Russians in Siberia in the 17th century. Peoples of Siberia

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CHAPTER XXXIX Industry and Crooks In the region of Vicksburg, where the river formerly corkscrewed, it is now relatively straight, having changed its course; her former journey of seventy miles was reduced to thirty-five. Because of this change, Vicksburg's neighboring city of Delta in

During the 17th century, the vast Siberian Territory, sparsely populated by indigenous people, was passed by Russian explorers “meeting the sun” to the coast of the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bOkhotsk and firmly established as part of Russia. The Moscow government paid close attention to the topic of settling Siberia.

The northern and eastern borders of the Russian state within Siberia almost coincided with the natural geographical borders of the northern part of the Asian continent.

The situation was different in the southern regions of Siberia. Russian advance to the south in the 17th century. faced a counter offensive by the Manchu, Mongol and Dzungar feudal lords and was suspended.

Since the beginning of the 18th century, after the Dzungarian rulers had withdrawn part of the Yenisei Kirghiz and Teleuts to the south to the Ili River valley, the Russians began settling the Yenisei basin south of Krasnoyarsk, Northern Altai and the Upper Ob region. In the XVIII century. Russian settlement covered primarily the South Siberian lands. What was this settlement of Siberia? The term settlement does not mean at all that there were no inhabitants, and does not at all exclude that part of the local population was of Slavic origin. There was a resettlement of people from the western part of the country to the east - this is what this settlement consisted of in the first place. So to be more precise - the history of development, not settlement.

Russian geopolitics in the region consisted in the fact that the tsarist government tried to avoid all kinds of conflicts and military clashes here. It tried to establish regular trade relations with the Kazakhs, Dzungaria, China, the Central Asian states and even India. At the same time, the southern borders were strengthened by building systems of fortresses.

Creation of defensive lines

The creation of a line of Irtysh fortresses further contributed to the settlement of forest-steppe regions by Russians. From the taiga districts, unfavorable in terms of climatic conditions for arable farming, mastered by Russian farmers as early as the 17th century, the resettlement of peasants to the forest-steppe began. Villages appear near the Omsk fortress, where peasants from the Tyumen district moved. Omsk and Chernolutsk settlements, the villages of Bolshaya Kulachinskaya, Malaya Kulachinskaya, Krasnoyarskaya, Miletina appear here.

In the 30s of the XVIII century. West of the Irtysh, the Ishim fortified line was formed. It included up to 60 fortified settlements. It started at the Chernolutsk prison (slightly lower than the Omsk fortress), went to the Bolsheretskaya fortress, Zudilovsky prison, Korkinskaya settlement (Ishim), Ust-Lamenskaya and Omutnaya fortresses, then passed south of Kurgan to the Lebyazhy prison.

The territory of the forest-steppe lying south of the Ishim line to the river. Kamyshlovaya and bitter-salty lakes, remained in the 30s of the XVIII century. inhabited by no one. Only occasionally did hunter Tatars, Russian hunters, peasants and Cossacks come here for hunting and fishing. By the middle of the XVIII century. north of the river Kamyshlovaya and bitter-salty lakes appeared Russian villages.

After the death of the Dzungarian ruler Galdan-Tseren in 1745, a struggle broke out between separate groups of feudal lords in Dzungaria. The aggravation of the internal political situation in the khanate led to the movements of the nomads of individual noyons and their offensive against the Kazakh pastoralists, who were pushed north into the Ishim and Irtysh steppes. Events in Dzungaria and information about the preparation of a military campaign in Dzungaria by the Manchu feudal lords prompted the tsarist government to strengthen the defense of the Siberian borders.

In 1745, the Russian government transferred regular military units (two infantry and three cavalry regiments) to the Siberian line under the command of Major General Kinderman. By decree of the Senate, in 1752, construction began on a new line of fortifications, called Presnogorkovskaya, or Gorkaya, which was completed in 1755. The line began from the Omsk fortress on the Irtysh, went west through the fortresses of Pokrovskaya, Nikolaevskaya, Lebyazhya, Midday, Petropavlovsk , Skopinsky, Stanovaya, Presnovskaya, Kabanya, Presnogorkovskaya to Zverinogolovskaya. With the construction of the Presnogorkovskaya line, the Ishimskaya line located to the north lost its significance.

The vast forest-steppe region between the old Ishim and Presnogorkovskaya lines along the Ishim, Vagay and Tobol, favorable for arable farming, began to be actively settled and developed by Russian farmers. Already by the middle of the XVIII century. there was an intensive resettlement of peasants from the regions of Tobolsk, Tyumen and other territories to the Presnogorkovskaya line. In 1752 alone, more than 1,000 peasants from the Tobolsk, Ishim, and Krasnoslobodsk districts declared their desire to move to the area of ​​the line.

Breeders Demidovs

After the transfer of the Altai industrial enterprises of the Demidovs into the hands of the royal Cabinet, Russian possessions in Altai were expanded and strengthened. At the end of the 50s of the XVIII century. formed the Kolyvan line of fortifications. It ran from the Irtysh along its tributary, the Uba, to the confluence of the Shemanaikha River. Further, the line went through the Shemanaikha outpost, the Zmeinogorsky mine, the Kolyvansky plant and to the village of Moralikhi. In the 60s of the XVIII century. defensive structures in Altai were somewhat shifted to the south. The new line was named Kolyvano-Kuznetskaya. It went from Ust-Kamenogorsk through a number of outposts (Krasnoyarsky, Ubinsky, Tigiretsky, Charyshsky, Antonevsky) to the fortresses of Anuiskaya, Katunskaya, Biyskaya and to the city of Kuznetsk.

Under the protection of defensive lines, the mining and metallurgical industries in Altai expanded, the Russian peasantry settled and developed the fertile lands of the southern part of Western Siberia.

The arrival of peasants to the lands of Siberia

The overwhelming majority of the peasants who arrived in Siberia were fugitives - from the landowners' estates, state (black-moss) lands of the north of European Russia. The main reason that pushed the peasants to leave for Siberia from their habitable places was the desire to settle down on lands free from private owners. Russian settlers had to overcome enormous difficulties, connected not only with vast expanses and impassability. To a much greater extent, peasant migration to Siberia was hindered by the dominance of feudal relations in the country, the personal dependence of the peasants on the landlords, and the attachment of serfs to land plots.

The extent of the free people's colonization of the Siberian Territory in the feudal era attracted the attention of a number of pre-revolutionary researchers (P. N. Butsinsky, N. N. Ogloblin, N. M. Yadrintsev, V. K. Andrievich, and others). Many of them emphasized the presence in the composition of the Russian population of Siberia of fugitive peasants who had broken with the feudal tax in their former place of residence. D. N. Belikov noted that the flight of peasants to Siberia acquired a particularly large scale in the first quarter of the 18th century. in connection with the wars and Peter's reforms, which were a heavy burden on the Russian people. Belikov wrote: “It is difficult to find a document during the time of Peter the Great concerning the internal life of the peasants, where there would be no government complaints about peasant flight. The peasants fled from taxes, from military service, from government work ... In vain on the paths along which the fugitives went, the government set up outposts. The Uteklets were able to make their way along the deaf paths, bypassing the barriers.

Most intensively in the XVIII century. the settlement of Western Siberia developed, more precisely, the Russians settled in its eastern part (Tomsk province). Not only settlers from the European part of Russia were drawn here, but also the migration of a part of the peasant population from the borders of the Tobolsk province began.

At the same time, in the northern taiga and tundra regions, there was even a decrease in the Russian population. In the Tobolsk district, the most populated in the 17th century, the Russian population for 1767-1782. decreased by 30%, and in Tyumen and Turin increased very slightly. In the Berezovsky district, the Russian population decreased by a quarter in the 1740s-1760s.

Speaking of population growth during the 18th century, one should not lose sight of the fact that Siberia was sparsely populated. According to the revision data, the entire population of Siberia (in the revision souls of the male sex) amounted to the population of Russia (within the 20s of the 18th century) in 1719 3.1%, in 1744 -3.4%, in 1762 -3.7 %, in 1782 -4.2%, in 1795 - 4.2%. In fact, through the efforts and labor of a relatively small part of the Russian people (several tens of thousands of people), a huge region was mastered, new settlements were founded, tract roads of grandiose length were laid, agriculture was expanded, gradually shifting to the south, mining and metallurgical industries were created.

The construction of fortresses along the Irtysh and the creation of the Irtysh fortified line largely prevented the raids of the Dzhungar tribes into the Baraba steppe, the upper Ob region and Northern Altai.

The ethnically diverse population of Altai in the first half of the 18th century. experienced significant impact neighboring nomadic state of Dzungaria. Some northern Altaians, inhabitants of the upper Ob region and groups of Baraba Tatars remained "two-dancers". The Southern Altaians were completely subordinate to Dzungaria. The Dzungarian state did not create a strong administrative apparatus in Altai and kept the Altaians in subjection through local nobility and visiting officials. The collection of tribute from the Altai tribes took place during periodic raids, which were essentially predatory military raids.

Outrages and the decline of the Dzungarian state

By the middle of the XVIII century. Dzungaria weakened due to the constant feuds of local feudal lords and military defeats inflicted on it by the Manchu troops. In 1755-1756. the imperial troops raided a significant part of the Dzungarian territory. “This capture,” wrote L.P. Potapov, “was accompanied by great cruelty towards the population.” Fleeing from the persecution of Chinese detachments, the Altaians subject to Dzungaria and part of the Dzungarian population migrated to the Russian border fortresses. In 1756, 12 Altai zaisans turned to the tsarist government with a request to accept them and their people into Russian citizenship. The request of the zaisans was granted. By November 1756, the inhabitants of 13,000 wagons voluntarily accepted Russian citizenship.

After the final defeat of Dzungaria by Chinese troops in 1758, the situation on the southern border of Siberia continued to be alarming. The government built fortifications, attracted new personnel to carry out the military guard border service. To replenish the garrisons of the southern Siberian fortresses in 1763-1764. Several cavalry and foot detachments were formed from the fugitive schismatics (Old Believers) returned to Russia, who lived in the regions of Starodubye and the Polskaya Vetka. They were placed mainly in the department of the Ust-Kamenogorsk fortress along the tributaries of the Irtysh - Ube, Ulba and Glubokaya, and partially - in the Baraba steppe. Almost at the same time, a significant number of Don Cossacks were transferred to the Siberian defensive lines, introducing them into the "linear" Cossacks. In the early 70s of the XVIII century. 150 Zaporizhzhya Cossacks exiled to Siberia were settled in fortified points of the border strip.

After the fall of the Dzungarian state, the tsarist government was able to annex to Russia the southern Altaians who lived along the upper reaches of the Irtysh at the confluence of the Ulba, Bukhtarma and Narym, as well as in the upper reaches of the Biya, Katun and in the region of Lake Teletskoye.

In 1760, an expedition of Major Shansky was sent from the Ust-Kamenogorsk fortress up the Irtysh, and then along the Bukhtarma to its sources. In 1763, a Russian fortress (Bukhtarma) was founded at the mouth of the Bukhtarma, but in the valley of the river. Bukhtarma did not undertake the construction of a line of fortifications.

The Kolyvano-Kuznetskaya line was reinforced with new fortifications and renamed the Biysk Cossack line. Altaians roamed south of the Russian border fortifications. Gradually, behind the line of fortifications in the river valleys and mountain gorges, Russians also began to settle, mainly artisans and factory peasants who fled from the Altai industrial enterprises, as well as newcomers from different regions of the country who fled from their feudal owners.

The mountainous region of Altai, which lay behind the fortified line, received the name Belovodie, i.e., “the land of the free, abundant and convenient for settlement,” as the local historian wrote about this in the middle of the 19th century. S. I. Gulyaev. Russian settlers of Belovodie in the 18th century. were called "masons", that is, the inhabitants of a mountainous country - "Stone". "Bricklayers" in Belovodye settled in remote, hard-to-reach places, were engaged in fishing, beat deer and wild goats, hunted sable and squirrel in winter. The “industrial huts” of the “masons”, most often scattered one by one, were located in the gorges of the Listvyazhny Ridge, Kholzun and Katunsky proteins. Russian aliens also lived in the valley of the river. Bukhtarmy.

Intensified search for ore deposits, carried out by the administration of the Kolyvano-Voskresensky plants, led in 1784 to the discovery of a copper mine in the Bukhtarma valley. In 1791, G. Zyryanov found a rich deposit of polymetals along the Berezovka River (a tributary of the Bukhtarma), which was called Zyryanozsky. The open Zyryanovsky mine was the southernmost of the Altai mines.

The existence of defensive lines of fortresses, outposts and redoubts created a favorable environment for the economic development of the local peoples and the Russian population of Siberia. The lines had a dual character: they served as military fortifications and at the same time were a chain of Russian settlements in the south. There is clearly a combination of military and peaceful development of the region.

The tsarist government, creating the Siberian fortified lines, initially transferred some service people there from Tyumen, Tara, Tobolsk, Tomsk and other cities. They began to be called "linear" Cossacks, in contrast to the "police" who made up the garrisons of cities. The initial economic development of the southern regions fell on their shoulders. In addition to military guard duty and work related to the strengthening of the line, they were engaged in agriculture, cattle breeding and fishing.

The increase in the number of troops, by the middle of the XVIII century. stationed in Siberian fortresses, caused difficulties in supplying them with food. The necessary provisions came from the "tithe arable land" in the form of grain dues from farmers and were purchased at the Siberian market.

By order of Major General Kinderman, an attempt was made to establish state arable land near the fortresses; Cossacks and soldiers were involved in its processing. State-owned plowing was available near Omsk along the Irtysh line and in Altai (near the Kabanova protection, the Katun and Anui fortresses and in the village of Tyryshkina). The crop failure of 1749, which engulfed the whole of Western Siberia, led to a sharp reduction in crops near the fortresses. It was difficult for the Cossacks and soldiers to combine military guard duty with arable farming, and the attempt to develop agriculture by military border units was not successful. The government had to raise the question of the settlement of the southern regions by peasants.

Development of the territory - the results of the 18th century

The desire of Russian farmers to the steppe regions, which became safe from the invasion of nomads after the construction of fortified lines, was revealed as early as the 40s of the 18th century. In 1745, 29 families of peasants from Berdsky, Chaussky Ostrog and Beloyarskaya Sloboda appealed to the commander of the Siberian lines, General Kinderman, with a request to allow them to move to the department of the Ust-Kamenogorsk fortress. In 1746, peasants of Ishim, Yalutorovsk and Tara districts (a total of 200 males) handed over their petition, drawn up in the name of the Senate, to Kinderman, who were looking for places convenient for arable farming near Ust-Kamenogorsk. In 1747, under the protection of the Omsk fortress, there were already about a thousand revision souls - 687 raznochintsy and 285 peasants

Despite the colonial policy of the tsarist government, the system of collecting yasak from the non-Russian population, the pumping out of furs by merchants and fishermen, which led to the devastation of commercial hunting grounds in some areas of the Siberian taiga, in general, in Siberia, the hunting and fishing economy of the indigenous population was not destroyed. There were no agricultural plantations created where the labor of indigenous people would be exploited. Attempts to cultivate state arable land by the forces of the Voguls-Mansi and Siberian Tatars failed already at the end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th centuries.

The Russian people, who came from the European part of the country to Siberia or moved from one region to another for one reason or another, played a huge role in the development of productive forces, in the development of virgin lands, in the creation of domestic industry, crafts and trades, in the development of trade and monetary ties and had a positive impact on improving receptions economic activity indigenous Siberian population.

The increase in the number of Russian inhabitants occurred both due to free people's colonization (in the vast majority in the form of peasant resettlement), and through a number of government measures. The government sought to forcibly populate the most important economic and military-strategic areas for it: the highway, the territories of mountain mines and metallurgical plants adjacent to the fortified land line. It sent exiled Don and Zaporizhzhya Cossacks to Siberia, fugitive schismatics returned to Russia, used landlord peasants and householders sent by the owners for "prejudiced deeds" to offset recruits for the development of the region, carried out a forced redistribution of the Russian population across the territory of the region.

Goals and objectives: 1. To reveal the features of the development of the peoples of Siberia in the 17th century, to prove the progressive role of the Russian people in the development of Northeast Asia.

2. To promote the development of skills in working with sources, additional literature, a historical map, the ability to generalize material, to actively perceive information.

3. To cultivate a sense of respect and pride for the Russian explorers who discovered a harsh and beautiful land.

Lesson plan: 1. Organizational moment. Setting goals and objectives.

2. The peoples of Siberia in the XVII century. Differences in living conditions.

3. Promotion of Russian people to Siberia:

a) the goals of the development of Siberia. New cities.

b) explorers and sailors in the 17th century.

4. The historical significance of the annexation of Siberia.

Try to describe in the form of a travel diary an episode of a Cossack's journey to Siberia in the 17th century.

Basic concepts: prison, yasak, explorers, kochi, replies.

The most important dates: 1648 - S. Dezhnev's sea voyage;

1643-1646 - Expedition of V. Poyarkov to the Amur;

1649 - 1653 - E. Khabarov's campaign on the Amur;

17th - 18th centuries - publication of the book by S.U. Remezov “Drawing map of Siberia”

Outstanding personalities: pioneers S.I. Dezhnev, V.D. Poyarkov, E.P. Khabarov, V. V. Atlasov.

Lesson equipment:

1. Educational map “Russia in the 17th century”.

2. Textbook “History of the Fatherland grade 6–7” A.A. Preobrazhensky,

B.A. Rybakov. M.: Education, 2001.

3. Video excerpt from the film "Ermak".

4. Phonograms: sea noise, forest noise.

5. Literary exhibition:

a) encyclopedic Dictionary young local historian. M. Pedagogy, 1981

b) N.V. Severin “Domestic travelers and researchers”. M.1956

c) “The Arctic is my north. Polar Encyclopedia of the North in biographies

famous people." M. 2000

d) I.Magidovich “Essays on the history of geographical discoveries”

e) Leontyeva G.A. “Explorer E.P.Khabarov”. M. Enlightenment, 1991

f) “Russia XV – XVII centuries. through the eyes of foreigners. Lenizdat, 1986

6. Routes of explorers.

7. Epigraph: “From century to century, from century to century

There was a strong Russian man

To the Far North and East

Irresistibly like a stream” (from an old Siberian song).

In the last lesson, we talked about the culture of the Russian people in the 17th century. But this topic cannot be imagined without the great discoveries made by the explorers of the Russian state. These people not only discovered new lands, but also brought to the peoples Northeast Asia achieves the Russian people, Russian culture, while maintaining the cultural and ethnographic features of these peoples. In today's lesson, you will learn about the brave and brave people who discovered a harsh and beautiful land. We are proud that it was the Russians who were the first to visit these parts. These people are united by resilience and courage, selfless love for the Motherland.

The 17th century is the time of great geographical discoveries.

/ sounds the sound of the sea /

By the 17th century, many in Western Europe already knew about Africa and America, established trade relations with India and China.

1606 - Australia was discovered, sailing to the islands of Oceania;

1610 - Hudson's trip to North America took place;

1616 - there was a voyage of Baffin in the North Seas;

1634 - J. Nicole's journey through North America, the discovery of Lake Michigan.

/attach "ships" to the globe/

But here the northeast of Asia was shrouded in mystery for Europeans, although it attracted with its unexplored riches.

“Guys, let's remember what Siberia was so rich in?”

The British tried to get to Siberia by sea, but these attempts ended in failure. Further than to the mouth of the Oka, none of the sailors could get. Therefore, it was not by chance that rumors arose about the wonders of life at the “end of the earth”, as they called Siberia.

Now we will hear how Europeans who have visited Siberia and heard about it describe this region.

A phonogram sounds with excerpts from the works of Sigismund Herberstein, William Worker.

“What did the peoples of Siberia really represent in the 17th century?”

On an area of ​​13 million km - lived a rare small population, less than 300 thousand people. It was possible to travel thousands of kilometers on a reindeer sleigh and not meet a single village. The small peoples of Siberia, speaking different languages, lived in relatively small associations of clans into a tribe. They got their food in different ways. Khanty and Mansi were hunters and cattle breeders. Evenks, Nenets, Enets were reindeer herders. Reindeer herders and hunters led a nomadic lifestyle. They set up yurts deer skins. Their religion was pagan.

“Guys, remember who the pagans are?”

They considered the spirits of the air, the earth as their patrons, as well as ancestors with whom they could communicate through shamans - smart and cunning people who knew the psychology of people well and used fears of the forces of nature, faith in miracles, and hopes for the help of spirits.

The local population of Siberia was hardy, industrious, knew nature very well. The people were friendly and honest. Short, dressed in fur clothes, they seemed similar to each other, but each, even the smallest nationality, had its own characteristics, traditions and talents.

The level of the peoples who inhabited Siberia in the 17th century was different, since the peoples living in the permafrost zone, in the tundra, were at the lowest level of the primitive communal system. And on the banks of the Amur lived a settled agricultural population. But all the small peoples who inhabited Siberia in their development were very different from the Russian people.

Back in the 10th-12th centuries, Novgorodians went for a “stone”, that is, Ural mountains, and exchanged axes, knives and other iron tools for the furs of sables, arctic foxes, martens ...

“Let's remember, during which king did the annexation of Western Siberia take place?”

“What happened in 1581-1585?”

/watching a video excerpt from the film “Ermak”/

What are the goals of the development of Siberia?

Working with diagrams

Since the beginning of the 17th century, cities have arisen from winter quarters, prisons of pioneers:

Mangazeya;

Tomsk (1604);

Yeniseisk (1619);

Krasnoyarsk (1628);

Turukhan;

Yakutsk (1632);

/attach nameplates to the map/

About 140 cities were built in the 17th century.

Russian people during the development of new lands made many geographical discoveries.

Now you will listen to the oral journal "Explorers of the 17th century."

/ forest noise sounds /

It is prepared by four students. They prepare the route and the story.

1. S.I. Dezhnev

2. V.D. Poyarkov

3. E.P. Khabarov

4. V.V. Atlasov.

And now we will read clause 3 of paragraph 33 “The historical significance of the annexation of Siberia” and answer the questions:

“What was the significance of the annexation of Siberia for Russia, for the local peoples?”

“How did joining Russia affect the life of local peoples?”

Let's summarize the lesson. Quote from Lomonosov M.V. "The wealth of Russia will grow in Siberia."

Assistance in the implementation of d / z will be provided by books presented at a literary exhibition.

Features of the peoples of Siberia

In addition to anthropological and linguistic features, the peoples of Siberia have a number of specific, traditionally stable cultural and economic features that characterize the historical and ethnographic diversity of Siberia. In cultural and economic terms, the territory of Siberia can be divided into two large historically developed regions: the southern one is the region of ancient cattle breeding and agriculture; and northern - the area of ​​commercial hunting and fishing economy. The boundaries of these areas do not coincide with the boundaries of landscape zones. Stable economic and cultural types of Siberia developed in antiquity as a result of historical and cultural processes of different time and nature, which took place in a homogeneous natural and economic environment and under the influence of external foreign cultural traditions.

By the 17th century among the indigenous population of Siberia, according to the predominant type of economic activity, the following economic and cultural types have developed: 1) foot hunters and fishermen of the taiga zone and forest-tundra; 2) sedentary fishermen in the basins of large and small rivers and lakes; 3) sedentary hunters for sea animals on the coast of the Arctic seas; 4) nomadic taiga reindeer herders-hunters and fishermen; 5) nomadic reindeer herders of the tundra and forest-tundra; 6) pastoralists of the steppes and forest-steppes.

In the past, some groups of foot Evenks, Orochs, Udeges, separate groups of Yukagirs, Kets, Selkups, partly Khanty and Mansi, and Shors belonged to the foot hunters and fishermen of the taiga in the past. For these peoples, hunting for meat animals (elk, deer) and fishing were of great importance. A characteristic element of their culture was a hand sled.

The settled-fishing type of economy was widespread in the past among the peoples living in the basins of the river. Amur and Ob: Nivkhs, Nanais, Ulchis, Itelmens, Khanty, part of the Selkups and the Ob Mansi. For these peoples, fishing was the main source of livelihood throughout the year. The hunt had an auxiliary character.

The type of sedentary hunters for sea animals is represented among the settled Chukchi, Eskimos, and partly settled Koryaks. The economy of these peoples is based on the extraction of sea animals (walrus, seal, whale). Arctic hunters settled on the coasts of the Arctic seas. The products of the marine fur trade, in addition to meeting personal needs for meat, fat and skins, also served as a subject of exchange with neighboring related groups.

Nomadic taiga reindeer breeders, hunters and fishermen were the most common type of economy among the peoples of Siberia in the past. He was represented among the Evenks, Evens, Dolgans, Tofalars, Forest Nenets, Northern Selkups, and Reindeer Kets. Geographically, it covered mainly the forests and forest-tundra of Eastern Siberia, from the Yenisei to the Sea of ​​Okhotsk, and also extended west of the Yenisei. The basis of the economy was hunting and keeping deer, as well as fishing.

The nomadic reindeer herders of the tundra and forest-tundra include the Nenets, reindeer Chukchi and reindeer Koryaks. These peoples have developed a special type of economy, the basis of which is reindeer husbandry. Hunting and fishing, as well as sea fishing, are of secondary importance or are completely absent. The main food product for this group of peoples is deer meat. The deer also serves as a reliable vehicle.

Cattle breeding in the steppes and forest-steppes in the past was widely represented among the Yakuts, the world's northernmost pastoral people, among the Altaians, Khakasses, Tuvans, Buryats, and Siberian Tatars. Cattle breeding was of a commercial nature, the products almost completely satisfied the needs of the population in meat, milk and dairy products. Agriculture among pastoral peoples (except for the Yakuts) existed as an auxiliary branch of the economy. Some of these peoples were engaged in hunting and fishing.

Along with the indicated types of economy, a number of peoples also had transitional types. For example, the Shors and Northern Altaians combined sedentary cattle breeding with hunting; The Yukaghirs, Nganasans, Enets combined reindeer herding with hunting as their main occupation.

The diversity of cultural and economic types of Siberia determines the specifics of the development of the natural environment by indigenous peoples, on the one hand, and the level of their socio-economic development, on the other. Prior to the arrival of the Russians, economic and cultural specialization did not go beyond the framework of the appropriating economy and primitive (hoe) agriculture and cattle breeding. Diversity natural conditions contributed to the formation of various local variants of economic types, the oldest of which were hunting and fishing.

At the same time, it should be taken into account that "culture" is an extrabiological adaptation, which entails the need for activity. This explains such a multitude of economic and cultural types. Their peculiarity is a sparing attitude to natural resources. And in this all economic and cultural types are similar to each other. However, culture is, at the same time, a system of signs, a semiotic model of a particular society (ethnos). Therefore, a single cultural and economic type is not yet a community of culture. The common thing is that the existence of many traditional cultures is based on a certain way of managing the economy (fishing, hunting, sea hunting, cattle breeding). However, cultures can be different in terms of customs, rituals, traditions, and beliefs.

Random photos of nature

General characteristics of the peoples of Siberia

The number of the indigenous population of Siberia before the beginning of Russian colonization was about 200 thousand people. The northern (tundra) part of Siberia was inhabited by tribes of Samoyeds, in Russian sources called Samoyeds: Nenets, Enets and Nganasans.

The main economic occupation of these tribes was reindeer herding and hunting, and in the lower reaches of the Ob, Taz and Yenisei - fishing. The main objects of fishing were arctic fox, sable, ermine. Furs served as the main commodity in the payment of yasak and in trade. Furs were also paid as bride price for the girls who were chosen as their wives. The number of Siberian Samoyeds, including the tribes of the southern Samoyeds, reached about 8 thousand people.

To the south of the Nenets lived the Ugrian-speaking tribes of the Khanty (Ostyaks) and Mansi (Voguls). The Khanty were engaged in fishing and hunting; in the region of the Gulf of Ob they had reindeer herds. The main occupation of the Mansi was hunting. Before the arrival of the Russian Mansi on the river. Toure and Tavde were engaged in primitive agriculture, cattle breeding, and beekeeping. The area of ​​settlement of the Khanty and Mansi included the regions of the Middle and Lower Ob with tributaries, pp. Irtysh, Demyanka and Konda, as well as the western and eastern slopes of the Middle Urals. The total number of the Ugric-speaking tribes of Siberia in the 17th century. reached 15-18 thousand people.

To the east of the settlement area of ​​the Khanty and Mansi lay the lands of the southern Samoyeds, the southern or Narym Selkups. For a long time, the Russians called the Narym Selkups Ostyaks because of the similarity of their material culture with the Khanty. The Selkups lived along the middle reaches of the river. Ob and its tributaries. The main economic activity was seasonal fishing and hunting. They hunted fur-bearing animals, elk, wild deer, upland and waterfowl. Before the arrival of the Russians, the southern Samoyeds were united in a military alliance, which was called the Pegoy Horde in Russian sources, led by Prince Voni.

To the east of the Narym Selkups lived tribes of the Ket-speaking population of Siberia: the Kets (Yenisei Ostyaks), Arins, Kotts, Yastyns (4-6 thousand people), who settled in the Middle and Upper Yenisei. Their main occupations were hunting and fishing. Some groups of the population extracted iron from ore, products from which were sold to neighbors or used on the farm.

The upper reaches of the Ob and its tributaries, the upper reaches of the Yenisei, the Altai were inhabited by numerous Turkic tribes that differed greatly in their economic structure - the ancestors of the modern Shors, Altaians, Khakasses: Tomsk, Chulym and "Kuznetsk" Tatars (about 5-6 thousand people), Teleuts ( white Kalmyks) (about 7-8 thousand people), the Yenisei Kirghiz with their subordinate tribes (8-9 thousand people). The main occupation of most of these peoples was nomadic cattle breeding. In some places of this vast territory, hoe farming and hunting were developed. The "Kuznetsk" Tatars had developed blacksmithing.

The Sayan Highlands were occupied by the Samoyed and Turkic tribes of Mators, Karagas, Kamasin, Kachin, Kaysot, and others, with a total number of about 2 thousand people. They were engaged in cattle breeding, breeding horses, hunting, they knew the skills of agriculture.

To the south of the habitats of the Mansi, Selkups and Kets, Turkic-speaking ethno-territorial groups were widespread - the ethnic predecessors of the Siberian Tatars: the Baraba, Terenin, Irtysh, Tobol, Ishim and Tyumen Tatars. By the middle of the XVI century. a significant part of the Turks of Western Siberia (from Tura in the west to Baraba in the east) was under the rule of the Siberian Khanate. The main occupation of the Siberian Tatars was hunting, fishing, cattle breeding was developed in the Baraba steppe. Before the arrival of the Russians, the Tatars were already engaged in agriculture. There was a home production of leather, felt, edged weapons, fur dressing. Tatars acted as intermediaries in transit trade between Moscow and Central Asia.

To the west and east of Baikal there were Mongolian-speaking Buryats (about 25 thousand people), known in Russian sources under the name of “brothers” or “brotherly people”. The basis of their economy was nomadic cattle breeding. Farming and gathering were ancillary occupations. The iron-making craft has received a rather high development.

A significant territory from the Yenisei to the Sea of ​​​​Okhotsk, from the northern tundra to the Amur region was inhabited by the Tungus tribes of the Evenks and Evens (about 30 thousand people). They were divided into "deer" (bred deer), which were the majority, and "foot". The "foot" Evenks and Evens were sedentary fishermen and hunted sea animals on the coast of the Sea of ​​Okhotsk. One of the main occupations of both groups was hunting. The main game animals were moose, wild deer, and bears. Domestic deer were used by the Evenks as pack and riding animals.

The territory of the Amur region and Primorye was inhabited by peoples who spoke the Tungus-Manchurian languages ​​- the ancestors of modern Nanais, Ulchis, Udeges. The Paleo-Asiatic group of peoples inhabiting this territory also included small groups of Nivkhs (Gilyaks), who lived in the neighborhood of the Tungus-Manchurian peoples of the Amur region. They were also the main inhabitants of Sakhalin. The Nivkhs were the only people of the Amur region who widely used sled dogs in their economic activities.

The middle course of the river. Lena, Upper Yana, Olenyok, Aldan, Amga, Indigirka and Kolyma were occupied by Yakuts (about 38 thousand people). It was the most numerous people among the Turks of Siberia. They raised cattle and horses. Animal and bird hunting and fishing were considered auxiliary trades. Home production of metal was widely developed: copper, iron, silver. They made weapons in large numbers, skillfully dressed leather, wove belts, carved wooden household items and utensils.

The northern part of Eastern Siberia was inhabited by the Yukaghir tribes (about 5 thousand people). The boundaries of their lands stretched from the tundra of Chukotka in the east to the lower reaches of the Lena and Olenek in the west. The north-east of Siberia was inhabited by peoples belonging to the Paleo-Asiatic linguistic family: the Chukchi, Koryaks, Itelmens. The Chukchi occupied a significant part of the continental Chukotka. Their number was approximately 2.5 thousand people. The southern neighbors of the Chukchi were the Koryaks (9-10 thousand people), very close in language and culture to the Chukchi. They occupied the entire northwestern part of the Okhotsk coast and the part of Kamchatka adjacent to the mainland. The Chukchi and Koryaks were divided, like the Tungus, into "deer" and "foot".

Eskimos (about 4 thousand people) were settled throughout the coastal strip of the Chukotka Peninsula. The main population of Kamchatka in the XVII century. were Itelmens (12 thousand people). A few Ainu tribes lived in the south of the peninsula. The Ainu were also settled on the islands of the Kuril chain and in the southern tip of Sakhalin.

The economic occupations of these peoples were hunting for sea animals, reindeer herding, fishing and gathering. Before the arrival of the Russians, the peoples of northeastern Siberia and Kamchatka were still at a fairly low stage of socio-economic development. Stone and bone tools and weapons were widely used in everyday life.

An important place in the life of almost all Siberian peoples before the arrival of the Russians was occupied by hunting and fishing. A special role was assigned to the extraction of furs, which was the main subject of trade exchange with neighbors and was used as the main payment of tribute - yasak.

Most of the Siberian peoples in the XVII century. Russians were caught at various stages of patriarchal-tribal relations. The most backward forms of social organization were noted among the tribes of northeastern Siberia (Yukaghirs, Chukchis, Koryaks, Itelmens, and Eskimos). In the field of social relations, some of them showed features of domestic slavery, the dominant position of women, etc.

The most developed socio-economically were the Buryats and Yakuts, who at the turn of the XVI-XVII centuries. patriarchal-feudal relations developed. The only people who had their own statehood at the time of the arrival of the Russians were the Tatars, united under the rule of the Siberian khans. Siberian Khanate by the middle of the 16th century. covered an area stretching from the Tura basin in the west to Baraba in the east. However, this state formation was not monolithic, torn apart by internecine clashes between various dynastic groups. Incorporation in the 17th century Siberia in the composition of the Russian state radically changed the natural course historical process in the region and the fate of the indigenous peoples of Siberia. The beginning of the deformation of traditional culture was associated with the arrival in the region of a population with a productive type of economy, which assumed a different type of human relationship to nature, cultural values ​​and traditions.

Religiously, the peoples of Siberia belonged to different belief systems. The most common form of beliefs was shamanism, based on animism - the spiritualization of the forces and phenomena of nature. A distinctive feature of shamanism is the belief that certain people - shamans - have the ability to enter into direct communication with spirits - patrons and helpers of the shaman in the fight against diseases.

Since the 17th century Orthodox Christianity spread widely in Siberia, Buddhism penetrated in the form of Lamaism. Even earlier, Islam penetrated among the Siberian Tatars. Among the peoples of Siberia, shamanism acquired complicated forms under the influence of Christianity and Buddhism (Tuvans, Buryats). In the XX century. this whole system of beliefs coexisted with an atheistic (materialistic) worldview, which was the official state ideology. Currently, a number of Siberian peoples are experiencing a revival of shamanism.

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The peoples of Siberia on the eve of Russian colonization

Itelmens

Self-name - itelmen, itenmy, itelmen, itelmen - "local resident", "resident", "one who exists", "existing", "living". Indigenous people of Kamchatka. The traditional occupation of the Itelmens was fishing. The main fishing season was the time of salmon run. Fishing tools were constipation, nets, hooks. Nets were woven from nettle threads. With the advent of imported yarn, seines began to be made. The fish was harvested for future use in dried form, fermented in special pits, and frozen in winter. The second most important occupation of the Itelmens was sea hunting and hunting. They hunted seals, fur seals, sea beavers, bears, wild sheep, and deer. Fur-bearing animals were hunted mainly for meat. Bows and arrows, traps, various traps, nooses, nets, and spears served as the main fishing tools. Southern Itelmen hunted whales with the help of arrows poisoned with plant poison. The Itelmens had the widest distribution of gathering among the northern peoples. All edible plants, berries, herbs, roots were used as food. Sarana tubers, mutton leaves, wild garlic, and fireweed had the greatest importance in the diet. Gathering products were stored for the winter in dried, dried, sometimes smoked form. Like many Siberian peoples, gathering was the lot of women. From plants, women made mats, bags, baskets, protective shells. Itelmens made tools and weapons from stone, bone and wood. Rock crystal was used to make knives and harpoon tips. Fire was produced using a special device in the form of a wooden drill. The only pet of the Itelmens was a dog. On the water they moved on bats - dugout deck-shaped boats. The settlements of the Itelmens (“ostrogki” – atynum) were located along the banks of the rivers and consisted of one to four winter dwellings and four to forty-four summer dwellings. The layout of the villages was distinguished by its disorderliness. Wood was the main building material. The hearth was located near one of the walls of the dwelling. A large (up to 100 people) family lived in such a dwelling. In the fields, the Itelmens also lived in light frame buildings - bazhabazh - gable, single-slope and pyramidal dwellings. Such dwellings were covered with tree branches, grass, and heated by a fire. They wore deaf fur clothes from the skins of deer, dogs, marine animals and birds. The set of everyday clothes for men and women included trousers, a kukhlyanka with a hood and a bib, and soft reindeer boots. The traditional food of the Itelmens was fish. The most common fish dishes were yukola, dried salmon caviar, chupriki - fish baked in a special way. In winter they ate frozen fish. Pickled fish heads were considered a delicacy. Boiled fish was also used. Meat and fat of marine animals, vegetable products, poultry meat were used as additional food. The predominant form of social organization of the Itelmens was the patriarchal family. In winter, all its members lived in one dwelling, in summer they broke up into separate families. Family members were connected by ties of kinship. Communal property dominated, early forms of slavery existed. Large family communities and associations were constantly at enmity with each other, waged numerous wars. Marriage was characterized by polygamy - polygamy. All aspects of life and life of the Itelmens were regulated by beliefs and signs. There were ritual festivities associated with the annual economic cycle. The main holiday of the year, which lasted about a month, took place in November, after the completion of the fishery. It was dedicated to the owner of the sea Mitgu. In the past, the Itelmens left the corpses of dead people unburied or gave them to be eaten by dogs, children were buried in hollows of trees.

Yukagirs

Self-name - odul, vadul ("mighty", "strong"). The obsolete Russian name is omoki. Number of 1112 people. The main traditional occupation of the Yukagirs was semi-nomadic and nomadic hunting for wild deer, elk and mountain sheep. Deer were hunted with bows and arrows, crossbows were placed on deer paths, loops were alerted, decoy deer were used, and deer were stabbed at river crossings. In the spring, deer were hunted by paddock. A significant role in the economy of the Yukaghirs was played by hunting for fur-bearing animals: sable, white and blue fox. Tundra Yukaghirs caught geese and ducks during the molting of birds. The hunt for them was of a collective nature: one group of people stretched nets on the lake, the other drove birds deprived of the opportunity to fly into them. Partridges were hunted with the help of loops, during the hunting of sea birds they used throwing darts and a special throwing weapon - bolas, consisting of belts with stones at the ends. The collection of bird eggs was practiced. Along with hunting, fishing played a significant role in the life of the Yukagirs. The main object of the fishery was nelma, muksun, and omul. Fish were caught with nets and traps. Dog and reindeer sleds served as traditional means of transportation for the Yukagirs. On the snow they moved on skis lined with skins. An ancient means of transportation on the river was a raft in the shape of a triangle, the top of which formed the prow. The settlements of the Yukaghirs were permanent and temporary, seasonal. They had five types of dwellings: chum, golomo, booth, yurt, log house. The Yukagir tent (odun-nime) is a conical building of the Tungus type with a frame of 3-4 poles fastened with willow hoops. Deer skins serve as a covering in winter, larch bark in summer. They usually lived in it from spring to autumn. As a summer dwelling, the plague has been preserved to this day. The winter dwelling was golomo (kandele nime) - a pyramidal shape. The winter dwelling of the Yukagirs was also a booth (yanakh-nime). The log roof was insulated with a layer of bark and earth. The Yukagir yurt is a portable cylindrical-conical dwelling. The settled Yukagirs lived in log cabins (in winter and summer) with flat or conical roofs. The main garment was a knee-length swinging robe, made of rovduga in summer and reindeer skins in winter. Seal skin tails were sewn on from below. A bib and short trousers were worn under the caftan, made of leather in summer and fur in winter. Winter clothing made of rovduga was widespread, similar in cut to the Chukchi kamleika and kukhlyanka. Shoes were made of rovduga, hare fur and reindeer skins. Women's clothing was lighter than men's, sewn from the fur of young deer or females. In the 19th century Among the Yukagirs, purchased cloth clothing spread: men's shirts, women's dresses, scarves. Iron, copper and silver ornaments were common. The main food was animal meat and fish. The meat was consumed boiled, dried, raw and frozen. Fat was rendered from fish offal, offal was fried, cakes were baked from caviar. The berry was used with fish. They also ate wild onions, saran roots, nuts, berries, and, which was rare for the Siberian peoples, mushrooms. A feature of the family and marriage relations of the taiga Yukagirs was a matrilocal marriage - after the wedding, the husband moved to his wife's house. The families of the Yukaghirs were large, patriarchal. The custom of levirate was practiced - the duty of a man to marry the widow of his older brother. Shamanism existed in the form of tribal shamanism. The dead shamans could become objects of worship. The shaman's body was dismembered, and its parts were kept as relics, sacrifices were made to them. The customs associated with fire played an important role. It was forbidden to pass the fire to outsiders, to pass between the hearth and the head of the family, to swear at the fire, etc.

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Nivkhs

Self-name - Nivkhgu - "people" or "Nivkh people"; nivkh - "man". The outdated naming of the Nivkhs is Gilyaks. The traditional occupations of the Nivkhs were fishing, sea fishing, hunting and gathering. An important role was played by the fishing of migratory salmon fish - chum salmon and pink salmon. Fish were caught with the help of nets, seines, harpoons, and rides. Among the Sakhalin Nivkhs, marine hunting was developed. They hunted sea lions and seals. Sea lions were caught with large nets, seals were beaten with harpoons and clubs (clubs) when they climbed onto ice floes. Hunting played a smaller role in the economy of the Nivkhs. The hunting season began in autumn, after the end of the course of the fish. They hunted a bear that went out to the rivers to eat fish. The bear was killed with a bow or a gun. Another object of hunting for the Nivkhs was sable. In addition to sable, they also hunted lynx, column, otter, squirrel and fox. The fur was sold to Chinese and Russian purveyors. Dog breeding was widespread among the Nivkhs. The number of dogs in the Nivkh household was an indicator of prosperity and material well-being. On the sea coast, shellfish and seaweed were collected for food. Blacksmithing was developed among the Nivkhs. Metal objects of Chinese, Japanese and Russian origin were used as raw materials. They were reforged to fit their needs. They made knives, arrowheads, harpoons, spears, and other household items. Silver was used to decorate copies. Other crafts were also widespread - the manufacture of skis, boats, sleds, wooden utensils, dishes, bone and leather processing, weaving of mats, baskets. In the economy of the Nivkhs there was a sexual division of labor. Men were engaged in fishing, hunting, making tools, gear, vehicles, harvesting and transporting firewood, blacksmithing. The duty of women included processing fish, seal and dog skins, sewing clothes, preparing birch bark dishes, collecting plant products, maintaining household and dog care. Nivkh settlements were usually located near the mouths of spawning rivers, on the sea coast and rarely had more than 20 dwellings. There were winter and summer permanent dwellings. Dugouts belonged to winter types of dwelling. The summer type of dwelling was the so-called. letniki - buildings on piles 1.5 m high, with a gable roof covered with birch bark. The main food of the Nivkhs was fish. It was consumed raw, boiled and frozen. They prepared yukola, it was often used as bread. Meat was rarely eaten. Nivkh food was seasoned with fish oil or seal oil. Edible plants and berries were also used as seasoning. Mos was considered a favorite dish - a decoction (jelly) made from fish skins, seal oil, berries, rice, with the addition of crumbled yukola. Other dainty dishes were talkk - raw fish salad dressed with wild garlic, and struganina. The Nivkhs got acquainted with rice, millet and tea while still trading with China. After the arrival of the Russians, the Nivkhs began to consume bread, sugar and salt. Currently, national dishes are prepared as holiday treats. The basis of the social structure of the Nivkhs was an exogamous * clan, which included blood relatives in the male line. Each clan had its own generic name, fixing the place of settlement of this clan, for example: Chombing - “living on the Chom River. The classic form of marriage among the Nivkhs was marriage to the mother's brother's daughter. However, it was forbidden to marry the daughter of the father's sister. Each clan was connected by marriage with two more clans. Wives were taken from only one specific clan and given only to a certain clan, but not to the one from which the wives were taken. In the past, the Nivkhs had an institution of blood feud. For the murder of a member of the clan, all the men of this clan had to take revenge on all the men of the murderer's clan. Later, blood feud began to be replaced by ransom. Valuable items served as ransom: chain mail, spears, silk fabrics. Also in the past, wealthy Nivkhs developed slavery, which was patriarchal in nature. Slaves did only household chores. They could start their own household and marry a free woman. The offspring of slaves in the fifth generation became free. The basis of the Nivkh worldview was animistic ideas. In each individual object, they saw a living principle, endowed with a soul. Nature was full of intelligent inhabitants. The killer whale was the owner of all animals. The sky, according to the ideas of the Nivkhs, was inhabited by "heavenly people" - the sun and the moon. The cult associated with the "masters" of nature was generic in nature. A tribal holiday was considered a bear holiday (chkhyf-lekhard - a bear game). It was associated with the cult of the dead, as it was arranged in memory of the deceased relative. It included a complex ceremony of killing a bear with a bow, ritual treatment of bear meat, sacrifice of dogs, and other actions. After the holiday, the head, bones of the bear, ritual utensils and things were put into a special ancestral barn, which was constantly visited regardless of where the Nivkhs lived. A characteristic feature of the funeral rite of the Nivkhs was the burning of the dead. There was also the custom of burial in the ground. During the burning, they broke the sled on which the deceased was brought, and killed the dogs, whose meat was boiled and eaten on the spot. Only members of his family buried the deceased. The Nivkhs had prohibitions associated with the cult of fire. Shamanism was not developed, but there were shamans in every village. The duty of shamans was to treat people and fight evil spirits. Shamans did not take part in the tribal cults of the Nivkhs.

Tuvans

Self-name - tyva kizhi, tyvalar; an outdated name - Soyots, Soyons, Uriankhians, Tannu Tuvans. Indigenous population of Tuva. The number in Russia is 206.2 thousand people. They also live in Mongolia and China. They are divided into western Tuvans of central and southern Tuva and eastern Tuvans (Tuvans-Todzhans) of the northeastern and southeastern parts of Tuva. They speak Tuvan. They have four dialects: central, western, northeastern and southeastern. In the past, the Tuvan language was influenced by the neighboring Mongolian language. Tuvan writing began to be created in the 1930s, based on the Latin alphabet. The beginning of the formation of the Tuvan literary language also belongs to this time. In 1941, Tuvan writing was translated into Russian graphics

The main branch of the economy of the Tuvans was and remains cattle breeding. Western Tuvans, whose economy was based on nomadic cattle breeding, bred small and large cattle, horses, yaks and camels. Pastures were predominantly located in river valleys. During the year, Tuvans made 3–4 migrations. The length of each migration ranged from 5 to 17 km. The herds had several dozen different heads of cattle. Part of the herd was raised annually to provide the family with meat. Animal husbandry fully covered the needs of the population in dairy products. However, the conditions of keeping livestock (grazing throughout the year, constant migrations, the habit of keeping young animals on a leash, etc.) adversely affected the quality of young animals and caused their death. The very technique of cattle breeding led to the frequent death of the entire herd from exhaustion, starvation, disease, and from the attack of wolves. The loss of livestock was estimated at tens of thousands of heads annually.

Reindeer breeding was developed in the eastern regions of Tuva, but Tuvans used reindeer only for riding. Throughout the year, deer grazed on natural pastures. V summer time herds were driven into the mountains, in September the squirrel hunted on deer. Deer were kept openly, without any fences. At night, the calves, along with the queens, were released to pasture, in the morning they returned on their own. They milked deer, like other animals, by suckling, with young animals being let in.

An auxiliary occupation of the Tuvans was irrigation farming with gravity irrigation. The only type of land cultivation was spring plowing. They plowed with a wooden plow (andazin), which was tied to a horse's saddle. They harrowed with drags from the branches of a karagannik (kalagar-iliir). The ears were cut with a knife or pulled out by hand. Russian sickles appeared among the Tuvans only at the beginning of the 20th century. Millet and barley were sown from grain crops. The site was used for three to four years, then it was abandoned to restore fertility.

From home industries, the manufacture of felt, wood processing, dressing of birch bark, processing of skins and dressing of leather, blacksmithing were developed. Felt was made by every Tuvan family. It was needed to cover a portable dwelling, for beds, rugs, bedding, etc. Blacksmiths specialized in the manufacture of bits, girths and buckles, stirrups, iron carts, flint, adzes, axes, etc. By the beginning of the 20th century. in Tuva, there were more than 500 blacksmiths-jewelers, who worked mainly to order. The range of wood products was limited mainly to household items: details of the yurt, dishes, furniture, toys, chess. Women were engaged in processing and dressing the skins of wild and domestic animals. The main means of transportation for the Tuvans was a saddle and pack horse, and in some areas - a deer. They also rode bulls and yaks. Of the other means of transportation, the Tuvans used skis and rafts.

The Tuvans had five types of dwellings. The main type of dwelling of nomadic pastoralists is a lattice felt yurta of the Mongolian type (terbe-Og). This is a cylindrical-conical frame building with a smoke hole in the roof. In Tuva, a version of the yurt without a smoke hole is also known. The yurt was covered with 3–7 felt tires, which were tied to the frame with woolen ribbons. The diameter of the yurt is 4.3 m, the height is 1.3 m. The entrance to the dwelling was usually oriented to the east, south or southeast. The door to the yurt was made of felt or plank. In the center was a hearth or an iron stove with a chimney. The floor was covered with felt. To the right and left of the entrance there were kitchen utensils, a bed, chests, leather bags with property, saddles, harness, weapons, etc. They ate and sat on the floor. They lived in a yurt in winter and summer, transporting it from place to place during wanderings.

The dwelling of the Tuvan-Todzhans, hunters-reindeer herders, was a conical tent (alachykh, alazhi-Og). The design of the plague was made of poles covered with deer or elk skins in winter, and birch bark or larch bark in summer. Sometimes the design of the plague consisted of several felled young tree trunks attached to each other with branches left at the top, to which poles were attached. The plague frame was not transported, only tires. The diameter of the chum was 4–5.8 m, and the height was 3–4 m. 12–18 deer skins sewn with reindeer tendon threads were used to make tires for the chum. In summer, the tent was covered with leather or birch bark tires. The entrance to the chum was carried out from the south side. The hearth was located in the center of the dwelling in the form of an inclined pole with a loop of hair rope, to which a chain with a boiler was tied. In winter, tree branches lay on the floor.

The plague of Todzha cattle breeders (alachog) was somewhat different from the plague of hunters-reindeer herders. It was larger, did not have a pole for hanging the boiler over the fire, larch bark was used as tires: 30-40 pieces. It was laid like a tile, covered with earth.

Western Tuvans covered the tent with felt tires fastened with hair ropes. In the center they put a stove or made a fire. A hook for a cauldron or teapot was hung from the top of the tent. The door was of felt wooden frame. The layout is the same as in the yurt: the right side is female, the left side is male. The place behind the hearth opposite the entrance was considered honorable. Religious objects were also kept there. Chum could be portable and stationary.

Settled Tuvans had four-walled and five-six-coal frame-pillar buildings made of poles, covered with elk skins or bark (borbak-Og). The area of ​​such dwellings was 8–10 m, height - 2 m. The roofs of the dwellings were four-pitched vaulted-domed, sometimes flat. From the end of the 19th century settled Tuvans began to build rectangular single-chamber log cabins with a flat earthen roof, without windows, with a hearth-fire on the floor. The area of ​​dwellings was 3.5x3.5 m. Tuvans borrowed from the Russian population at the beginning of the 20th century. technique for constructing dugouts with a flat log roof. Wealthy Tuvans built five or six coal log houses-yurts of the Buryat type with a pyramid-shaped roof covered with larch bark with a smoke hole in the center.

Hunters and shepherds built temporary shed or gable frame dwellings-shelters from poles and bark in the form of a hut (chadyr, chavyg, chavyt). The skeleton of the dwelling was covered with branches, branches, grass. In a gable dwelling, a fire was lit at the entrance, in a single-slope dwelling, in the center. Tuvans used log-built above-ground barns, sometimes sprinkled with earth, as economic buildings.

Currently, nomadic pastoralists live in felt or log polygonal yurts. In the fields, conical, gable frame buildings and shelters are sometimes used. Many Tuvans live in settlements in modern standard houses.

The clothes of the Tuvans (khep) were adapted to nomadic life until the 20th century. carried stable traditional features. She was sewn, including shoes, from dressed skins of domestic and wild animals, as well as from purchased fabrics purchased from Russian and Chinese merchants. According to its purpose, it was divided into spring-summer and autumn-winter and consisted of everyday, festive, commercial, cult and sports.

Shoulder outerwear-robe (mon) was a tunic-shaped swing. There were no significant differences between men's, women's and children's clothing in terms of cut. She wrapped herself to the right (left floor over right) and was always girded with a long sash. Only Tuvan shamans did not gird their ritual costumes during the ritual. A characteristic feature of the outerwear-robe was long sleeves with cuffs that fell below the hands. Such a cut saved the hands from spring and autumn frosts and winter frosts allowed not to use gloves. A similar phenomenon was noted among the Mongols and Buryats. The dressing gown was sewn almost to the ankles. In spring and summer, they wore a dressing gown made of colored (blue or cherry) fabric. Wealthy Western Tuvan herdsmen wore robes made of colored Chinese silk in the warm season. In summer, silk sleeveless jackets (kandaaz) were worn over the robe. Khashton, which was sewn from worn deer skins or autumn roe deer rovduga, served as a common type of summer clothing among Tuvan reindeer herders.

Various trade cults and mythological representations played a significant role in the beliefs of the Tuvans. The cult of the bear stands out among the most ancient representations and rituals. Hunting him was considered a sin. The killing of a bear was accompanied by certain rituals and spells. In the bear, the Tuvans, like all Siberian peoples, saw the master spirit of the fishing grounds, the ancestor and relative of people. He was considered a totem. He was never called by his real name (Adyg), but allegorical nicknames were used, for example: khaiyrakan (lord), irey (grandfather), daai (uncle), etc. The cult of the bear manifested itself in the most vivid form in the ritual of the “bear holiday”.

Siberian Tatars

Self-name - sibirtar (inhabitants of Siberia), sibirtatarlar (Siberian Tatars). In the literature there is a name - West Siberian Tatars. Settled in the middle and southern parts of Western Siberia from the Urals to the Yenisei: in the Kemerovo, Novosibirsk, Omsk, Tomsk and Tyumen regions. The number is about 190 thousand people. In the past, Siberian Tatars called themselves yasakly (yasak foreigners), top-yerly-khalk (old-timers), chuvalshchiks (from the name of the chuval oven). Local self-names have been preserved: Tobolik (Tobolsk Tatars), Tarlik (Tara Tatars), Tyumenik (Tyumen Tatars), Baraba / Paraba Tomtatarlar (Tomsk Tatars), etc. They include several ethnic groups: Tobol-Irtysh (Kurdak-Sargat, Tara, Tobolsk, Tyumen and Yaskolba Tatars), Baraba (Baraba-Turazh, Lyubey-Tunus and Tereninsky-Cheya Tatars) and Tomsk (Kalmaks, Chats and Eushta). They speak the Siberian-Tatar language, which has several local dialects. The Siberian-Tatar language belongs to the Kypchak-Bulgar subgroup of the Kypchak group of the Altaic language family.

The ethnogenesis of the Siberian Tatars is presented as a process of mixing of the Ugric, Samoyedic, Turkic and partly Mongolian groups of the population of Western Siberia. So, for example, in the material culture of the Baraba Tatars, features of similarity of the Baraba people with the Khanty, Mansi and Selkups, and to a small extent with the Evenks and Kets were revealed. The Turin Tatars have local Mansi components. With regard to the Tomsk Tatars, the point of view is maintained that they are an aboriginal Samoyed population that has experienced a strong influence from the nomadic Turks.

The Mongolian ethnic component began to be part of the Siberian Tatars from the 13th century. The Mongol-speaking tribes had the most recent influence on the Barabans, who in the 17th century. were in close contact with the Kalmyks.

Meanwhile, the main core of the Siberian Tatars were the ancient Turkic tribes, who began to penetrate the territory of Western Siberia in the 5th-7th centuries. n. e. from the east from the Minusinsk basin and from the south from Central Asia and Altai. In the XI-XII centuries. the most significant influence on the formation of the Siberian-Tatar ethnos was exerted by the Kipchaks. As part of the Siberian Tatars, tribes and clans of Khatans, Kara-Kypchaks, Nugays are also recorded. Later, the Siberian-Tatar ethnic community included the yellow Uighurs, Bukharians-Uzbeks, Teleuts, Kazan Tatars, Mishars, Bashkirs, Kazakhs. With the exception of the yellow Uighurs, they strengthened the Kipchak component among the Siberian Tatars.

The main traditional occupations for all groups of Siberian Tatars were agriculture and cattle breeding. For some groups of Tatars living in the forest zone, a significant place in economic activity was occupied by hunting and fishing. Among the Baraba Tatars, lake fishing played a significant role. The northern groups of the Tobol-Irtysh and Baraba Tatars were engaged in river fishing and hunting. Some groups of Tatars had a combination of different economic and cultural types. Fishing was often accompanied by grazing or caring for plots of land sown in fishing grounds. Foot hunting on skis was often combined with hunting on horseback.

Siberian Tatars were familiar with agriculture even before the arrival of Russian settlers in Siberia. Most groups of Tatars were engaged in hoe farming. Barley, oats, spelt were grown from the main grain crops. By the beginning of the XX century. Siberian Tatars were already sowing rye, wheat, buckwheat, millet, as well as barley and oats. In the 19th century the Tatars borrowed the main arable implements from the Russians: a single-horse wooden plow with an iron coulter, “vilachukha” - a plow without a limber, harnessed to one horse; "wheel" and "saban" - front (on wheels) plow harnessed to two horses. When harrowing, the Tatars used a harrow with wooden or iron teeth. Most of the Tatars used plows and harrows of their own manufacture. Sowing was done by hand. Sometimes the arable land was weeded with a ketmen or by hand. During the collection and processing of grain, sickles (urak, urgish), a Lithuanian scythe (tsalgy, sama), a flail (mulatto - from the Russian “threshed”), pitchforks (agats, sinek, sospak), rakes (ternauts, tyrnauts), a wooden shovel (korek) or a bucket (chilyak) for winnowing grain in the wind, as well as wooden mortars with a pestle (keel), wooden or stone hand mills (kul tirmen, tygyrmen, chartashe).

Cattle breeding was developed among all groups of Siberian Tatars. However, in the XIX century. nomadic and semi-nomadic pastoralism has lost its economic importance. At the same time, at that time, the role of domestic stationary cattle breeding increased. More favorable conditions for the development of this type of cattle breeding existed in the southern regions of the Tara, Kainsky and Tomsk districts. Tatars bred horses, large and small cattle.

Cattle breeding was predominantly commercial in nature: cattle were raised for sale. They also sold meat, milk, skins, horsehair, sheep's wool, and other livestock products. Horses were bred for sale.

Livestock grazing in the warm season was carried out near the settlements in specially designated areas (pastures) or on communal lands. For young animals, notches (calves) were arranged in the form of a fence inside the pasture, or cattle. Cattle were usually grazed without supervision, only wealthy Tatar families resorted to the help of shepherds. In winter, cattle were kept in log flocks, thatched baskets or in a covered yard under a canopy. Men took care of the cattle in winter - they brought hay, removed manure, fed. Women were engaged in milking cows. Many farms kept chickens, geese, ducks, sometimes turkeys. Some Tatar families were engaged in beekeeping. At the beginning of the XX century. gardening began to spread among the Tatars.

Hunting played an important role in the structure of the traditional occupations of the Siberian Tatars. They hunted mainly fur-bearing animals: fox, column, ermine, squirrel, hare. The object of hunting was also a bear, lynx, roe deer, wolf, elk. Moles were hunted in the summer. Geese, ducks, partridges, capercaillie and hazel grouse were harvested from birds. The hunting season began with the first snow. Hunted on foot, skiing in winter. Among the Tatar hunters of the Baraba steppe, horse hunting was widespread, especially for wolves.

Various traps, crossbows, baits served as hunting tools, guns and purchased iron traps were used. The bear was hunted with a horn, raising it from the den in winter. Moose and deer were hunted with the help of crossbows, which were installed on elk and deer trails. When hunting for wolves, the Tatars used clubs made of wood with a thickened end, upholstered in an iron plate (checkmers), sometimes hunters used long bladed knives. On the column, ermine or capercaillie they put bags, in which meat, offal or fish served as bait. On the squirrel they put cherkany. When hunting for a hare, loops were used. Many hunters used dogs. The skins of fur animals and the skins of elk were sold to buyers, the meat was eaten. Pillows and feather beds were made from feathers and fluff of birds.

Fishing was a profitable occupation for many Siberian Tatars. They were everywhere engaged in both rivers and lakes. Fish were caught all year round. Fishing was especially developed among the Baraba, Tyumen and Tomsk Tatars. They caught pike, ide, chebak, crucian carp, perch, burbot, taimen, muksun, cheese, nelma, sterlet, etc. Most of the catch, especially in winter, was sold frozen at city bazaars or fairs. Tomsk Tatars (Eushtintsy) sold fish in the summer, bringing it to Tomsk alive in specially equipped large boats with bars.

Nets (au) and nets (scarlet) served as traditional fishing tools, which the Tatars often wove themselves. Seines were divided according to their purpose: yaz seine (opta au), cheese seine (yesht au), crucian (yazy balyk au), muksun (chryndy au). Fish were also caught with the help of fishing rods (karmak), traps, various basket-type tools: muzzles, tops and korchags. They also used wicks and nonsense. Practiced night fishing for large fish. It was mined by the light of torches sharp (sapak, tsatsky) from three to five teeth. Sometimes dams were arranged on the rivers, and the accumulated fish were scooped out with scoops. At present, fishing in many Tatar farms has disappeared. It retained some significance among the Tomsk, Baraba, Tobol-Irtysh and Yaskolba Tatars.

The secondary occupations of the Siberian Tatars included the gathering of wild-growing edible plants, as well as the collection of pine nuts and mushrooms, against which the Tatars had no prejudice. Berries and nuts were taken out for sale. In some villages, hops growing in willows were collected, which was also sold. A significant role in the economy of the Tomsk and Tyumen Tatars was played by carting. They transported various cargoes on horseback to the major cities of Siberia: Tyumen, Krasnoyarsk, Irkutsk, Tomsk; carried goods to Moscow, Semipalatinsk, Irbit and other cities. Livestock products and fishery products were transported as cargo, in winter they transported firewood from cutting areas, timber.

Of the crafts, the Siberian Tatars developed leatherwork, the manufacture of ropes, sacks; knitting nets, weaving baskets and boxes from wicker, making birch bark and wooden utensils, carts, sledges, boats, skis, blacksmithing, jewelry art. Tatars supplied tal bark and leather to tanneries, firewood, straw and aspen ash to glass factories.

Natural waterways played an important role as means of communication for the Siberian Tatars. In spring and autumn the dirt roads were impassable. They traveled along the rivers in dugout boats (kama, keme, kima) of pointed type. Dugouts were made from aspen, nutcrackers - from cedar boards. The Tomsk Tatars knew boats made of birch bark. In the past, the Tomsk Tatars (Eushtintsy) used rafts (sal) to move along rivers and lakes. On dirt roads in summer, goods were transported on carts, in winter - on sledges or firewood. To transport cargo, the Baraba and Tomsk Tatars used hand-held straight-dust sleds, which the hunters pulled with a strap. The traditional means of transportation of the Siberian Tatars were skis of a sliding type: ceilings (lined with fur) for moving in deep snow and naked ones - when walking in the spring on hard snow. Horse riding was also widespread among the Siberian Tatars.

The traditional settlements of the Siberian Tatars - yurts, auls, uluses, aimaks - were located mainly along river floodplains, lake shores, along roads. The villages were small (5–10 houses) and located at a considerable distance from each other. characteristic features Tatar villages were the lack of a specific layout, crooked narrow streets, the presence of dead ends, the scattered residential buildings. Each village had a mosque with a minaret, a fence and a grove with a clearing for public prayers. There could be a cemetery near the mosque. Wattle, adobe, brick, log and stone houses (s) served as dwellings. In the past, dugouts were also known.

Tomsk and Baraba Tatars lived in rectangular frame houses, woven from rods and smeared with clay - mud huts (utou, ode). The basis of this type of dwelling was made up of corner posts with transverse poles, which were intertwined with rods. The dwellings were backfilled: earth was covered between two parallel walls, the walls outside and inside were coated with clay mixed with manure. The roof was flat, it was made on sleds and mats. It was covered with turf, overgrown with grass over time. The smoke hole in the roof also served as lighting. The Tomsk Tatars also had mud huts, round in plan, slightly deepened into the ground.

Of the outbuildings, the Siberian Tatars had cattle pens made of poles, wooden barns for storing food, fishing tackle and agricultural equipment, baths arranged in black, without a pipe; stables, cellars, bread ovens. The yard with outbuildings was surrounded by a high fence made of boards, logs or wattle. A gate and a gate were arranged in the fence. Often the yard was fenced with a fence made of willow or willow poles.

In the past, Tatar women ate food after men. At weddings and holidays, men and women ate separately from each other. Nowadays, many traditional food-related customs have disappeared. Foods that were previously forbidden to be eaten for religious or other reasons, in particular pork products, have come into use. At the same time, some national dishes from meat, flour, and milk are still preserved.

The main form of the family among the Siberian Tatars was a small family (5-6 people). The head of the family was the eldest man in the house - grandfather, father or older brother. The position of women in the family was humiliated. Girls were given in marriage at an early age - at 13 years old. His parents were looking for a bride for their son. She was not supposed to see her fiancé before the wedding. Marriages were concluded through matchmaking, voluntary departure and forced kidnapping of the bride. Practiced payment for the bride kalym. It was forbidden to marry and marry relatives. The property of the deceased head of the family was divided into equal parts among the sons of the deceased. If there were no sons, then half of the property was received by the daughters, and the other part was divided among relatives.

Of the folk holidays of the Siberian Tatars, the most popular was and remains Sabantuy - the holiday of the plow. It is celebrated after the completion of sowing work. On Sabantuy, horse races, races, competitions in long jumps, tug-of-war, sack fights on a log, etc. are arranged.

The folk art of the Siberian Tatars in the past was represented mainly by oral folk art. The main types of folklore were fairy tales, songs (lyrical, dance), proverbs and riddles, heroic songs, legends about heroes, historical epics. The performance of songs was accompanied by playing folk musical instruments: kurai (wooden pipe), kobyz (reed instrument made of a metal plate), harmonica, tambourine.

Fine art existed mainly in the form of embroidery on clothes. Plots of embroidery - flowers, plants. Of the Muslim holidays, Uraza and Kurban Bayram were widely distributed and exist now.

Selkups

The basis of the Nivkh worldview was animistic ideas. In each individual object, they saw a living principle, endowed with a soul. Nature was full of intelligent inhabitants. Sakhalin Island was presented as a humanoid creature. The Nivkhs endowed trees, mountains, rivers, land, water, cliffs, etc. with the same properties. The killer whale was the owner of all animals. The sky, according to the ideas of the Nivkhs, was inhabited by "heavenly people" - the sun and the moon. The cult associated with the "masters" of nature was generic in nature. A tribal holiday was considered a bear holiday (chkhyf-lekhard - a bear game). It was associated with the cult of the dead, as it was arranged in memory of the deceased relative. For this holiday, a bear was hunted in the taiga or a bear cub was bought, which was fed for several years. The honorable duty to kill the bear was given to the narkhs - people from the "son-in-law family" of the organizer of the holiday. By the holiday, all members of the family gave supplies and money to the owner of the bear. The owner's family prepared treats for the guests.

The holiday usually took place in February and lasted several days. It included a complex ceremony of killing a bear with a bow, ritual treatment of bear meat, sacrifice of dogs, and other actions. After the holiday, the head, bones of the bear, ritual utensils and things were put into a special ancestral barn, which was constantly visited regardless of where the Nivkhs lived.

A characteristic feature of the funeral rite of the Nivkhs was the burning of the dead. There was also the custom of burial in the ground. During the burning, they broke the sled on which the deceased was brought, and killed the dogs, whose meat was boiled and eaten on the spot. Only members of his family buried the deceased. The Nivkhs had prohibitions associated with the cult of fire. Shamanism was not developed, but there were shamans in every village. The duty of shamans was to treat people and fight evil spirits. Shamans did not take part in the tribal cults of the Nivkhs.

In ethnographic literature until the 1930s. The Selkups were called Ostyak-Samoyeds. This ethnonym was introduced in the middle of the 19th century. Finnish scientist M.A. Castren, who proved that the Selkups are a special community, which in terms of conditions and way of life is close to the Ostyaks (Khanty), and in language is related to the Samoyeds (Nenets). Another obsolete name for the Selkups, the Ostyaks, coincides with the name of the Khanty (and Kets) and probably goes back to the language of the Siberian Tatars. The first contacts of the Selkups with the Russians date back to the end of the 16th century. There are several dialects in the Selkup language. An attempt made in the 1930s to create a single literary language (based on the northern dialect) failed.

The main occupations of all Selkup groups were hunting and fishing. The southern Selkups led a mostly semi-sedentary way of life. Based on a certain difference in the ratio of fishing and hunting, they had a division into forest inhabitants - majilkup, who lived on the Ob channels, and Ob - koltakup. The economy of the Ob Selkups (Koltakups) was focused mainly on mining in the river. Obi fish of valuable breeds. The life support system of the forest Selkups (majilkups) was based on hunting. The main game animals were elk, squirrel, ermine, Siberian weasel, sable. Moose were hunted for meat. When hunting for him, they used crossbows installed on the trails, guns. Other animals were hunted with a bow and arrows, as well as various traps and devices: mouths, sacks, jags, cherkans, snares, dies, traps. We also hunted bears

Hunting for upland game was of great importance for the southern Selkups, as well as for many peoples of Siberia. In the autumn they hunted capercaillie, black grouse and hazel grouse. Upland game meat was usually harvested for future use. In summer, moulting geese were hunted on the lakes. Hunting for them was carried out collectively. Geese were driven into one of the bays and caught with nets.

In the Tazovskaya tundra, fox hunting occupied a significant place in hunting. Modern hunting is developed mainly among the northern Selkups. There are practically no professional hunters among the southern Selkups.

For all groups of the southern Selkups, fishing was the most significant in the economy. The objects of fishing were sturgeon, nelma, muksun, sterlet, burbot, pike, ide, crucian carp, perch, etc. Fish was caught year-round on rivers and floodplain lakes. She was caught both with nets and traps: cats, snouts, snares, wicks. Large fish were also caught by spear and archery. The fishing season was divided into "small fishing" before the water decline and exposure of the sands, and "big fishing" after the exposure of the sands, when almost the entire population switched to the "sands" and fished with nets. Various traps were set on the lakes. Ice fishing was practiced. In certain places at the mouths of tributaries, spring constipation from stakes was arranged annually.

Under the influence of the Russians, the southern Selkups began to breed domestic animals: horses, cows, pigs, sheep, and poultry. At the beginning of the XX century. The Selkups began to engage in gardening. The skills of cattle breeding (horse breeding) were known to the ancestors of the southern Selkups at the beginning of the 1st millennium AD. The problem of reindeer breeding among the southern groups of the Selkups remains debatable.

The traditional means of transportation among the southern Selkups are a dugout boat - an oblos, in winter - skis lined with fur or golitsy. They went skiing with the help of a stick-staff, which had a ring below, and a bone hook on top to remove snow from under the foot. In the taiga, a hand-held sledge, narrow and long, was widely used. The hunter usually dragged it himself with the help of a belt loop. Sometimes the sled was pulled by a dog.

The northern Selkups developed reindeer husbandry, which had a transport direction. Reindeer herds in the past rarely numbered 200 to 300 deer. Most northern Selkups had from one to 20 heads. The Turukhansk Selkups were without deer. Deer have never been herded. In winter, so that the deer would not go far from the village, several deer in the herd were put on wooden “shoes” (mokta) on their feet. Reindeer were released in the summer. With the onset of the mosquito season, the deer gathered in herds and went into the forest. Only after the end of fishing, the owners began to look for their deer. They hunted them down in the same way as they hunted down a wild beast on a hunt.

Northern Selkups borrowed reindeer in a sleigh from the Nenets. The sledge-free (Turukhansk) Selkups, like the southern Selkups, used a hand-held sled (kanji) when walking to hunt, on which the hunter carried ammunition and food. In winter, they moved on skis, which were made of spruce wood and glued with fur. On the water they moved on dugout boats - oblaskas. Rowing with one oar, sitting, kneeling and sometimes standing.

The Selkups distinguish several types of settlements: year-round stationary, supplemented seasonal ones for hunters without families, stationary winter combined with portable ones for other seasons, stationary winter and stationary summer. In Russian, Selkup settlements were called yurts. Northern Selkup reindeer herders live in camps consisting of two or three, sometimes five portable dwellings. Taiga Selkups settled along the rivers, on the banks of lakes. The villages are small, from two or three to 10 houses.

The Selkups were aware of six types of dwellings (tent, truncated-pyramidal frame underground and log underground, log house with a flat roof, underground made of beams, boat-ilimka).

The permanent dwelling of the Selkup reindeer herders was a portable tent of the Samoyed type (korel-mat) - a conical frame structure made of poles, covered with tree bark or skins. The diameter of the chum varies from 2.5–3 to 8–9 m. The door was either the edge of one of the chum tires (24–28 reindeer skins were sewn together for tires) or a piece of birch bark hung on a stick. In the center of the plague, a hearth-bonfire was arranged on the ground. The hearth hook was attached to the top of the plague. Sometimes they put a stove with a pipe. Smoke escaped through a hole between the tops of the frame poles. The floor in the chum was earthen or covered with boards to the right and left of the hearth. Two families or married couples (parents with married children) lived in the chum. The place opposite the entrance behind the hearth was considered honorable and sacred. They slept on deerskins or mats. In the summer they put mosquito nets.

The winter dwellings of the taiga sedentary and semi-sedentary fishermen and hunters were dugouts and semi-dugouts. various designs. One of the ancient forms of dugouts - karamo - one and a half to two meters deep, with an area of ​​​​7-8 m. The walls of the dugout were lined with logs. The roof (single or gable) was covered with birch bark and covered with earth. The entrance to the dugout was built in the direction of the river. The karamo was heated by a central hearth-fire or chuval. Another type of dwelling was a semi-dugout "karamushka" 0.8 m deep, with unreinforced earthen walls and a gable roof made of slabs and birch bark. The basis of the roof was a central beam resting on a vertical post mounted against the rear wall and two posts with a crossbar mounted against the front wall. The door was wooden, the hearth was outside. There was also another type of semi-dugout (tai-mat, poi-mat), similar to the Khanty semi-dugout. In dugouts and semi-dugouts, they slept on bunks arranged along two walls opposite the hearth.

Buildings in the form of a shed barrier (booth) are well known among the Selkups as a temporary commercial dwelling. Such a barrier was placed during a stay in the forest for rest or overnight stay. A common temporary dwelling of the Selkups (especially among the northern ones) is a kumar - a hut made of a semi-cylindrical willow with birch bark. Among the southern (Narym) Selkups, covered birch-bark boats (alago, koraguand, mass andu) were common as a summer dwelling. The frame was made of bird cherry rods. They were inserted into the edges of the sides of the boat, and they formed a half-cylinder vault. From above, the frame was covered with birch bark panels. This type of boat was widespread in the late XIX - early XX centuries. Narym Selkups and Vasyugan Khanty.

In the 19th century many Selkups (southern Selkups) began to build Russian-type log cabins with gable and four-slope roofs. At present, the Selkups live in modern log houses. Traditional dwellings (semi-dugouts) are used only as commercial outbuildings.

Among the traditional farm buildings, the Selkups had pile barns, sheds for livestock, sheds, hangers for drying fish, and adobe bread ovens.

The traditional winter outerwear of the northern Selkups was a fur parka (porge) - a fur coat open in front made of deer skins sewn with fur on the outside. In severe frosts, sakui was worn over the parkas - deaf clothes made of deer skins, with fur outside with a sewn hood. Sakui was only for men. The parka was worn by both men and women. Underwear men's clothing consisted of a shirt and trousers sewn from a purchased fabric, women wore a dress. The winter footwear of the northern Selkups was pim (pem), sewn from kamus and cloth. Instead of a stocking (sock), combed grass (sedge) was used, which was wrapped around the foot. In the summer they wore rovduga shoes and Russian boots. Hats were sewn in the form of a hood from a "pawn" - the skins of a newborn calf, fox and squirrel legs, from the skins and neck of a loon. The ubiquitous headdress for both women and men was a scarf, which was worn in the form of a headscarf. Northern Selkups sewed mittens from kamus with fur outside.

Among the southern Selkups, fur coats made of "combined fur" - pongzhel-porg, were known as outerwear. These coats were worn by men and women. A characteristic feature of these fur coats was the presence of a fur lining, collected from the skins of small fur-bearing animals - paws of a sable, squirrel, ermine, column, lynx. Combined fur was sewn together in vertical stripes. Color selection made in such a way that the color shades pass one into another. From above, the fur coat was sheathed with cloth - cloth or plush. Women's coats were longer than men's. A long women's coat made of combined fur was a significant family value.

Men wore short fur coats with fur outside - karnya - made of deer or hare skins as trade clothes. In the XIX-XX centuries. sheepskin coats and dog fur coats - winter road clothes, as well as cloth zipuns - were widely used. In the middle of the XX century. this type of clothing was replaced by a quilted sweatshirt. The lower shoulder clothing of the southern Selkups - shirts and dresses (kaborg - for shirts and dresses) - came into use in the 19th century. They girded shoulder clothing with a soft woven belt or a leather belt.

The traditional food of the Selkups consisted mainly of fishery products. Fish were harvested in large quantities for the future. She was cooked fish soup- kai, with the addition of cereals - armagay), fried over a fire on a stick-skewer (chapsa), salted, dried, dried, cooked yukola, made fish meal - porsa. Fish for the future was harvested in the summer, during the "big catch". From fish entrails, fish oil was boiled, which was stored in birch bark vessels and used for food. The Selkups used wild-growing edible plants as a seasoning and addition to their diet: wild onion, wild garlic, saran roots, etc. They ate berries and pine nuts in large quantities. The meat of elk and upland game was also eaten. Purchased products were widely used: flour, butter, sugar, tea, cereals.

There were food prohibitions on eating the meat of some animals and birds. For example, some Selkup groups did not eat the meat of a bear, a swan, considering them to be close in “breed” to humans. Hare, partridge, wild geese, etc. could also be taboo animals. In the 20th century. The diet of the Selkups was replenished with livestock products. With the development of gardening - potatoes, cabbage, beets and other vegetables.

The Selkups, although they were considered baptized, retained, like many peoples of Siberia, their ancient religious beliefs. They were characterized by ideas about the spirits-masters of places. They believed in the master spirit of the forest (machil vines), the spirit master of water (utkyl vines), etc. Various sacrifices were made to the spirits in order to enlist their support during the hunt.

The Selkups considered the god Num, who personified the sky, to be the creator of the whole world, the demiurge. In the Selkup mythology, the underground spirit Kyzy acted as an inhabitant of the underworld, the ruler of evil. This spirit had numerous helper spirits - vines that penetrated the human body and caused illness. To fight diseases, the Selkups turned to the shaman, who, together with his helper spirits, fought evil spirits and tried to expel them from the human body. If the shaman succeeded, then the person would recover.

The land of habitation seemed to the Selkups initially flat and flat, covered with grass-moss and forest - the hair of mother earth. Water and clay were her ancient primary state. All earthly heights and natural depressions were interpreted by the Selkups as evidence of past events, both earthly (“battles of heroes”) and heavenly (for example, lightning stones dropped from the sky gave rise to swamps and lakes). The earth (chvech) for the Selkups was the substance that gave birth to everything. Milky Way in the sky it seemed like a stone river, which passes to the earth and flows the river. Ob, closing the world into a single whole (southern Selkups). Stones that are placed on the ground to give it stability also have a heavenly nature. They also store and give heat, generate fire and iron.

The Selkups had special sacrificial places associated with religious rituals. They were a kind of sanctuary in the form of small log barns (lozyl sessan, lot kele) on one leg-rack, with wooden spirits installed inside - vines. In these barns, the Selkups brought various “sacrifices” in the form of copper and silver coins, dishes, household items, etc. The Selkups revered the bear, elk, eagle, and swan.

The traditional poetry of the Selkups is represented by legends, the heroic epic about the cunning hero of the Selkup people Itta, various types of fairy tales (chapte), songs, everyday stories. Even in the recent past, the genre of song-improvisation of the type “what I see, I sing” was widely represented. However, with the loss of the Selkup speaking skills in the Selkup language, this type of oral art has practically disappeared. Selkup folklore contains many references to old beliefs and related cults. The legends of the Selkups tell about the wars waged by the ancestors of the Selkups with the Nenets, Evenks, Tatars.

Yazykova Irina Leonidovna
Position: teacher of history
Educational institution: MBOU secondary school No. 179
Locality: city ​​Novosibirsk
Material name: presentation
Topic: The peoples of Siberia and our region in the XVII - XVIII centuries.
Publication date: 01.11.2016
Chapter: secondary education

Peoples of Siberia

and our region
Yazykova Irina Leonidovna, teacher of history of the highest qualification category, MBOU secondary school No. 179, Novosibirsk

Plan for studying new material:
1. Ethnoses of Siberia, the territory of their settlement. Ethnonyms. 2. What can the geographical names of our region tell about. 3. Features of the material culture of the peoples of Western Siberia and its close relationship with natural and climatic conditions. 4. Spiritual culture: beliefs, shamans, fairy tales. 5. The peoples of our region: Baraba Tatars, chats, Teleuts, southern Khanty. Their economic activities, social relations and religious beliefs. 6. Archaeological monuments of the culture of peoples on the territory of our region.

Ethnos
(from the Greek word ethnos - people) - a historically established community of people with a common culture, language and identity.
Ethno

nims
(from Greek έθνος - tribe, people and όνυμα - name, name) - the names of nations, peoples, nationalities, tribes, tribal unions.

Peoples of Siberia

ethnic groups of Siberia,

territory of their settlement
In the vast expanses from the Yenisei to the Pacific Ocean lived
Evenki (Tungus),
engaged in hunting and fishing.
Chukchi, Koryaks and Itelmens (Kamchadals)
inhabited the northeastern regions of Siberia with the Kamchatka Peninsula. These tribes then lived in a tribal system; they did not yet know the use of iron.
The peoples of Siberia of the 17th century did not constitute more or less cohesive societies there, but on the contrary, they were scattered across the forests and tundra in small groups, consisting of one or more clans and having almost no dependence on each other. In each clan there was an elder, or as the Russians who came called them, princes, who managed all the little affairs of their people.

Population history

in Siberia
The main way of survival of the first settlers of the Siberian region was hunting, reindeer herding and fur extraction, which was the currency of that time. By the end of the 17th century, the most developed peoples of Siberia were the Buryats and Yakuts. The Tatars were the only people who, before the arrival of the Russians, managed to organize state power. The following peoples can be attributed to the largest peoples before Russian colonization: Itelmens (indigenous inhabitants of Kamchatka), Yukaghirs (inhabited the main territory of the tundra), Nivkhs (residents of Sakhalin), Tuvans ( indigenous people Republic of Tuva), Siberian Tatars (located on the territory of Southern Siberia from the Urals to the Yenisei) and Selkups (inhabitants of Western Siberia).

Fill the table

People

Habitat

Classes

The Samoyed tribes are considered to be the first indigenous inhabitants of Siberia. They inhabited the northern part. Reindeer herding and fishing can be attributed to their main occupation. The Samoyed tribes are considered to be the first indigenous inhabitants of Siberia. They inhabited the northern part. Reindeer herding and fishing can be attributed to their main occupation. To the south, the Mansi tribes lived, who lived by hunting. Their main trade was the extraction of furs, with which they paid for their future wives and bought goods necessary for life. To the south lived the Mansi tribes, who lived by hunting. Their main trade was the extraction of furs, with which they paid for their future wives and bought goods necessary for life. The upper reaches of the Ob were inhabited by Turkic tribes. Their main occupation was nomadic cattle breeding and blacksmithing. The upper reaches of the Ob were inhabited by Turkic tribes. Their main occupation was nomadic cattle breeding and blacksmithing. To the west of Lake Baikal lived the Buryats, who became famous for their ironworking craft. To the west of Lake Baikal lived the Buryats, who became famous for their ironworking craft. The largest territory from the Yenisei to the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bOkhotsk was inhabited by Tungus tribes. Among them were many hunters, fishermen, reindeer herders, some were engaged in crafts. The largest territory from the Yenisei to the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bOkhotsk was inhabited by Tungus tribes. Among them were many hunters, fishermen, reindeer herders, some were engaged in crafts. Along the coast of the Chukchi Sea, the Eskimos (about 4 thousand people) settled down. Compared to other peoples of that time, the Eskimos had the slowest social development. The tool was made of stone or wood. The main economic activities include gathering and hunting. Along the coast of the Chukchi Sea, the Eskimos (about 4 thousand people) settled down. Compared to other peoples of that time, the Eskimos had the slowest social development. The tool was made of stone or wood. The main economic activities include gathering and hunting.
Samadians

Samadians

Mansi

Mansi

Turkish

tribes

Turkish

tribes

Buryats

Buryats

eskimos

eskimos

Tungus

tribes

Tungus

tribes
PEOPLES OF SIBERIA PEOPLES OF SIBERIA

Nganasany - Samoyed
people
v
Siberia
inhabiting the eastern part

For many centuries the peoples of Siberia lived in small settlements. Each individual village had its own clan. The inhabitants of Siberia were friends with each other, ran a joint household, were often relatives to each other and led an active lifestyle. But due to the vast territory of the Siberian region, these villages were far from each other. So, for example, the inhabitants of one village were already leading their own way of life and spoke an incomprehensible language for their neighbors. Over time, some settlements disappeared, and some became larger and actively developed.
Severe climatic conditions did not contribute to the rapid socio-economic development of these peoples. Most of them lived in a primitive tribal society, mainly engaged in hunting, fishing, and semi-nomadic cattle breeding.

What can geographical

names of our region

BARNAULKA
- left tributary Ob. From the Ket words: "boruan" - a wolf, "ul" - a river, i.e. wolf river. The final "ka" appeared on Russian soil
YIN
- Right tributary Ob. A common etymology is the explanation of this toponym through the Tatar "ina" - mother, but this cannot satisfy either from a grammatical or semantic point of view. The toponyms "Inn" found in Europe - a tributary of the Danube and Ina - a lake and a tributary of the Pripyat River - scientists explain through Celtic and Indo-European words with the meaning "water". For Western Siberia, the etymology of A.P. Dulzon, explaining "in" from the Imbat dialect of the Ket language, where "yen" means "long".

OB
- the most acceptable is the etymology of V. Steinitz and A. P. Dulion, who connect this name with the Komi-Zyryan word "obva" - "snow water". The Russians recognized the Ob in its lower reaches, and got its name from the Komi guides.
BAGAN
- a river in the Novosibirsk region. There is no reliable etymology. So far, two explanations are possible: from the Turkic "bagan" - a pillar and from the Indo-European "bagno" - a low swampy place. Bagan really flows through the swamps, partly interrupted by them

KARASUCK
- a river in the Novosibirsk region. From the Turkic "kara" - black, transparent and "bough" - water, river
KOLPASHEVO
is a city in the Tomsk region. The foundation dates back to the 17th century. The likely founder could be the Cossack Pervusha Kolpashnik, who proposed moving the Narymsky and Ketsky prisons to the Ob, to the Ketsky mouth. At the beginning of the 17th century, in the Harym district, there were courts of Yakov Kolpashnkva, Andrei Kolpashnikov, possibly descendants of Pervusha Kolpashnik. Later, the village of Kolpashnikova became the village of Kolpashev and the city of Kolpashev.

CHULY

M
(Turk. "running snow") - a river in Siberia, the right tributary of the Ob.
KI

I AM
- a river in Siberia, a left tributary of the Chulym. It originates in the Kemerovo region, flows in the upper reaches mainly to the north-west within the eastern slopes of the Kuznetsk Alatau, the lower reaches in the Tomsk region. Food snow and rain. Freezes in November, opens in April. In the 50-80s of the XX century, several oxbow lakes were formed around Kiya: Tyryshkina, Novaya, Eldashkina and others, with a total length of more than 30 km. One of the interpretations of the hydronym raises it to the Selkup word "ky", which means "river". According to another version, the word "kiya" is of Turkic origin and means "rocky slope, cliff".

KARASUCK
- a river in the Novosibirsk region. From Turkic
Kara
- "black, transparent" and
boughs
- water, river.
CHINA
- a lion. pr. Yaya. There are two etymologies: from Ket
ki
- "new" P. Dulzon), from Selkup
ky
- "river" (E.G. Becker). It seems that the hypothesis about the Ket origin of the toponym is more likely, where both parts are revealed from the Ket language:
ki
- "new" and
tat
- "river".

Features of the material culture of peoples

Western Siberia and its close connection with the natural

climatic conditions

Spiritual culture: beliefs,

shamans, fairy tales
Musical instruments of the peoples of Siberia

The peoples of our region: Baraba Tatars, chats,

Teleuts, southern Khanty. Their business activities

social relations and religious beliefs
The Baraba Tatars and Teleuts, after being included in Russia, were taxed in kind, which was brought in by furs. They were in the most difficult position. Chats basically entered the category of service Tatars - a privileged group of the indigenous population, who helped the tsarist administration to protect the borders, repel the onslaught of external enemies and keep the exploited mass of the population in obedience.
Ethnic position and ratio of the population of Western Siberia for the period of the 16th - 17th centuries. from the Urals to the Khatanga River - Nenets, Enets, Nganasans (the common name for Samoyeds. About 8 thousand people). To the south of them, in the taiga taiga, lived Voguls and Ostyaks (Finno-Ugric tribes of the Khanty and Mansi. The number of 15-18 thousand people). Ostyaks were also called the southern Samoyeds-Selkups (about 3 thousand people), who lived on the middle Ob River and its tributaries, and the Ket-speaking tribes of the Arins, Kotts, and Yasty people on the middle Yenisei. In the south of Western Siberia - Turkic tribes roamed in the forest-steppe and steppe; on the middle Irtysh and its tributaries Ishim and Tobol - Siberian Tatars, numbering 15-20 thousand people; in the upper reaches of the Yenisei - the Yenisei Kirghiz; in Altai and in the upper reaches of the Ob and Yenisei - Tan, Chulym and Kuznetsk Tatars. Almost throughout Eastern Siberia, from the Yenisei to the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bOkhotsk and from the tundra to Mongolia and the Amur, the Tungus tribes settled (about 30 thousand people). In Transbaikalia, along the Onomu and Selenga rivers, and in the Baikal region, along the Angara River and in the upper reaches of the Lena, nomadic Mongol-speaking tribes lived, which later formed the ethnic basis of the Buryats: Ekhirits, Bulagats, Ikinats, Horitumats, Tabunuts, Khongodors (25 thousand people). ). Sedentary tribes of Mongol-speaking Daurs and Tungus-speaking Dgochers lived on the upper and middle Amur, in the lower reaches of the Amur and Primorye - Tatki, Gilyaks (Nivkhs) and ancestors of the Nanai, Ulchi, Udege, and along the Lena, Vilyuy, Yana rivers - Turkic-speaking Yakuts (30-40 thousand . pers.). The north-east of Siberia from the lower reaches of the Lena to the Anadyr was occupied by kagirs. In the north of Kamchatka and the adjacent coast of the Bering and Seas of Okhotsk life of the Koryaks, on the Chukchi Peninsula and in the lower reaches of the Kolyma - the Chukchi (during the conquest of Siberia, this ethnic group offered the most severe resistance to the Russians). The Chukchi, who settled on the sea coast, entered as a special ethnic group - the Eskimos, it also included the Itelmens and the Amur shliks. These peoples belonged to the Pole-Asians, the most ancient inhabitants of North Asia. They were the remnants of the tribes that once inhabited all of Siberia and were pushed "to the ends of the world" by newcomers from the south - the Turks, Mongols, Tungus, Samoyeds. The only people of Siberia who had a state system were the Tatars. Their state, the Siberian Khanate, arose as a result of the collapse of the empire of Genghis Khan. Until the end of the XV century. it was ruled by the Sheibannds (descendants of Genghis), and then the Taibuginns (the Bok Mamet Taibul dynasty).

The Siberian expanses from the most ancient times were the habitat of various tribes and peoples. This is not surprising: vast expanses, abundant rivers and forests created ideal conditions for the life of nomads or tribes looking for their new homeland. Due to these factors, many interesting archaeological sites are located on the territory of the modern Novosibirsk region.  Chertovo gorodishche  Umrevinsky Ostrog  Complex of monuments near Bystrovka village  Sopka-2  Mammoth skeleton  Paleolithic site "Wolf's Mane"  Burial in Black Cape  Chichaburg

Archaeological monuments of culture

peoples in our region

Devil's settlement
This archaeological site is located on Sadovaya Gorka in Novosibirsk (Oktyabrsky district). Garden Hill is the highest point in the central part of the city. And "Devil's Settlement" is an archaeological park dedicated to the history of the Siberian Tatars. The place acquired such an unusual name back in the Soviet years. The reason was the yurt settlement of the Chat tribes, which, unfortunately, disappeared with the arrival of bridge builders on the territory of modern Novosibirsk.

mammoth skeleton
In the small village of Vakhrushevo, 50 kilometers from Novosibirsk, the story of Matilda began. Do not be surprised, Matilda is the name of a mammoth (more precisely, its skeleton) found in these places. This exhibit is truly unique - it is the only complete skeleton of an ancient animal. Such a find was discovered back in the 40s.

Complex of monuments near the village of Bystrovka
One of the villages of the Iskitimsky district of the Novosibirsk region, namely Bystrovka, has long attracted archaeologists and tourists. It is here that one of the complexes of archaeological monuments is located, telling and even showing the modern man the life of his ancestors. On the right bank of the Atamanikha there is a kind of open-air museum, where various household items of the Bronze Age are collected. These are jewelry, various ceramic objects, and bronze knives, as well as other tools and objects made of bone and stone. All these items belong to the Irmen culture, named after the Irmen River flowing here and living on the territory of modern Novosibirsk, Kemerovo, Tomsk regions and Altai Territory. The Irmen culture left behind a rich heritage - archaeologists discovered stone settlements in which people settled. Found dugouts, earthen and wooden fortifications can tell a lot about the life of those peoples. Here, in the archaeological site in Bystrovka, remains of the Iron Age were also found. Among these finds, first of all, the found cult burials are noteworthy. The priestesses and priests buried here in the appropriate clothes and with all the accompanying paraphernalia.

Chichaburg
This is an archaeological monument located on the shore of Lake Bolshaya Chicha, twelve kilometers from the village of Zdvinsk. On geophysical images from space of this area, obtained by scientists in 1999, the outlines of streets and houses appeared quite clearly. During the excavations, not only a large number of household items were found, but also works of art. Scientists suggest that the inhabitants left their homes in a hurry, and the most likely reason for this is the attack of enemies. This hypothesis is confirmed by a large number of arrowheads, armor and other items found, indicating that the inhabitants lived in constant expectation of raids. The area of ​​Chichaburg is more than 240 thousand square meters, and the number of the population presumably left from four hundred to two thousand inhabitants.

Paleolithic site "Wolf's Mane"
The facility is located in the upper reaches of the Bagan River, 62 kilometers south of Kargat, and is a hill eight kilometers long and ten to eleven meters high. Fossil remains of ancient animals (mainly mammoths, bison and horses) were first found on Wolf's Mane in 1957. And a few years later, in 1969, scientists discovered that this was not at all a natural cemetery of mammoths, but a unique phenomenon - a site of Stone Age people who never used stone, since these lands simply do not have stone suitable for household use. And instead of stone, people used bone. Dwellings were built from tusks and femurs, skins were used for roofing, sharp and durable spears were made from mammoth ribs. Nothing like this has ever been seen before, not only in this region, but also in other regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Most of the fossil collection can be found at the Institute of Archeology and Ethnography of the Siberian Branch of the Academy of Sciences in Akademgorodok. "Wolf's Mane" was declared a natural monument of regional significance in 2007.

The peoples of Siberia in the 17th century
1.
At what level of development were, basically, the peoples of Siberia before

joining Russian state:
a) primeval; b) feudal; c) capitalist. 2.
Which of the Russian explorers discovered the strait separating Asia
for America: a) Poyarkov; b) Dezhnev; c) Khabarov. 3.
What was the name of the tax paid by the peoples of Siberia in the tsarist

treasury:
a) yasak; b) quitrent; c) duty. 4.
Consequences of the development of Siberia:
a) the territory of Siberia expanded; b) made geographical discoveries; c) Russia gained access to Pacific Ocean; d) all answers are correct.
How did Siberian cities arise? Explain
Homework:
1. Notes in a notebook 2. Preparation for the test work p. 10 - 14