws taken at the insistence of Calvin were aimed at making a model of the "hail of God" from Geneva. Geneva was supposed to become a Protestant Rome. Calvin called for strictly follow the cleanliness and order in Geneva - she had to become a model for other cities in everything.
The task of Church Calvin considered the religious education of all citizens. For this purpose, Calvin conducted a number of reforms aimed at approving "Mirsky asceticism". A magnificent Catholic cult was abolished, severe administrative measures were adopted aimed at strengthening morality. All citizens were installed petty and capeful supervision. The visits to the church service became mandatory, the entertainment, dancing, bright clothes, loud laughter were prohibited. Gradually, a single theater was left in Geneva, the mirrors were broken down by unnecessaries, elegant hairstyle were obstructed. Calvin was distinguished by a heavy, powerful character. He was intolerable and treated Catholics, and to representatives of other reformation. In his insistence, opponents of his teachings were exposed to exile and even death penalty. Only in 1546 in Geneva 58 death sentences were adopted and 76 decrees of exile from the city

• 1553 - by sentence of the Geneva Consistor, was executed for the heretical views of M. Server. For the first time I made a death sentence for dissent
• 1559 - The foundation of the Geneva Academy - the Higher Theological Institute for Preparations
• 1564, May 27 - Calvin died. He was buried without a ceremony, without a monument on the grave. Soon his burial was lost

The main idea of \u200b\u200bCalvinism is the doctrine of "absolute predestination", according to which God even before the "creation of the world" predetermined some people to "salvation", others to "death", and this sentence of God is absolutely unchanged. However, the doctrine of "absolute predestination" had no fatalistic nature. According to Calvinism, life is given to a person in order to reveal the abilities laid in it, and success in earthly affairs represents a sign of salvation. Calvinism proclaimed new moral values \u200b\u200b- thrift and calculation in combination with tireless labor, moderation in everyday life, the spirit of entrepreneurship

Counterfeiting

Any action involves countering. The Catholic Europe's Reformation Movement responds with countertilization (1543 - 1648). The Catholic Church refused to provide indulgences, new monastic orders and spiritual seminaries were founded, uniform liturgies were introduced (the main Christian worship service), the Gregorian calendar, was suppressed by the Reformation in Poland, the lands of the Habsburgs, France. Counterfeiting issued the final gap of Catholicism with Protestantism

Results of the Reformation and Counterfeiting

— Believers of Europe were divided into Catholics and Protestants
— Europe plunged into a series of religious wars (,)
— Countries in which Protestantia won, more actively began to "build capitalism"

* Indulgence - Scope of sins for money