Proverbs and sayings about May HORIZONTALLY: 2. May will deceive - in ... will leave.4 ....
SD Erzya Russian and Soviet artist, sculptor Stepan Dmitrievich Erzya, real name Nefyodov belonged to the ethnic group Mordvin - Erzya, hence the pseudonym. Born October 27 (November 8), 1876 in the village of Baevo, Alatyrsky district, Simbirsk province (now the Ardatovsky district of the Republic of Mordovia). A world-famous sculptor, he is best known as a master of woodcarving. The largest collection is kept in. Mordovian Republican Museum fine arts them. S. D. Erzi. He worked in modern style. Almost died during the Civil War. With permission Soviet government in the 1920s he went to Paris to do a solo exhibition. And then - in South America(to Argentina). In 1951 he returned to his homeland with a huge collection of works made of wood, marble, and bronze. His exhibitions in Moscow were very popular. People stood in long lines to see his work.
Another person who glorified our region was the artist F. V. Sychkov (1887 -1958). Evidence of this - numerous canvases. In his own way, he opened for us an interesting and peculiar world of the Mordovian village, rural children. In the village of Kochelaevo, not far from the town of Kovylkino, on the top of a hill stands a small house, of which there are many in our villages. But as soon as you enter this modest village hut, you will find yourself in the realm of paintings. This is the house-museum of the remarkable artist FEDOT VASILIEVICH SYCHKOV. Here he was born and lived almost all his life. Many wonderful masterpieces were written by the artist. Folk holidays and festivities are depicted on his canvases. The heroes of his paintings are Russian and Mordovian peasants. Sychkov especially liked to portray children. The work of the famous artist is highly appreciated. He was awarded the Order of the Badge of Honor, he was awarded the title of Honored Artist of the RSFSR, People's Artist of Mordovia. Sychkov, a painter, devoted many paintings to the Mordovian people.
R. M. Bespalova On January 21, 1925, People's Artist of Russia Raisa Makarovna Bespalova was born. This woman made a significant contribution to the spiritual culture of the republic and forever connected her creative destiny with Saransk. R. M. Bespalova occupies a special place among the most prominent representatives artistic intelligentsia of Mordovia in the second half of the 20th century. Her creative activity was connected with vocal performance, and with the acting profession, and with pedagogical work. She was not only the first in Mordovia to be awarded the high title of People's Artist of Russia (1970) and the first among the artists of the republic to be awarded the Order of the Badge of Honor (1960), Bespalova became the first representative of the artistic intelligentsia of Mordovia. Admirers of vocal talent lovingly called her nothing more than "Mordovian nightingale", comparing with a bird whose singing abilities became the subject of poetization in Russia.
F. F. Ushakov Admiral of the Russian Navy Feodor Ushakov was born on February 13, 1745 in the village of Burnakovo, Romanovsky district, Yaroslavl province, and came from a poor, but ancient noble family. At sea, the Russian fleet under the command of Ushakov did not suffer a single defeat. No wonder the admiral was called the sea Suvorov. Ushakov spent his youth and the last years of his life in the small village of Alekseevka beyond Moksha. In honor of Admiral Ushakov, an order and a medal were established, which are awarded to the most courageous, courageous sailors.
Ogaryov N. P. The name of the poet and publicist Nikolai Platonovich Ogaryov bears the name of the largest university in the Volga region - Mordovian State University. . The monument to N.P. Ogarev is installed at the main building of the Mordovian University, and the line from the poem “Young Man”: “Study! Understand that knowledge is power” became the motto of students who proudly call themselves “Ogarevians”.
AI Polezhaev At the intersection of Proletarskaya and Polezhaev streets in 1967, a monument to the poet, revolutionary democrat Alexander Ivanovich Polezhaev was unveiled. The poet is depicted full-length in an overcoat thrown over his shoulder. He spent his early childhood years in Saransk. The working people of Mordovia highly honor the memory of AI Polezhaev. One of the central streets is named after him. The Mordovian book publishing house published collections of Polezhaev's poems, studies, books are devoted to his work
The first Mordovian poet - Dorofeev Zakhar Fedorovich was born on March 24, 1890 in the village of Salazgor, Torbeevsky district of Mordovia. In 1912 in Moscow, Dorofeev published a primer and books for reading in the Mordovian language.
V. N. Dezhurov. Vladimir Dezhurov is the only cosmonaut born in Mordovia. He made his flight on March 14, 1995 as part of the international Russian-American crew on the Soyuz TM-21 spacecraft (V. Dezhurov (commander), G. Strekalov and American astronaut N. Thagard). For 79 days, he and his colleagues had to do difficult scientific work on the Mir orbital station. After returning, our fellow cosmonaut was awarded the title of Hero Russian Federation
MP Devyataev Mikhail Petrovich - the legendary Soviet pilot. He entered the history of the Great Patriotic War by accomplishing an unprecedented feat: he hijacked an V-1 carrier aircraft from a secret German airfield. The terrible days of trials lived in concentration camps are described by Mikhail Petrovich in the book Escape from Hell. She is a parting word to the younger generation: to remember and never again allow this to happen. Mikhail Petrovich was born on July 8, 1917 in the Mordovian village of Torbeevo in a peasant family. Mordvin. He was the thirteenth child in the family. Member of the Great Patriotic War from June 22, 1941. Already on the second day, he participated in an air battle on his I-16. At the entrance to the village of Torbeevo, a real-life monument is erected - the Mi plane. G-17 - in honor of the heroic escape of M.P. Devyatayev from fascist captivity.
M. E. EVSEVIEV Makar Evsevyevich, Mordovian scientist-educator, teacher, wrote the first primers for Mordovians-Mokshas and Mordovians-Erzi. The name of M.E. Evseviev was given to the Mordovian State Pedagogical Institute, the library, the street of Saransk, as well as the Malokarmalinsky secondary school of the Ibresinsky district of the Chuvash Republic, a monument was erected here and a museum named after. Evseviev, which is constantly updated with new exhibits. Our countryman was awarded the orders of St. Stanislav, St. Anna.
HISTORY OF MORDOVIA
The geography of settlement largely determines the important factors of its history.
Nature forms the economic way of life, and it influences
formation of the anthropological type of the people. Mordovian people historically
formed on the territory of the Oka-Volga interfluve, in the forest-steppe zone,
rich in forests and rivers, with a temperate continental climate. Basic
the habitat for the Mordovian people was the forest, it also supplied the construction
material and food and clothing, served as a safe haven from enemies. Healthy
climate and way of life, fertile land and the benefits of the forest contributed to
formation of a healthy, physically strong population. The forest is not only
formed the anthropological type, but also the way of life of the Mordovians, who did not
only agriculture, but also hunting, beekeeping, furs,
cattle breeding. An important factor in the formation of the anthropological type
were both the structure of food and the type of dwelling. Vegetable food of the Mordovians is not
different from Russian food, but they ate animal food more often,
traditionally consumed honey. Mordovian dwellings differed from Russian ones -
separate premises of houses and yards, and the presence of a bath (an ancient invention
Mordva belongs to the Finno-Ugric group of the Ural race, their ancestors
were Europeanized under the influence of contacts with Lithuanian,
Germanic, Slavic and other tribes. History of the Mordovian tribes
can be traced back to 1 thousand BC. And in 1 thousand AD. from Finno-Ugric
communities stood out Mordovian tribes. The Moksha group settled in the south
eastern lands of the Sursko-Oksko-Moksha interfluve, Erzya in the north
west. Mordovian land at all times was relatively densely populated.
In addition to the Mordovians, other peoples lived here, influencing
the formation of its culture and economy. They were Tatars, Chuvashs, Russians,
Mordovians and Huns invaded the land, and Bulgarians, Khazars, Pechenegs, Polovtsy,
Mongols. The largest invasion began in 1237 - the Batyev invasion
hordes, after which the Golden Horde yoke was established, interrupting
natural history development.
In 1, the beginning of 2 thousand AD. an economic and cultural complex took shape and
religious worldview of the Mordovians. This is evidenced by excavations in
Dubensky district (iron arrowheads, plows, sickles, grains of cultural
plants, bones of domestic horses, cows, pigs, sheep, wood products,
clay, leather and fabrics, Jewelry). With the advent of 1 thousand iron
tools, the appearance of surplus products is the stratification of society
and the collapse of tribal society. The tribal community was replaced by the neighboring one,
early feudal relations were born. In the context of further development
productive forces and feudal relations, as well as under the influence of external
threats at the beginning of the 2nd millennium AD. there is a process of folding a single
Mordovian people. The Mordovian epic is permeated with motifs of common destinies
erzi and moksha, the continuity of their economic and spiritual life,
Tyushtya is glorified - the leader and ruler of the Mordovian people.
At the beginning of 2 thousand AD. the Mordovians began to issue state
formations: near moksha - in the basin of the moksha river and in the Upper Surye at the head
with Prince Puresh, among the Erzi - in the Oka-Sura interfluve, headed by the prince
Purgas (this was even before the invasion of the hordes of Batu). After the invasion of the South
Mordovian lands practically depopulated, there was arable farming
dangerously. Mordovians were most densely populated on the Moksha and Alatyr rivers.
and in the Murom region.
In the 14th century the forest-steppe strip, which included the Mordovian lands, was
the granary of the Horde state. Being carriers of high agricultural
culture, the Mordva associated with agriculture many religious pagan
rites. Before the start of all agricultural work, prayers were held, the Mordovians believed
into good and evil spirits. They worshiped the gods of fertility. Apart from agriculture
engaged in cattle breeding, hunting, fishing, beekeeping.
At the end of the 14th century the process of entering the Mordovian lands into the
Moscow principality. After the entry of the Mordovian lands into the Russian
state Russian princes already stipulated the terms of ownership and inheritance
(in the documents of the times of Ivan 3 from 1505 and Ivan 4 from 1572). Moscow
the principality included in the 15th century. and Mordovian lands. Status formation
Mordovian princes occurred during the period of decomposition of primitive society. At
Mordovian princes had their own possessions, and they were relatively
independent back in the 15-16 centuries. Expansion of Russian and Tatar princes
forced them to form military squads. In 1392 Nizhny Novgorod
the principality, which included the lands of the Mordovians-Erzi, became part of Moscow. In 1393
The city of Meshchera, inhabited by Mordovians - Moksha and Erzei, voluntarily recognized power
Moscow. In the agreement of 1396 between the Russian princes, the Mordovians no longer
appears as a political opponent, because the Mordovian princes carried
service with them, defending Russian territory. By the 15th century supreme right
the manager of the Mordovian lands was appropriated by the Grand Duke of Moscow,
who decided the fate of not only the population, but local princes. So in the 15th century.
Mordovian and Tatar princes became vassals of the Moscow Grand Dukes. V
late 15th century the Russian state was formed, Ivan3 from 1485 began to wear
the title of Grand Duke, and Ivan4 from 1547 - the title of Tsar. In the 16th century formed
centralized authorities - orders. The Mordovian Territory was ruled
several orders. Gradually, the possessions of the Mordovian princes were transformed
to the counties. In the 16th century Mordovians lived in Murom, Nizhny Novgorod, Arzamas,
Shatsk, Temnikovsky, Alatyrsky counties. In the 16th century Russian state
took decisive measures against the Kazan Khanate, an active role in
Mordovians also played this. Many representatives distinguished themselves in the capture of Kazan
Mordovians, and later participated in the protection of the borders of the Russian state. Mordva
Simbirsk, Saratov, Bashkir and other regions.
In the 16-17 centuries. four categories of peasants took shape in Mordovia:
palace, state, monastic and landlord. At that time
there is a change in the development of peasant farms of all categories. Was
a census was conducted and certain lands were assigned to the villages.
Mordovian peasants were attached to the lands assigned to them. Yasak
was levied in food-cash form, the object of taxation was the land.
In addition to agriculture and animal husbandry, the peasants were engaged in the extraction of furs,
beekeeping, there was a trade in products of activity. urban centers
trade and crafts were Saransk, Temnikov, Alatyr, Arzamas,
Krasnoslobodsk, Insar, Troitsk and others. In the 17th century. already established trade relations with
Peasant wars in the early 17th century. were caused by the aggravation of contradictions
peasantry and the landowner, the strengthening of serfdom at the end of the 16th century.
The uprising of Bolotnikov in 1606-07. covered many regions of Russia, including
including Mordovia. The rebels occupied Alatyr, dealt with representatives
authorities, smashed the noble estates. The struggle in the Mordovian districts took
sharp character, both Russians and Mordovians actively participated. From the authorities
punitive measures followed, which did not break the rebels. Approximately through
year in 1609 they again united in detachments and fought with
government teams. The peasant war was suppressed, but showed
the strength of the masses.
The reason for the peasant war Razin 1670-71. served further
enslavement, ever-increasing taxes. Mordovian lands in a short time
ceased to be a free land, like the whole Volga region, they turned into
the territory from which the peasants fled from feudal oppression. Even before the uprising
The Volga region became a place of peasant unrest. In 1670 Razin's army
moved up the Volga, they were joined by many peasants of Mordovia,
many Mordovians laid down their lives in battles. Peasant war under
Razin's leadership was defeated. The punitive measures led to
reduction of the male population and the desolation of many peasant households.
The joint struggle of the Russians, Mordovians and Tatars played a role in strengthening
friendly relations.
Thus, during the time of being a part of Russia, the economic and
the legal status of the Mordovian peasants and Russians in many ways converged. V
Mordovian lands, many nobles received land, all categories appeared
peasants. Despite the progressive and beneficial influence of Russians on all
aspects of Mordovian life and socio-economic development, government policy
aimed at assimilation. With the strengthening of feudal relations and
strengthening oppression, peasant uprisings arose, where
Mordva, unlike other peoples of the Volga region, does not form significant
ethnic arrays, but is settled mixed with Russians and Tatars. Though
on the territory of Mordovia, the majority were single-national villages. At
Ethnicity was not taken into account when creating counties. Were formed
Samara, Alatyrsky, Saransky, Temnikovsky districts, on the territory of which
lived Mordovians and Russians and Tatars. In the 18th century population is growing,
contributed to the transition to capitation taxes. New settlements in the 18th century
rarely appeared, because The area has already been largely developed. One of
the reasons for the emergence of new villages was the Christianization of the Gentiles, tk. baptized and
the unbaptized lived separately.
In the 18th century such industries were widely represented in the Mordovian region
industries such as distillation, potash production, metallurgy and
light industry. In the 17-18 centuries, despite the severity of the feudal
serfdom and the strengthening of the national-colonial oppression, in
commodity production is rapidly growing in the Mordovian region, the face of
regions in the system of the all-Russian market. At the same time, the property
differentiation. Growing social tension. Mordva had rich experience
conducting a diversified economy, they were distinguished by diligence and perseverance.
Mordva, when entering Russia, got the opportunity to join the culture in
spiritual and material realm. This was facilitated by mass Christianization
Mordovians. But many religious worldviews of the Mordovians and many
cultural values, although the language and culture have been preserved.
The Mordovian language has acquired many borrowings over its history of development, but
retained its foundation. The language belongs to the Volga branch of Finno-Ugric
Ural family groups. After separating from the Finno-Volga proto-language, a single
the Mordovian language functioned for at least one and a half thousand years. From the second
half of the 1st millennium AD it began to form territorial
dialects, two of which Erzya and Moksha became languages. In them
there are dialects and dialects, which is due to the absent-mindedness of the Mordovians over a huge
territory among the Russian-speaking population. Characteristic features of the Mordovians
(national qualities) - perseverance, shyness, not prudence,
low communication skills.
By the beginning of the 20th century the area of the Mordovian people covered the whole of Russia.
Mordovian settlements were noted in Iran and Turkey, but most of them lived
in Nizhny Novgorod, Tambov, Penza, Simbirsk, Saratov and
Samara provinces. More than 1 million people considered the Mordovian language as their native language
(according to the 1897 census), the number was 1.2 million. Mostly from
they converted from paganism to Orthodoxy. 98% Mordovians were peasants, about 1%
Philistines, the rest - the clergy, Cossacks, nobles and merchants.
Mordovia at the beginning of the 20th century. was a typical agrarian region of Russia. By
census 1911-1912 97% are peasants. Administratively peasants
united in rural communities and volosts. Community life
governed by democratic traditions developed by centuries of experience.
Important issues were decided by the village meeting, the headman was elected,
honeycombs and tenths (from every hundredth and tenth court). They helped
headman to perform organizational, fiscal and police functions.
The main administrative unit of government in countryside was
parish. They were organized not along national lines, but according to
territorial. At the head were volost foremen with elected
volost meeting of boards. The volost gathering was made up of the volost
board, elders and the most prosperous peasants (one out of ten
yards). The volost foreman was approved by the zemstvo chief and could be him
suspended. The Volost Court resolved simple legal issues and disputes. salary
received only the volost foreman and the clerk.
Peasant farming was quite efficient without the help
state in a feudal state. Work in it was carried out
part of the day in summer, in any weather. Peasant farming could
exist only with intensive management. In winter it was time to practice
crafts. Due to lack of land, every piece of land was used, draft
strength is a horse. Economically, the peasant economy was unstable, because. v
case of bad weather conditions there was a crop failure due to the loss of livestock
the economy was ruined. To ensure the developing capitalist
state economic system of small individual farms,
united in communities, based on the physical labor of male workers
(i.e., an extensive way of farming), became ineffective.
The economic position of the peasants was determined primarily by land ownership and
land use. The best land was provided by the former
state peasants from Russian-Mordovian and Mordovian communities - 8.5 each
tithes per yard. The smallest allotments were owned by Russian former landowners.
peasants - 4.1 acres each. Availability of working cattle compared to
most regions of Russia was good. The main agricultural
the crops were rye and oats. In the southern regions, the share of wheat increased.
The population of Mordovia produced bread for their own provision and payment
taxes. Commercial grain was grown only on 10% of the area, it went to
taxes. To support the family, I had to earn extra money by crafts and
work on the side. Only agriculture was impossible to provide an average
family level.
The First World War exacerbated all socio-economic
contradictions in the peasant environment and this resulted in the first Russian revolution
1905-07 It poured out on the Mordovian land mainly in the form
peasant movement aimed at the elimination of specific, state,
monastic and landownership. In the struggle there was also a national
liberation aspect - the struggle of the Mordovian peasants against the Russians
landowners. important role in the formation of the peasant movement in the political
the 1st Congress of the Peasant Union in the summer of 1905 played a role in mass demonstrations
peasants grew, the main force in the suppression of peasant revolts were
regular army and Cossack units. The result of the first revolution was
a radical change in the political situation: the noble landowners lost their
the peasant community practically became uncontrollable.
Stolypin's agrarian reform did not achieve social goals in the Mordovian
earth. Poorly organized resettlement of Mordovian peasants outside
of their lands by 1912 caused the return of many of them, devastated,
deprived of land and all means of subsistence. The crisis of the first revolution and
mass demonstrations turned the national consciousness of the Mordovians - gone
fear of the authorities, the Russian landowners lost their influence over them. This
one of the reasons, along with socio-economic ones, led to the revolution of 1917
d. After the February revolution, the reorganization of the management system began,
volost councils were formed and committees became organs of the peasant
power, but the Provisional Government was unable to subdue them.
In the Mordovian region, the same socio-economic processes took place,
as in all of Russia. The destruction of the old administrative apparatus is not
followed by the creation of a new one. In the autumn of 1917, a new upsurge begins
peasant movement. Solution 2 All-Russian Congress advice about
the elimination of private ownership of land led to the intensification of the uprising under
leadership of the peasant self-government bodies. It was a repeat
Pugachev. Many estates were destroyed and burned, which led to
economic and cultural damage. But this movement could not solve everything
pressing issues and satisfy land hunger. equalizing division
land often caused disputes and clashes between volosts and rural
communities, often armed. The first collective farms were
arise in 1917, by the end of 1918 their land accounted for 7% of the total
area. They were entered mainly by the poorest peasants and they played more
ideological rather than economic role. After 1917 the power of the Soviets
installed in Mordovia in January-March 1918. With rare exceptions
The Soviets took power on the Mordovian land painlessly. In the spring of 1918
authorities began to form in the countryside - combeds and food detachments, but their
creation ran into resistance from a significant part of the peasantry,
organizations of the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries supported by
peasants. The presence in the countryside of parallel authorities - committees and
Volost Soviets caused a confrontation. Kombeds were engaged in requisitioning
bread, redistribution of land, agricultural equipment, organized artels and
communes. In those volosts where the commanders took power into their own hands, they carried out
and functions of volost councils. In the autumn of 1918, a decision was made to
re-election of the Soviets under the control of the committees and the dissolution of the latter. So
Thus, the communists created a rigid centralized system
management. Peasant Soviets were under the vigilant control of local
party cells and did not have full independence. Mordva allowed
Bolsheviks to establish their own system of power by supporting the Declaration of Rights
peoples of Russia, which promised the abolition of national discrimination.
The civil war became a real tragedy for all the peoples of Russia. V
in the regions of Penza and Samara, major events took place to suppress the rebellion
Czechs and Slovaks, which ended with the defeat and execution of the rebels.
Chapaev's division, the legendary hero of his son, played a big role in this.
Mordvinian peasant. His division included many Mordovians. On the other side
in the white movement there were also many representatives of the Mordovians. As a result
civil war and the policy of "war communism" productive forces
countries were undermined. The surplus appropriation and dictatorship of the Bolsheviks led to
reduction in grain production, the peasants lost their economic incentive when
constant and rigid policy of withdrawal of surpluses. Often they were withdrawn
only among the kulaks, but also among the middle peasants. In some cases, the organization
collective farms ran into resistance. But gradually it happens
the final subordination of the peasant authorities to the communist
dictatorship. This was facilitated not only by military force, but also by national
politics - on the ground, Mordovians began to be introduced into the leadership, which had not been done before
It was. Of course, this could not but find a response in the Mordovian people.
The consequences of the Civil War were a drop in the volume of industrial
production by 7 times, gross product Agriculture in 1920
amounted to only two-thirds of the pre-war. On the territory of Mordovia, too
crop areas decreased, but the number of livestock remained, almost
landless peasants disappeared. In general, the negative consequences of the war on
Mordovian land turned out to be less destructive than the average for Russia. But
the most negative result was the lack of incentive to produce
products in the countryside under conditions of surplus appropriation and curtailment of free
trade. The political and military confrontation between the authorities escalated
and the peasantry, as a result of expropriation and punitive actions. civil
the war was imposed on the Mordovian people by political parties,
pursuing their goals and brought numerous material and
human losses. Tens of thousands of Mordvins died from hostilities,
epidemics and famine, but the number of Mordovians due to the high birth rate is not
decreased and amounted to 1.15 million people in 1920.
In the 1920s, the task was to overcome the economic and political
crisis. In 1920-21. powerful armed uprisings are taking place
peasantry against the authorities in the territory of the Mordovian region. cruel
punitive actions did not give results. At this time, the policy of "military
communism" with its food requisitions and drought led to famine and lack of
seed farms for sowing. In a number of districts of the Volga region, up to 95% of the peasants were starving.
The propaganda of the company to help the starving was launched in the press, a large
assistance was provided by international organizations. But it wasn't enough
mass mortality decreases only with the new harvest of 1922. Mordovskiy
the region was in the center of a region affected by crop failure and famine, in
as a result of which tens of thousands of people died, in addition
there was a huge negative impact on morality and physical and
psychological state of Mordovians.
Famine and human and material losses in 1921-22. failed attempt
restoration of the economy by the methods of war communism. The transition to
NEP, which provided for: the establishment of a solid monetary system,
a deficit-free budget, self-financing at enterprises, leasing small and
medium-sized enterprises to individuals. Under these conditions, a new Land
code, which established that the lands were nationalized and
the purchase and sale of land was prohibited, the word "ownership" was excluded and the
- "use". On the other hand, farmers were given the right to
protection of rights to land and various forms of activity on it. Social
the political and economic situation was favorable for development
Mordovian people, to restore vitality after the upheavals of 1917-
22 years But in the late 1920s, the breaking of the NEP began. First question about
of Mordovian autonomy was put at the congress of Mordovian communists in
Samara in 1921. In 1928, after the new administrative zoning
Middle Volga region, as part of the Middle Volga Territory, Mordovia was formed
December 1934 - to the autonomous republic. The first leadership of Mordovia
correctly assessed its potential and capabilities. And worked out a real plan
development, successfully implemented in 1928-29. However, the party's decision
led by Stalin on forced industrialization and collectivization
plunged the village into economic chaos. Moreover, in the second half of the 1930s
years, nominees with a low level of education came to the leadership, in
not a single Mordvin was left in the leadership, which led to sabotage
national construction and confrontation "Russians - Mordovians", "Erzya -
moksha”, and did not create favorable conditions for the socio-economic
development. As a result of collectivization, repressions and executions of the 30s
the Mordovian people suffered huge losses, far exceeding those from the Civil
and the first world war and the famine of the 20s. It came down not only to a decrease
numbers, but also to the destruction of the centuries-old way of life of the peasantry,
conceptions of ethics and morality. Deportation from indigenous lands over
300 thousand people dealt a blow to the gene pool. Repression destroyed a large
part of the Mordovian intelligentsia. Remaining after the repression national
the cadres were mainly represented by people who were dismissive of
culture and history of the Mordovians, to the language. Mordovian autonomy is not only
fulfilled its function of national development, but even hindered it. Tem
no less, the Mordovians continued to be one of the major peoples of the country
worthily living their history together with the Russians and other peoples,
Great Patriotic War, taking a heroic part, then
economic recovery and revival of national culture.
Now Mordovia is an agro-industrial republic within the Volga-
Vyatka economic region. Machine-building industries are developed: precise
mechanical engineering, instrument making, lighting engineering, production
semiconductors, as well as the food industry. Saransk is the capital and
a major cultural and student city.
The territory of the republic is 26.2 thousand square meters. km. Number - 955 thousand people
(1996). More than 50 nationalities live in the republic. Mordva
is 32.5%, Russians - 60.8%, Tatars - about 5%. Average age
population 37.1 years. There are 7 cities in the republic: Saransk (about 320
thousand), Ruzaevka, Kovylkino, Krasnoslobodsk, Ardatov, Insar, Temnikov.
NATIONAL COMPOSITION OF RUSSIA AND MORDOVIA.
142 peoples live on the territory of the Russian Federation. Among them are dominated by Slavic
peoples (125 million out of 147), including the majority of Russians (82%).
R is the largest Slavic state in the world. There are 400 million Slavs in the world from
2/5 of them live in R. 99% of the inhabitants of R have their own national-state
formations, the boundaries of which coincide with the area of residence of the local
population. Tatars, Chuvashs, Ukrainians, Byelorussians, Mordovians,
Mari are Udmurts, etc. they differ in language, way of life, customs,
traditions, culture, labor skills, external signs. But the most
stable sign - language.
Therefore, the population of R is divided into language families:
1. Indo-European (89% of the population of R): Slavic, Baltic, German,
Romance, Iranian, Armenian, Indo-Aryan.
2. North Caucasian (2.4%): Abkhaz-Adyghe, Anakh-Dagestan.
3. Ural (2%): Finno-Ugric, Samoyed, Yukagir.
4. Altai (6.8%): Turkic (Tatar), Mongolian (Buryats, Kalmyks),
Tungus-Manchu, Chukchi-Kamchadal, Eskimo-Aleut.
Currently, the national composition is changing. last census
(1989) noted the growth of the inhabitants of small and indigenous peoples R. Russkie
slowed down the growth rate. If in 1979 there were 84.4% Russians, then in 1989 -
The Mordovian people retained their population, in total 1
million 350 thousand people (in 1926-39). In the Republic of Mordovia, Mordovians
accounts for 32%, in the Republic of Erzya - 160 thousand (live in the east
Republic), Moksha - 180 thousand (live in the west). Russians in the Republic
make up 60%, Tatars 5%, there are Ukrainians, Chuvashs. As a result of assimilation
the native language of the Mordovians began to be lost. lingua franca
became Russian.
ASSESSMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES OF MORDOVIA
Not available on the territory of Mordovia large deposits, but there is
Construction Materials. These are phosphorites, mineral paints, brown
iron ore, shales, cement raw materials, clays, sand and sandstone, gravel,
limestone. The largest deposits of marl-chalk rocks are used
for the production of cement and are located in the east of M in Chamzinsky and
Bolshebereznikovsky district. Widely distributed in the east of the republic and
deposits of chalk and marl. Limestones are more common in the northwest
republics, are developed in a semi-handicraft way. For construction and
road surfaces are used sandstone, which is found in many districts of M
especially a lot of it near Saransk, Ardatov and Big Berezniki. Lot
clay is available in M: brick, refractory, pottery, for faience production
wa and others. The most valuable are used in the production of bricks and are in
Ruzaevsky district and near Saransk. Great importance has peat, there are about
30 deposits, 2/3 are concentrated in the district of the river. Moksha and Wad It is used in
agriculture as a fertilizer and for heating in houses and boiler houses. as a fuel
shale is also used, small reserves of which are in the northeast. For
local needs, phosphorites are also used, the main deposits in the Krasnoslobodsky district
not. The reserves of brown iron ore are small and were mined until the 20th century. Bog oak -
a kind of fossil raw material used in the furniture industry. Them
are interested not only in Russia, but also abroad, but a small
extraction of raw materials. Sufficient forest resources - 525 thousand hectares, covered with mixed
coniferous-deciduous forests in the west and north-west of the republic. This
enough for our own forest and forestry and wood chemical
industries. The volume of logging is not large and corresponds to the natural
wood growth. These stocks mineral resources not enough for M and
have to import them.
Agroclimatic and land resources. Republic surface relief
is a plain, somewhat elevated and hilly in the south
eastern part, flat, low-lying mainly in the valleys of the Moksha River and
its tributaries, in the west and northwest. 58% of land resources are
land used in agriculture. Agro-climatic conditions M enough
favorable for the development of many branches of agriculture. Warm enough for
cultivation of winter rye, spring and winter wheat, oats, potatoes, hemp,
fodder crops. Precipitation is the least stable element of the climate. Average
they fall 450-500 mm per year. Due to the short length
republics from west to east, differences in their number by territory
insignificant. Most of the precipitation falls in the summer. TO
unfavorable climatic conditions include dry winds, in addition,
reduce the efficiency of agricultural production recurring almost every year
early autumn and late spring frosts, heavy rainfall, etc. Generally
the relative homogeneity of agro-climatic conditions indicates
great influence on the territorial organization of the agricultural republics of other
components of the natural environment, primarily soils. The soils of M are different in
fertility and correct use can produce high yields.
The soil cover is very diverse. Geographical position
M in a region with a fairly favorable temperate continental climate,
a combination of fertile black earth and lower quality gray forest soils
contributes to the development of diversified agriculture with the production of grain, potatoes,
sugar beet, cattle meat, pigs, milk. For soils M
the most characteristic combination of leached and podzolized chernozems and
complex of gray forest soils with a small distribution of soddy
podzolic soils. The most valuable are leached and podzolized
chernozems occupying more than 44% of arable land.
FEATURES OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ECONOMY OF MORDOVIA
Development of the lands on which the modern territory of Mordovia is located
began in the 16th and 17th centuries. Agriculture and industrial development developed in this territory.
production at landlord and state manufactories - cloth factories,
distilleries, etc. Saransky district - was poorly developed both in industry and agriculture.
The technical equipment of the landowners and peasant households was weak, in
Most of the work was carried out by hand, animal husbandry is underdeveloped. Industry
consisted of 50 semi-handicraft enterprises that processed agricultural and
forest raw materials, of which 29 are distilleries. Everything has changed radically
after 1917, the republic turned from a backward agrarian into an agrarian
industrial with modern industry and intensive agriculture. Leading place
occupies the industry. In the cities of Saransk, Ruzaevka, Kovylkino, modern
production During the Second World War, several factories from the western districts were transferred to M
new country. The production of existing factories was also expanded.
The development of the national economic complex M was influenced by
negative factors:
Enough fixed assets were not accumulated (industrial enterprises in
mostly small, agriculturally backward),
There was no major organizational center,
Natural conditions did not contribute to the development of production (lack of raw materials).
Positive factors: profitable EGP, availability of labor resources.
The development of the economy was slower than in other regions of the Volga-Vyatka region.
Only by the end of 1965 did the value of gross industrial output exceed the value of
agricultural products. In the structure of industry, a large share of light and
food industry.
Now more than 250 large industrial enterprises work in M
engineering, metalworking, industrial building materials,
forestry paper, woodworking, light and food industries.
Most enterprises are equipped with modern technology, automated and
mechanized. Largest enterprises: Saransk Electric Lamp Plant
(the Lisma association includes a plant and a research institute),
plant Electric rectifier (which has a large research and development
base), Saransk dump truck plant, Centrolite, Rubber engineering, Biochemist,
factories producing building materials (cement, bricks, etc.).
inappropriate placement. At present, TPK RM continues
be formed. In the structure of gross industrial output, more than 50% accounted for
in 1992 to enterprises of mechanical engineering and metalworking, more than 5% for
building materials, more than 6% for light products and more than 12% for products
food industry. Almost 80% are enterprises of Russian importance
enterprises. Enterprises of means of production account for 80%, and enterprises
producing consumer goods - 20%. Raw materials for industry are mainly
imported, because There are no large deposits on the territory of M, but there are
deposits of more than 10 minerals, among which are important
building materials (cement raw materials, clays, sand and sandstone, gravel,
limestone).
For the integrated development of industry and the entire economy of the republic, it is important
it is important to improve intersectoral and intrasectoral relations.
Now they are formed in the conditions of economic reform.
GEOGRAPHY OF MORDOVIA'S INDUSTRY
At the beginning of the 20th century on the territory of modern Mordovia there were about 50 small
enterprises employing about 2 thousand people. modern structure
industry was formed in the middle of the 20th century. The complex of its industries is still
is complemented. In the structure of gross industrial output, more than 50% accounted for
1992 for mechanical engineering and metalworking enterprises, more than 5% for construction
materials, more than 6% for light products and more than 12% for food products
prom. Almost 80% of enterprises are of Russian importance.
Enterprises of means of production account for 80%, and enterprises producing
consumer goods - 20%. Raw materials for industry are mainly imported. Now in
M operates more than 250 large industrial enterprises of machine-building,
metalworking, building materials industry, forest paper,
woodworking, light and food industries. Most Enterprise
equipped with modern technology, automated and mechanized.
Largest enterprises: Saransk Electric Lamp Plant (Lisma association
includes factory and research institute), factory
Electric rectifier (which has a large research and development base),
Saransk dump truck plant, Centrolite, Rubber engineering, Biochemist, plants
producing building materials (cement, brick, etc.).
The territorial organization of industry M has a feature - its main
the share falls on Saransk and Ruzaevka. There is an imbalance and
inappropriate placement.
Energy plays an important role in the development of industry. In M own
there are no fuel and energy and hydro resources. Therefore, energy works on
imported raw materials. Of great importance are the gas pipelines passing through M.
The share of gas in the fuel and energy balance is 50%. Now in M
There are four thermal power plants. The problem of energy supply is very acute,
the issue of building a thermal power plant is being resolved.
The leading branch of industry M is machine-building. Convenient transport
geographic location, availability of qualified labor resources,
research base, lack of own raw materials
led to the development of non-material-intensive, but labor-intensive production here.
Electrical industry (Lisma, Electric rectifier) are located in
Saransk, branches are located in Ruzaevka, Ardatov, Temnikovo, Chamzinka,
Atyuriev But in recent years, production volumes have fallen by more than 60%. Such
the same fall exists in other industries prom-ti. Growth is only seen
in industries that produce consumer goods. The structure is also changing.
mechanical engineering, new industries are emerging that produce complex household
equipment (television plant). The automotive industry is represented by a branch
GAZ - Saransk dump truck plant, Saransk
factories - Centrolite and Rubber Engineering. In Elkhovka, the production of road construction
machines. Many companies are engaged in the repair of automotive equipment,
diesel locomotives, agricultural machinery. Pitch metallurgy is represented in
M plant Centrolite. Chemistry is represented by the Biochemist (medicinal
preparations) and the Rezinotekhnika plant (production of rubber products for
automotive industry). All these factories are in Saransk.
In the west of M there is the only large forest chemistry enterprise
plant Dubitel (tanning extracts, rosin, turpentine, etc.).
The construction industry is developed in the east of M. It develops on
own raw materials (produce brick, tile, cement, slate, asbestos
pipes, etc.). The leading enterprise is the Alekseevsky cement plant. On the
based on its own raw materials, its own industry has developed, producing
prefabricated concrete products. There are such factories in Saransk, Ruzaevka,
settlement Komsosolsky. Brick production is developed everywhere. The largest
in Saransk, Ruzaevka.
The woodworking industry and the forest industry are the oldest. Most
distributed in the west and in the Alatyr region, where the main raw material base. One
from the main industries - furniture, factories in Saransk, Ichalki, at the factory
Dubitel make chipboard for her, in the village. Umet -
In the village Temnikovsky district has a paper industry enterprise -
factory "Red Rose" - wallpaper production.
In the value of gross output, light industry makes up more than 6%.
This industry is represented by local industrial enterprises - factories
sewing, knitwear, hemp fiber). Textile industry represented
the oldest Shiringush cloth factory, the Saransk factory of decorative
fabrics and Krasnoslobodskaya spinning and textile factory, Ruzaevskaya
knitting factory. These industries operate on imported raw materials.
Mordva- this is the common name of two closely related peoples - Moksha and Erzya, whose languages and some elements of culture are slightly different from each other. Name "Mordva" found in Russian chronicles, but in ancient and ritual songs and legends of moksha and erzi, only moksha or erzya is always found. To many people, the word "Mordva" seems wonderful, dissonant. There are various assumptions about the origin of this name. The closest to the truth, apparently, is the following: at the heart of the word, the base root is meaning "people". In the Udmurt language "murt" is "people", in the Komi language people are "mort". Compare: "Ud-murt" and "Mort-va". In the word Mordva, "t" was voiced in "d". It should be said that the Udmurt and Komi languages are distantly related to the Mordovian languages. In general, Finno-Ugric languages include Komi, Udmurt, Mari, Moksha, Erzya, Veps, Karelian, Finnish, Estonian, Izhora, Votsky, Liv, Sami. There are also many different assumptions about the origin of the “va” particle. But this requires separate consideration. For the first time the term "Mordva" is mentioned by Jordanes (VI century). Later Constantine Porphyrogenitus (913-959) mentions Mordia, which is 10 days away from the country of the Pechenegs. According to some researchers, the word "Mordva" is of Iranian origin. Corresponds to similar forms in the ancient Indian and Avestan languages, means "man", "man".
Mordva- refers to the Finno-Ugric group of peoples, which lives in the basins of the Moksha and Sura rivers, as well as in the interfluve of the Volga and Belaya. Mordva is a binary ethnic group, since the people consist of two main ethnic groups that speak close, but according to the linguistic classification, different languages. Mordva-Moksha lives mainly in the western and southern regions of the republic, Mordvin-Erzya - in the eastern and north-eastern. In addition, three more ethnic groups of the Mordovian ethnos stand out - the Shoksha, or Tengusheevskaya Mordva, Karatai and Teryukhan.
Story
The ancestors of the Mordovians are associated with the population that left the monuments of the Gorodets archaeological culture (7th century BC-5th century AD) on the territory of the middle and lower Oka. At the beginning-middle of the 1st millennium AD. e. in the interfluve of the Oka and Volga, the tribes of Mari, Meri, Mokshan, Murom and Erzya were formed. By this time, the Late Gorodetsky tribes acquire a stable rite in the ground burial grounds. By the beginning of the second half of the first millennium A.D. e. there are noticeable differences between the listed tribes. In the process of their development, both Mokshans and Erzyans had close contacts with various Iranian-speaking and Turkic-speaking tribes on the southern borders of their settlement, and in the north and west with the Baltic-speaking ones.
It is believed that for the first time the Mordovians under the name "mordens" are mentioned by the Gothic historian Jordan in the 6th century, in the 10th century. Byzantine emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus wrote about the country of Mordia. In ancient Russian sources, the Mordovians appear from the 11th century. According to archaeological data, until the 13th century. Mordva settled in the territory between the Oka in the west and the Sura in the east, its northern border passed along the Oka and the Volga, and the southern border along the border of the forest and the steppe. Erzya mastered the northern part of this region, and Moksha - the southern one. The process of decomposition of primitiveness, actively taking place among the Mordovians, led to the formation of a tribal elite and the appearance at the end of the 12th-1st third of the 13th centuries. proto-state formation, referred to in Russian chronicles as " Purgas parish”, at its head was Prince Purgas.
The territory of the Mordovians began to be part of the Russian lands, starting from the period of feudal fragmentation, this process ended in 1552 with the fall of the Kazan Khanate. As the Russian population moved into the Mordovian lands, part of the Mordovians was assimilated, and its core ethnic territory shifted to eastbound. Already in the first half of the 17th century. Moksha and Erzya moved across the Volga, and in the 18th century. widely settled in the Samara, Ufa and Orenburg provinces. Those who remained in their former places were more and more subjected to Russification, mainly due to forced mass baptism (especially in the middle of the 18th century).
Formation of national statehood among the Mordovians begins in 1925, when in the territories inhabited by the Mordovians, national administrative units began to be created - volosts and village councils. In 1928, the Mordovian Okrug was created as part of the Middle Volga region, which was transformed into an autonomous region in 1930, in 1934 the Mordovian ASSR was created, in 1991 it was renamed the Republic of Mordovia. The wide settlement of Mordovians outside the main ethnic territory, interethnic marriages led to the fact that the number of Mordovians began to decline as early as Soviet time, this process was already shown by the 1959 census.
Throughout its history, the Mordvins came into contact and ethnogenetic ties with various tribes and peoples that inhabited the Eurasian part of the northern hemisphere, which was reflected in its anthropological appearance. Thus, the materials of the anthropological survey of the Mordovian and neighboring peoples give grounds to conclude that two racial components mainly participated in the formation of the Mordovians: a light, massive, broad-faced Caucasoid type, traceable especially among the Mordovians-Erzi; dark gracile narrow-faced Caucasoid type, predominant among the Mordovians-Mokshas in the south-west of Mordovia; and a small admixture component of the Subural type.
Introduction
Archaeological monuments are one of the most valuable assets of historical science, the most important source that reveals the history of human society, the centuries-old history of peoples. They themselves, whether it is an ancient tool of labor or a monument of art, a dwelling or a defensive structure, are the creation of the people - the creator of all the material and spiritual benefits of society, the creator of history. They are an inextricable part of his life, a clear evidence of the long and complex path of historical progress that human society has traveled since the very initial stages of its formation.
Archaeological material is the main historical source for studying the ancient period of human history, which lasted hundreds of millennia - primitive society. But even for subsequent periods, including the Middle Ages, the study of the history of society, the history of the masses, the creation of a true historical picture is unthinkable without careful and comprehensive involvement of archaeological material. This is especially true in the past of non-literate peoples, including the history of the Mordovian people.
Mordovian people - one of the ancient peoples of Eastern Europe. Archaeological excavations suggest that the first pages of the history of the Mordovian tribes proper should be considered in early iron monuments dating from the 1st millennium BC. before the beginning of the 1st millennium AD. The problem of the Gorodets culture provides the key to solving the issue of isolating the Mordovian tribes from the general conglomerate of tribal groups of the Middle Volga region.
1. Age of stone and early metal
In the Late Paleolithic (30-10 thousand years ago), primitive communities settled mainly in Eastern Europe. Their sites were found north of the 64th parallel (about 175 km from the Arctic Circle). The oldest traces of human presence in the Middle Volga region date back to this time. Late Paleolithic flint tools were collected on the banks of the Volga, near the village. Polnoe-Yaltunovo in the lower reaches of the Tsna. Among the known sites, the closest to Mordovia is the Karacharovskaya Late Paleolithic site near Murom on the Oka.
The beginning of the penetration of primitive man into the Moksha-Sura interfluve dates back to the Mesolithic era (10 - 7 thousand years ago), but its solid development took place only in the Neolithic era.
The appearance of groups of wandering hunters on the territory of our region was due to a change in the lifestyle of the Late Paleolithic population of Eastern Europe. With the onset of the Mesolithic, large settlements with long-term communal dwellings, which were built from stones, large bones and mammoth tusks, disappeared. The transition of the Mesolithic communities to a mobile way of life is closely connected with the fundamental changes in natural conditions caused by the retreat and melting of the last glacier at the turn of the geological eras - the Pleistocene and Holocene (8500 - 8000 BC).
At the beginning of the Holocene, the vegetation cover is restructured, cold steppes and periglacial tundras are replaced by coniferous-broad-leaved forests. These changes had a dramatic effect on the development of the animal world. They led to the disappearance of the mammoth, woolly rhinoceros and other large animals of the Ice Age, which served as the main object of hunting for Paleolithic man. At the same time, the populations of elk, wild boar, waterfowl and upland birds, and fish have increased significantly. Significant changes in the composition of game animals led to the development of new methods of hunting (stalking, hiding prey), which remains the basis of the economy of the Mesolithic communities. The bow and arrow, invented in the late Paleolithic, are established as the main hunting weapon. Now there was no need to organize driven hunting for large animals, which required the participation of a significant number of people. It became more expedient to send small groups of hunters in different directions from the place of residence. The effectiveness of new hunting techniques was increased by the use of a dog tamed in the Mesolithic. There are such specific forms of fishing as poultry production.
The intensification of hunting led to the rapid destruction of animals in the areas of residence of each community. This forced the Mesolithic man to move more frequently within his territory and contributed to the development of new hunting grounds. Untouched forests between Oka and Sura began to attract the attention of primitive hunters. The remains of monuments of that time were found near Lake Imerka, the village of Tarvas-Molot in the Zubovo-Polyansky district, the village of Shiromasovo in the Tengushevsky district. Obviously, the penetration of the Mesolithic communities into our region did not occur simultaneously and from different directions. Archaeologists note in the materials of so far isolated sites features of the cultures of the southwestern, Volga-Oka and Kama regions.
The mobility of hunting groups led to the appearance of short-term camps, small in area, without residential structures or with temporary hut-like buildings. For them, elevated places near rivers and lakes were chosen. Large stationary settlements of the Upper Paleolithic time, located in places of convenient driven hunting, are losing their significance.
The rapid depletion of hunting grounds stimulated the development of such a form of appropriating economy as fishing, which in the Mesolithic era becomes not a sporadic hunt, but a purposeful branch of the economy. Fishing hooks appear, finds of the remains of nets suggesting the use of boats are known, and harpoons are very widely distributed. However, in the economy, fishing becomes predominant later, already in the Neolithic. Gathering, practiced in the Paleolithic, in the Mesolithic time becomes selective.
An important invention of the Mesolithic man is the stone axe, which appeared with the wide spread of forests. The technique of making tools from stone continues to improve. Of great importance are composite tools made of a wooden or bone frame with a groove into which small inserts of silicon knife-like plates were inserted.
Changes are also observed in the social organization of the Mesolithic society. The small size of the sites and the temporary nature of the dwellings indicate a significant reduction in the number of Mesolithic tribes compared to the Late Paleolithic. However, there is the existence of a tribal community based on maternal kinship, with a developed joint household characteristic of it.
Thus, within the framework of the Mesolithic in the north of Europe, as well as in the Middle Volga region, there were no fundamental changes in the economy, although manufacturing industries appeared in the south, primarily agriculture. However, by the end of the Mesolithic time (5th millennium BC), the forest tribes had reached such a level of development of the appropriating economy, at which the prerequisites for obtaining an excess product, characteristic of the next era of the Stone Age - the Neolithic, were created. This led to a demographic leap, which led to the active development of the forest zone, including the territory of the Moksha-Sura interfluve.
In the Neolithic period, the spaces between the Oka and Sura were covered with mixed forests, in which spruce, pine, birch, alder, oak, and hazel grew. Elk, bear, beaver, hare, fox and other representatives of the animal world lived in them. This time is characterized by a relatively humid and warm climate, close to modern.
If in the steppe zone of Eastern Europe the beginning of the Neolithic was marked by a transition from an appropriating economy (hunting, fishing, gathering) to a producing one (agriculture, animal husbandry), then in the forest zone the appropriating economy continues to develop, but already with a bias towards fishing rather than hunting. But everywhere the main result of economic activity is the creation of an excess product that does not go directly into the sphere of consumption. This is one of the main differences between the Neolithic and the Mesolithic.
In the Neolithic time, the territory of our region was firmly mastered by primitive tribes. In the spaces of the Moksha-Sura interfluve, several dozen Neolithic sites are known (a complex of monuments near Lake Imerka, Kargashino sites in the Zubovo-Polyansky district, the settlements of Mashkino and Shaverki in the Krasnoslobodsky district, the Andreevsky settlement in the Kovylkinsky district, etc.).
The abundance of calm, fish-rich rivers with an extensive hydraulic system, inundated floodplain lakes and forests created favorable conditions for the life of numerous Neolithic communities. At that time, the Moksha-Sura interfluve was inhabited by fishing and hunting tribes, whose ancient settlements were located on floodplain sand dunes along the banks of rivers and lakes. Flint arrowheads and spearheads, bone harpoons, fishhooks, net sinkers, etc., are evidence of their occupations.
In the Neolithic era, among the local tribes, fishing finally prevailed over hunting. Thus, a whole layer of fish scales and bones was found at the Kargashin sites in the Zubovo-Polyansky district. The main methods of fishing with the use of boats, nets, tops, fences required the settlement of fishermen near the places of fishing and settlement.
Neolithic monuments are small permanently functioning settlements with a layer rich in cultural remains. There are from one to three stationary dwellings in the form of oval-shaped semi-dugouts with a frame-pillar structure and deep open hearths. Earthen bunks were located along the walls, niches-pantries or cellars were built in the floor of the dwelling. Similar buildings have been explored by archaeologists at the Andreevsky settlement in the Kovylkinsky district, the Shaverki settlement in the Krasnoslobodsky district of Mordovia.
One of characteristic features Neolithic culture was the emergence of hand-made pottery. Now it is assumed that the entire forest zone received ancient ceramics, quite homogeneous, from one source, most likely from the Balkans, through the transmission links - the cultures of the early Neolithic of the Bug-Dniester and Dnieper-Donetsk regions. This is also evidenced by the parallel development of the forms and ornamentation of ceramics in many cultures of the forest belt for a long time.
The fragility of large clay cauldron-shaped sharp-bottomed vessels, which were not taken during migrations, the widespread presence of clay, which served as a material for making dishes, were the reasons why ceramics did not enter into an exchange item in this era, which prevented the spread of a certain type of dishes outside the settlements of a particular group tribes. Therefore, ceramics, the shape of vessels and especially their ornamentation formed the basis for the identification of archaeological cultures of the Neolithic.
For this time, in the Moksha-Sura interfluve, archaeologists distinguish three different cultural groups of the population. The first is characterized by ceramics ornamented with comb-shaped impressions, the other - by dishes decorated with triangular pricks, the third - by applying a combination of pit-comb prints to the surface of the vessels. Their interaction determined the direction of the main ethno-cultural processes.
The Neolithic era is characterized by the flourishing of the technique of making tools from stone and bone. At that time, such methods of processing products as drilling, grinding, sawing, and various types of retouching were used.
The ax, invented in the Mesolithic, was widely used in the Neolithic. More advanced stone adzes and chisels appear, which is associated with the spread of grinding and sharpening techniques for products.
Thus, despite the leading role of fishing in the Neolithic economy, the collective economy of tribal groups remained complex, that is, fishing was combined with hunting and gathering. Fishing, unlike other sectors of the economy, was a year-round occupation that provided the primitive tribes with an excess product, which largely determined their sedentary lifestyle.
Starting from about the middle of the second quarter of the 3rd millennium BC. in Eastern Europe natural conditions change. The climate is becoming drier, but colder than at present. The area of broad-leaved forests is shrinking, and the role of pine and birch forests is increasing. The marten, red deer and other animals that lived here in the previous era reappear in the forests.
Changes in the natural environment coincided with major ethno-cultural and economic shifts in the development of Late Neolithic cultures. In the III - early II millennium BC. local tribes enter a period of transition between the Neolithic and the Bronze Age - the Eneolithic era.
If in the south at this time copper tools were widely introduced into everyday life, producing types of economy were developing, then Neolithic traditions still dominate among the population of the forest belt. However, copper items also appear here, although still very rarely. At the settlement of Imerka in the Zubovo-Polyansky district, a copper figure was found - the head of a bear. Familiarity with copper foundry production is also confirmed by the finds of crucibles for melting metal and a clay mold for casting an ax at the Eneolithic settlements near Novy Usad in the Krasnoslobodsky district of Mordovia. More widely, non-ferrous metalworking spreads only among the Late Lithic population, when it comes into contact with the tribes of pastoralists and farmers of the Early Bronze period who penetrated the territory of the Middle Volga region.
The stone industry continues to play a major role in the production of tools. In the Eneolithic era, combined flint tools appeared, performing several working functions, which saved labor and raw materials for their manufacture and gave a greater effect.
Changes also affected the organization of fishing and hunting: the role of net and shut-off fishing increased, which increased the productivity of the appropriating economy and contributed to a more sedentary population.
Eneolithic settlements located on the banks of rivers and lakes are becoming larger and more durable. They consist, as a rule, of several residential buildings in the form of semi-dugouts. rectangular shape with a pillar structure, sometimes connected by transitions. The population is growing noticeably. Monuments of the Eneolithic time are known near Lake Imerka, the villages of Kargashino, Shiringushi of the Zubo-Polyansky region, Shiromasovo of the Tengushevsky region, Nizhny Satis of the Temnikovsky region, Lepchenko of the Elnikovsky region, Novy Usad of the Krasnoslobodsky region, Volgapino of the Kovylkinsky region, etc.
One of the characteristic features of the Eneolithic culture of the forest belt of the Middle and Upper Volga region is the production of various flint sculptures of people, animals, birds and fish. In the antiquities of the Moksha-Sura interfluve, flint anthropomorphic figurines were found in a settlement near the villages of Shiromasovo, Tengushevsky district, Lepchenko, Elnikovsky district. The figurine of a beaver comes from the Kargashinsky site in the Zubovo-Polyansky district. Most researchers consider them ritual objects and see them as reflections of the cult of ancestors or totemism.
The specificity of ethnocultural processes on the territory of the Moksha-Sura interfluve in the era of stone and early metal was determined by the fact that here, due to the geographical location, two cultural worlds met and mutually enriched: the population of the forest-steppe zone, on the one hand, and the forest tribes, on the other. It is in these conditions that a special way of development of the Neolithic cultures of our region is born.
In the early Neolithic era (the end of the 5th - the first half of the 4th millennium BC), two cultural groups of the population lived together on Moksha and Sura, differing primarily in the traditions of ornamentation ceramic dishes. Most of the Early Neolithic sites discovered in our region are included in the circle of forest cultures of the Middle and Upper Volga region with the comb tradition dominating in ornamentation. There is reason to believe that these monuments were formed on the basis of the Late Melithic industry, the origins of which, due to the limited source base, are still unclear. In another group of monuments, ornamentation of the surface of vessels with triangular pricks predominates. The pricked tradition is characteristic of the Early Neolithic population of the forest-steppe and steppe belt from the Don in the west to the Volga in the east. Despite the insignificant population density and the still mobile way of life of the tribes, the main development of the Neolithic culture of the Mokshano-Sura interfluve proceeded along the line of integration of these two population groups, as evidenced by a number of syncretic archaeological complexes.
In the second half of the IV millennium BC. ethnocultural processes were due to the movement of newcomers from the Lower Poochya up the Moksha, who left monuments with pit-comb ceramics. The Moksha basin and its tributaries become the permanent habitat of these tribes, who displaced the carriers of the prickly-comb tradition from here. In the future, the Primoksha population with pit-comb ceramics acquires some specific features in the material culture, distinguishing it from the community of tribes of pit-comb ceramics on the Oka and the Middle Volga.
However, on Sura in the Late Neolithic period, a further development of traditional culture is observed, reinforced by related tribes who came from Moksha. Despite the penetration of certain groups of the population with the pit-comb tradition, the carriers of pricked-comb ceramics successfully resisted their onslaught.
The Eneolithic era in the Moksha-Sura interfluve is marked by the appearance at the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. two new cultural formations: the Volosovo and Imerk cultures. According to the features of material culture, they differ significantly from the local Late Neolithic tribes, whose historical destinies on the territory of the region have not yet been traced.
The formation of the Volosovo culture took place in the spaces of the Volga-Oka interfluve and the middle Volga on the basis of local Neolithic tribes. ITS development can be traced where there is a mutual enrichment of two traditions: the Upper Volga and Volga-Kama cultures, closely related to the Moksha-Sura carriers of ringed-comb ceramics, on the one hand, and to the population with pit-comb ceramics, on the other, with the dominance of the former. The appearance of Volosovo antiquities in our region was a consequence of the settlement of the Middle Volga Volosovites, who found a population in the Primoksha region that left monuments of the Imerk type. The newcomer tribes came into contact with the local population and adopted some of its traditions.
The Imerk culture, singled out among the local Eneolithic antiquities only in recent years, differs from the Volosovo in features in house building, flint industry, molding and especially ornamentation of pottery. Its carriers were familiar with the original metalworking - copper casting, while the classical Volosovites had their own non-ferrous metalworking only at a late stage of development under the influence of alien cultures of the early Bronze Age.
The ways of penetration of Imerkian antiquities into our territory have not yet been established, although the question of their autochthonous origin can hardly be answered in the affirmative. Some researchers, not without reason, point to the proximity of the Imerk materials to the Late Neolithic complexes of the forest-steppe Don region.
Significant disagreements are observed in determining the linguistic affiliation of the carriers of the Volosovo culture. A new interpretation of the question of the origin of the Volosovo antiquities allows us to reconsider the traditional point of view about the indisputably Finno-Ugric origin of the Volosovites. In connection with the latest discoveries in the Neolithic area, more and more arguments are being taken to look at them as descendants of the northern Indo-European tribes.
The further fate of the late Eneolithic population of the Moksha-Sura interfluve is closely connected with the appearance at the turn of the 3rd - 2nd millennium BC. alien pastoral and agricultural tribes of the Early Bronze Age.
Bronze Age
The beginning of the Bronze Age coincided with the development of bronze metallurgy and the introduction of tools from it. Bronze metallurgy ensured the mass production of the most rational forms of tools and created the prerequisites for distinguishing artisans as a special social stratum of society. The historical significance of the Bronze Age for the population of the Moksha-Sura interfluve lies in the fact that within its framework a diversified economy developed, dynamically combining appropriating crafts (hunting, fishing, gathering) with producing industries (cattle breeding and agriculture). These achievements contributed to an increase in the population, the development of the social organization of society. In the new conditions of management, a man begins to play an ever-increasing role - a cattle breeder, a metallurgist and a warrior. The matriarchy is being replaced by a patriarchal-tribal system.
At the beginning of the II millennium BC. among the Eneolithic population of the Moksha-Sura interfluve, alien cattle-breeding and agricultural tribes settled, leaving monuments of the Balanovo culture. Their appearance in our region was one of the impulses in a wide wave of migration that covered the territory from the banks of the Rhine in the west to the Volga in the east.
The ancestral home of the Balanovsky (Middle Volga) tribes of the battle ax culture was the Southern Dnieper and Carpathian regions, from where they moved to our region along the Desna and the Upper Oka under the influence of changing climatic conditions at the end of the 3rd - beginning of the 2nd millennium BC, which led to a sharp increase in water levels in the Nemala, Vistula and other rivers of the Southern Baltic. The transgression of the hydraulic system has significantly limited river floodplains suitable for agricultural and pastoral farming and has necessitated the search for new habitats.
These were the first cattle breeding and agricultural tribes in our region. Cattle breeding among the Balanovites was of a sedentary pastoral nature, as evidenced by stationary settlements located on high, inaccessible capes or hills, and the predominance of cattle and pigs with a minimum number of small cattle. At the well-known Balanovsky settlement of Osh0Pando in the Dubensky district, bones of cows, pigs, horses and sheep were found, but with a predominance of the remains of cattle and pigs. Probably, bulls were used by the Balanovites as a traction force, as evidenced by the finds of clay models of wheels from wagons.
It is assumed that the carriers of the Balanovskaya culture practiced slash-and-burn agriculture with secondary and, possibly, long-term cultivation of areas cleared of forests, but it did not play a significant role in their economy. Hunting, fishing and gathering were of secondary importance in the economy.
An analysis of bronze items indicates that the Balanov tribes created their own center of metallurgy, which was based on the copper sandstones of the Middle Volga and Lower Kama regions. The ancient metallurgy of the Balanovites had a decisive influence on the development of metalworking among the local Late Volosov tribes.
The carriers of the Balanovo culture, along with other related tribes of the battle ax culture of Eastern Europe (Fatyanovo, Middle Dnieper, Vistula-Neman and Baltic culture of boat-shaped axes), are unanimously attributed to representatives of the Baltic branch of the Indo-Europeans.
The development of the Balanovo culture in Moksha and Sura was accompanied by peaceful relations between its bearers and the local Late Neolithic Volosovo population, which noticeably intensified in the second quarter of the 2nd millennium BC. This was facilitated by the fact that the Balanovtsy fell into a partially related environment of the Volosovtsy - the descendants of the northern Indo-Europeans. The result of their contacts was the formation by the middle of the II millennium BC. in the Middle Volga region of a new cultural formation - the Chirkov horizon of antiquities. Monuments of this type in our region are just beginning to be outlined based on the materials of the Shiromasovsky settlement in the Tengushevsky district.
In the middle of the first half of the II millennium BC. into the forest steppe zone In the Middle Volga region, the Indo-Iranian tribes of the Abashev culture, who were at enmity with the local Balanovsko-Volosovsky population, invaded. This is demonstrated by the presence of a number of group burials of the Abashevo warriors dating back to the time of the spread of antiquities of this type from the regions of the forest-steppe Don region. Flint arrowheads, with which they were often killed, were used by the local Balanov tribes or the Chirkovites related to them. The monuments reflecting hostile attitudes towards aliens include the Staroardatovsky mound in the Ardatovsky district of Mordovia, under the mound of which the burial of seven Abashev warriors was found. However, the orientation of the leading pastoral economy to various ecological niches (forest in the zone of broad-leaved formations among the Balanovites and forest-steppe with a gravitation towards the meadow steppe among the Abashevites) allowed them to coexist peacefully in rather limited territories.
The Abashev population was quite mobile and was engaged in pastoral cattle breeding with the subordinate importance of agriculture. The herd was dominated by large and small cattle, the horse is known. The level of development of cattle breeding allowed them to use cattle for transport and military purposes. Findings of parts of a horse bridle in the Abashevo antiquities testify to the appearance of chariots in the Eurasian steppe. This contributed to the spread of the Abashevsky population in the vast forest-steppe spaces from the Left Bank of the Dnieper in the west to the river. Tobol in the east. It was the first in a significant amount to begin the development of the Ural copper deposits and created its own form of tools, weapons and jewelry.
The further fate of the Abashevo population in our region is connected with the advance into the forest-steppe zone along the meadow steppe of the Iranian-speaking tribes of the Srubna culture in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. ITS carriers occupied a vast territory of the forest-steppe and steppe zone from the Left-Bank Ukraine to the Urals. The process of their settlement along the southern border of the forest-steppe Volga region was accompanied by the absorption of the carriers of the Abashevo antiquities and their inclusion in the Srubnaya cultural historical community.
The vast majority of the monuments of the Srubna culture in Mordovia are located on the site of the former meadow steppe, wedged into forests along the Issa, Insar, Pyana rivers and their tributaries. The topography of mounds and settlements corresponds to the leading direction of the economic activity of the Srubny tribes - steppe pastoral cattle breeding. The basis of the herd was large and, to a lesser extent, small cattle. In the log period, the role of horse breeding increases significantly. In addition to a significant proportion of horses in the herd, this is also evidenced by numerous finds of cheek-pieces and other attributes of a horse team at the monuments of the Srubna culture. It is assumed that along with the use of horses as draft animals, they served for riding.
The bearers of the Srubnaya culture of the forest-steppe zone were well acquainted with the slash-and-slash system of land use. They used bronze hanging axes. For harvesting, a very perfect form of bronze sickles was developed, which, in the form of finished products and casting molds, were found in many settlements of the Srubnaya culture of the Volga region. Hunting and fishing did not play a significant role in the economy.
Non-ferrous metalworking among the Timber-Grave population has reached the level of a craft, involving the manufacture of products not only for their own needs, but also for sale or exchange. In the forest-steppe zone, entire settlements of foundry metallurgists have been identified. An analysis of a small series of bronze items (knives, awls, bracelets) from log mounds in the territory of Mordovia showed that ore springs east of the Urals served as raw materials for them.
Most of the monuments of the Srubnaya culture in our region (near the villages of Atyashevo, Tarasovo, Alovo, Atyashevsky district, Morevka, Old Settlements of the Bolsheignatovsky district, etc.) belong to the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. With the appearance of tribes of the Srubnaya cultural and historical community in the forest-steppe of the Oka-Sura interfluve, the ethno-cultural diversity characteristic of the Early and Middle Bronze Age disappears, and on the basis of their synthesis with the local forest (formerly post-Stvolovskaya) population, the Late Bronze Age culture is formed.
Monuments of the Pozdnyakovo culture are widespread in the forest and forest-steppe zone from the upper reaches of the Oka to the right bank of the Volga. The Akim-Sergeevskoye settlement in the Zubovo-Polyansko district, near the village of Kulikovo in the Tyangushevsk district, Lake Churilka in the Krasnoslobodsky district, and others have been best studied in our region.
A diversified economy developed in the Pozdnyakov tribes. Floodplain cattle breeding was of a pastoral character with stall keeping of livestock in winter time. The herd included cattle, horses, pigs and small cattle. The Pozdnyakovites practiced a slash-and-burn system of agriculture; they used bronze and flint sickles when harvesting.
Of great importance in the economy of the Pozdnyakovo population were traditional forestry - hunting and fishing, the development of which was facilitated by the location of settlements in floodplains near vast forests stretching along the Oka, Moksha, Sura and their tributaries.
Along with the flint industry, the Pozdnyakovites developed bronze metallurgy, based on imported metal of eastern (mainly Volga-Ural and Volga-Kama) origin. The existence of its own metalworking is confirmed by the finds of foundry molds, crucibles for melting bronze, clay pits, including in dwellings in a settlement near the village of Kulikovo in the Tengushevsky district. The significance of the Pozdnyakovskaya culture in the evolution of the forest tribes of the Oka-Sura interfluve is determined primarily by the fact that it prepared the prerequisites for the establishment of productive forms of economy (cattle breeding and agriculture), which were developed in the Iron Age.
Early Iron Age
The first iron products in Eastern Europe appeared in the Late Bronze Age, however, the mass production of iron tools and weapons begins only in the first quarter of the 1st millennium BC. If in the steppes the onset of the Iron Age coincided with the transition of pastoral and agricultural tribes to a nomadic way of life, then the forest tribes of the Middle Volga continue to develop a complex economy inherited from the population of the Late Bronze Age. Ferrous metallurgy among local tribes, based on swamp ore, is hardly gaining ground in the production of tools against the background of the traditional bronze and bone industry. After a series of invasions, regroupings of tribes during the Bronze Age in the Early Iron Age, a relatively stable ethno-cultural development of the Gorodets culture took place for seven to eight centuries without noticeable external influences.
The culture of the early Iron Age in the Moksha-Sura interfluve was formed on the basis of the monuments of the final Bronze Age as a result of complex ethno-cultural processes, the main content of which was determined by the interaction of the descendants of the local Late Kovnik tribes and alien carriers of the Reticulated Pottery culture, who penetrated the Pozdnyakovskaya environment of the Volga-Oka interfluve of the 2nd millennium BC. AD from the regions of the Upper Volga region. The bulk of the Okskoe Pozdnyakovo population was pushed back to the forest-steppe regions of the Dnieper left bank and the Northern Donets, where on its basis the Bondarikhinsky culture arises, which later takes part in the formation of the Scythian cultures of the left-bank forest-steppe. A part of the Oka Pozdnyakovites could have been assimilated by the newcomers or moved upstream the Moksha into the environment of the closely related population of Primokshany and Surye.
By the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. material culture Moksha-Sura Pozdnyakovets is significantly transformed. The heirs of the Pozdnyakov's traditions move the settlements to naturally protected high areas. This was due both to climate change, accompanied by cooling and rising levels of the hydro network, and to the nature of the producing economy. In addition, hard-to-reach capes were more convenient for protecting the herd from predatory animals and settlements from enemies.
Cultural strata with pottery decorated with pricks, left by the descendants of the Pozdnyakovo population, were found in the lower layers of most sites (Kargashinsky settlement in the Zubovo-Polyansky district, Novopshenevskoye in Kovylkinsky, Kazna-Pando settlement near the village of Paevo, Kadoshkinsky district, etc.), on which later on, fortifications fortified with ramparts and ditches were founded by carriers of reticulated ceramics.
The economy of the tribes with bonded ceramics remained complex, but judging by the topography of the settlement, the role of cattle breeding significantly increases in them compared to the Late Kovian period.
At the end of the first quarter of the 1st millennium BC. In the midst of the population that left the monuments with bonded ceramics, tribes of culture with netted ceramics move up the Moksha from the regions of the Middle and Lower Poochye and build the first settlements here on the site of post-Pozdnyakovo settlements. These processes were accompanied by the absorption of the local population of the Moksha-Sura interfluve and marked the formation of the Gorodets culture of the Early Iron Age, which all researchers attribute to the Finno-Ugric peoples. Its carriers occupied almost the entire forest-steppe and steppe zone of the right bank of the Middle Volga region and the Ryazan Poochie. The main indicators of the material complex of all local options Gorodets antiquities were stucco pottery covered with pseudo-mat and textile prints, a special form of weights and whorls, as well as a developed bone industry.
For settlements, a high section of the bedrock bank, bounded by two difficult ravines, is usually chosen. Some settlements are located in such a way that they dominate the terrain and are visible at a great distance (for example, the Novopshenevskoe settlement), others, on the contrary, are hidden by neighboring hills in the depths of the ravine system (Shiromasovskoye settlement in the Tengushevsky district). From the floor side, the site of the settlement was protected by ramparts and ditches, often forming two or three lines of defense. To increase the steepness, the slopes of the ravines were often filled up. The inhabitants of the settlements carefully monitored the state of the fortification system, correcting the ditches and increasing the height of the ramparts. The construction of artificial fortifications testifies to the tense intertribal situation in the Gorodets environment, due to the fact that large herds attracted the attention of not only fellow tribesmen, but also aggressive southern nomads. In the fortifications of Gorodets monuments (Kargashinsky settlement, Kazna-Pando, etc.), arrowheads of the Scythian, and in later Sarmatian types were found.
The settlement was a family settlement. Its population apparently consisted of several large patriarchal families, who could only work together to carry out the laborious work of building fortifications and protection from enemies.
The layout of the settlements, in which dwellings were located along its perimeter or along the rampart, testifies to the leading importance of cattle breeding in the complex economy of the Gorodets tribes. The undeveloped central part of the site was used for cattle drive. The Gorodets herd included pigs, large and small cattle, horses. The finds of cheek-pieces and bits indicate that, in addition to food purposes, horses were used for riding. The population used the slash-and-burn system of agriculture, but it played a supporting role in the economy. Small iron hoes and sickles are known from agricultural implements.
Hunting and fishing continue to play a significant role in the economy of the early Iron Age forest tribes. Bones of wild boars, bears, elks, beavers and other wild animals are frequent finds in the settlements. There are numerous series of bone harpoons, spears, arrowheads, iron and bronze fishhooks, stone and clay sinkers from nets, as well as bone needles for weaving them, at the Gorodets monuments. With the development of local and intertribal commodity exchange, the fur direction in hunting is widely developed.
With the degradation of the flint industry, bone becomes the main material for the manufacture of tools and utensils among the Gorodets tribes. A building with traces of bone-cutting production, the raw material for which was the bones of large domestic animals, as well as elk horns, was studied at the Tengushevsky settlement in the Lower Moksha region.
The ferrous metallurgy of the Gorodets tribes, based on the development of swamp ores, was developing in the Early Iron Age. Very rare at the early stage of the Gorodets culture, iron products (knives, hoes, sickles, etc.) only by the beginning of the new era displace bone and bronze from use. Since that time, non-ferrous metalworking has focused primarily on the production of jewelry.
The last centuries of the 1st millennium BC marks cardinal changes in the material and spiritual culture of the Gorodets population, due to both the further development of production forces and external factors. On the basis of the Gorodets community, ethnic formations of the Volga Finns begin to form - tribal associations of the ancient Mordovians, Maris, Muroms and the population that left burial grounds in the Ryazan Oka.
interfluve Bronze Age Iron Age
Conclusion
Thus, the beginning of the history of the Mordovian region dates back to the Mesolithic era. Its most ancient population was small groups of wandering hunters who lived 10-7 thousand years ago. Their main weapon was a bow and arrow. In the IV millennium BC. whole tribes of primitive people appeared in the region, who were engaged not only in hunting, but also in fishing. In the III millennium BC. the first pastoralists entered the territory. But they were aliens and lived here temporarily. Only from the II millennium BC. agriculture and animal husbandry became permanent occupations of the ancient population. For several millennia, the history of the Mordovian region has gone from the primitive state of man, when nature satisfied all his needs, until he acquired the ability to grow bread and raise livestock, from stone tools to metal tools (copper and bronze).
List of used literature
1. Vikhlyaev I.V. The origin of the ancient Mordovian culture / I.V. Vikhlyaev; scientific editor: G.A. Fedorov-Davydov, Yu.A. Zelenev. - Saransk: 2000. - 132 p.
Vikhlyaev I.V. Ancient Mordva: textbook. allowance / I.V. Vikhlyaev. - 2nd ed., corrected. and additional - Saransk: Publishing House of Mordov. un-ta, 2004. - 80 p.
Zhiganov M.F. Memory of centuries / M.F. Zhiganov. - Saransk: Mordov. book. publishing house, 1976. - 136s.
History of Mordovia: From ancient times to the middle of the XIX century / ed. N.M. Arsentiev, V.A. Yurchenkov. - Saransk: Publishing House of Mordov. un-ta, 2001. - S. 12-34.
Mokshin N.F. Mordva and faith / N.F. Mokshin, E.N. Mokshina. - Saransk: Mordov. book. publishing house, 2005. - S. 3-151.
Mokshin N.F. Mordovian ethnos / N.F. Mokshin. - Saransk: Mordov. book. publishing house, 1989. - 157p.
Stepanov P.D. Andreevsky Kurgan / P.D. Stepanov. - Saransk: Mordov. book. publishing house, 1980. - 108s.
Stepanov P.D. Conditions for the emergence of the ancient Mordovian archaeological complex or the ancient Mordovian culture / P.D. Stepanov / / Issues of history and archeology of the Mordovian ASSR. - Saransk, 1973. - 134 p.
Yurchenkov V.A. Chronograph, or Narrative of the Mordovian people and its history / V.A. Yurchenkov. - Saransk: Mordov. book. publishing house, 1991. - 368 p.
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ORIGINS OF ETHNOS:
THE APPEARANCE OF ANCIENT MORDOVIAN TRIBES
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Settlement of the ancient Mordovians and its neighbors in I- VII centuries (A - ancient Mordovian burial grounds, B - burial grounds of the Andreev type, C - Ryazan burial grounds, D - territory of the Ryazan population, D - territory of the ancient Mordovians, E - territory of the Middle Sur population). |
At the turn of our era ( 2000 years ago) Gorodets culture"outgrown" to the ancient Mordovian. Archaeological information and folklore provide very scarce information about why and how this happened. Presumably at this time ancient Mordovian tribes existed, being known to the surrounding peoples under one of the following names: androphages, boudins, yirki, fissage-you. Here is how Herodotus - the "father of history" - describes them: « Androphages. “Among all the tribes, the Androphages have the wildest morals. They know neither the courts nor the laws and |
are nomads. They wear clothes similar to the Scythian, but they have a special language. This is the only tribe of cannibals in that country.”
« Boudiny - a large and numerous tribe; they all have light blue eyes and red hair... Every three years the Budins celebrate a festival in honor of Dionysus and go into a Bacchic frenzy... The Budins are the indigenous inhabitants of the country - nomads. This is the only nationality in this country that eats pine cones ... ( note: clarification by linguists - not cones, but squirrels that feed on pine cones). Their whole land is covered with dense forests of various kinds. In the middle of the thicket there is a huge lake surrounded by marshes and reed beds. Otters, beavers and other square-faced animals are caught in this lake. With the fur of these animals, the boudins turn off their fur coats ...»
Yirki “They make a living by hunting and catching the beast in the following way. Hunters lie in wait for prey ep evyah (because all over their country dense forests). Every hunter has a horse at the ready, trained to lie on its belly so as not to be conspicuous, and a dog. Noticing the beast, the hunter shoots from the tree with a bow, and then jumps on his horse and rushes in pursuit, the dog runs after him.
fissagetes.“Beyond the Budins to the north, at first the desert stretches for seven days of travel, and then further to the east live the fissagetes, a numerous and peculiar tribe. They live by hunting ... Four large rivers flow from their land through the region of the Meotians and flow into the so-called lake Meotida. The name of these rivers: Leek, Oar, Tanais and Sirgis».
At Herodotus historians find a description of the Scytho-Persian war of 512 BC, a war in call lice serious movement of peoples to the north. Naturally, this movement also affected Gorodets tribes. It is unlikely that they left their inhabited places, but foreigners came to their lands. In history city-rodets tribes thus a foreign policy factor arose. He, apparently, has accelerated the design ancient Mordovian culture.
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The events of the second half of the first millennium AD contributed to the establishment of close contacts Mordovian ancestors With southern Sarmatian tribes. They were most frequent in the 1st-4th centuries AD. It was at this time that trade relations were widely developed. The main product of trade exchange Mordovians there were furs and skins, products of agriculture, which their southern neighbors felt the need for. Sarmatians they also changed weapons, metal products. But the nomads were unreliable trading partners. Often, a detachment of mounted warriors came to replace the merchant caravan, and then a slaughter inevitably broke out. Iron three-bladed Sarmatian tips x arrows are enough |
Archaeologists often find on the ramparts of Mordovian settlements in Lower Surye.
The raids of small Sarmatian detachments were eventually replaced by the invasion of a large lava of riders who subjugated some Mordovian tribes. On the territory of modern Bolsheignatovsky district near the village Andreevka archaeologists unearthed a mound - the burial place of the leader of the conquerors and his warriors. A special platform was installed in the center of the grave, where the body of the leader was laid, two armed warriors rested nearby. At the feet lay a bound prisoner or slave.
However, the domination of the aliens was short-lived, they were quickly assimilated ancient Mordovians and dissolved in its environment. Fight ancient Mordovians with the southern newcomers was truly heroic. After all, the latter were at a higher stage of development. Mordovian same tribes v I-IV centuries lived in the conditions of the beginning decomposition of primitive communal relations. At that time, far from us, the tribes united several genera. Each clan consisted of several large patriarchal families. The head of the family was usually kud-atya. A clan or several clans made up a settlement - vele. They occupied mostly convenient, riverine places. Only by the middle of the 1st millennium AD settlements began to have powerful defensive structures.
Ancient Mordva settled in fertile river valleys Oki, middle course Volga, Tsny, Moksha and Suras. It was a region with fat, fertile land, rich in dense forests, rivers abounded in fish. All this left an imprint on the economy of our ancestors.
The main occupation of the ancient Mordovians was agriculture. They sowed barley, rye, half-bu, peas. They used a sickle and a scythe; arable farming will appear later.
Archaeological excavations show high level development of crafts Mordovians. The discovered tools of labor tell us about a fairly developed ancient metallurgy.
important role in life ancient Mordovian tribes they played hunting, fishing, beekeeping - collecting honey from wild bees. Natural wealth (furs, honey, fish) enabled our ancestors to trade with their neighbors.
standing fighting squad. Agriculture became arable. Property and social inequality arose and began to develop.
At this stage of development, the ancestors of modern Mordovians and foreign authors. In the 6th century, the historian of the Gothic kings Jordan in his book entitled "On the origin and deeds of the Goths", describing the tribes Eastern Europe called the people "mordens". This was the first mention in written sources of Mordovian people. (cm. What other nations knew about the Mordovians in the 6th-17th centuries)
Mordva... How did the name of the people come about? Is it a self-name, or did the neighboring tribes call our ancestors so? In the Iranian-Scythian languages there was a word martiya, translated as the male , Human . It was this that formed the basis of the ethnonym Mordovians. In Russian, to the base " muzzle' joined suffix ' wa”, which has a connotation of collectiveness, community. And so the name of the people arose, a name that has existed for one and a half thousand years.
In the middle of the 1st millennium AD, history ancient Mordovian tribes associated with the movements of peoples, which is known as the "great resettlement". At the end of the 4th century Sarmatians were defeated by those who came from the east goon-nami. Contemporary Hun invasion Roman historian Ammian Marzel-lin wrote about Huns as a mobile and indomitable people, burning "an uncontrollable passion for stealing other people's property". Sudden arrival Huns increased their fear. The same Marcellinus left us this note: “A hitherto unseen kind of people, rising like snow from a secluded corner, shakes and destroys everything that comes across, like a whirlwind that does not exist from high mountains.”
And later, new, more formidable enemies appeared on the southern borders of the Mordovian lands. And later, new, more formidable enemies appeared on the southern borders of the Mordovian lands. It accelerated the development process ancient Mordovian tribes, gave impetus to the emergence of fighting squads. The alarming situation in the south made it necessary to mobilize all the internal forces of the people. Maybe that's why all attempts to subdue Mordovian tribes in the 4th-7th centuries they failed, were unsuccessful, and until the 8th century the boundaries of their settlement did not change.
At the turn of the 7th-8th centuries, the situation changed dramatically. The pressure of the nomads of the south intensified, and Mordovian tribes were no longer able to successfully resist the onslaught.
In the 7th century in Middle Volga tribes appeared Bulgar. According to a Persian author of the 10th century, Bulgars- people “Courageous, warlike and terrifying. Their character is like that of Turk living near the country Khazar» . Bulgars pressed Mordovians. Settling on Volga, they became its eastern neighbors. Simultaneously Alanian population North Caucasus, squeezed Arabic conquerors, moved to the upper Northern Don, Oskol and Don, on the border with the Tsnin Mordovian land. A new nomadic wave followed - Khazars.
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The Sarmatian cataphractary is a heavily armed cavalry warrior. Reconstruction. |
The southern steppes have always been a source of danger for the Mordovian tribes; from the south, wave after wave rolled nomadic hordes. ski-fs that turned the forest-steppe Vos-accurate Europe in the field of hunting for slaves, changed Sarmatians. Following the tornado were unknown eastern horsemen -Huns. And further century by century equestrian avalanches Bulgar, Alan... For centuries, the Mordovian tribes fought fierce battles with the steppe. And they came out victorious. About Mordovian fortifications |
The flax settlements and military squads were split up, albeit by frequent, but poorly organized raids of small nomadic hordes. But state organization mighty Khazar Khaganate(VIII-X centuries) the ancient Mordovian tribes could not resist. Main part southern Mordovians left their ancestral lands in the upper reaches Suras and went west and northwest. The rest were forced to pay tribute.
The size of the Khazar tribute with Mordovians difficult to install. Perhaps it was the same as from the Slavic tribes - a silver coin and a squirrel from the smoke, perhaps much larger. However, it is reliably known that it was not clearly defined, since they themselves Khazars did not know the size of the Mordovian population. It is no coincidence that the Khazar Khagan Joseph in a letter to a dignitary at the court of the Caliph of Cordoba Abd-al-Rahman III to Hasdai Ibn-Shafrut, written no later than the autumn of 961, said the following about the peoples Middle Volga: “They are nine peoples, which are not amenable to exact recognition and which have no number.”
During the period of Khazar domination, Mordovian tribes the military squad begins to disappear. In the South Mordovian cemeteries of the 5th-7th centuries, archaeologists find an equestrian warrior in every second burial of a man, and only in every fifth in the cemeteries of the period of Khazar domination. Khazars did not allow the local population to create fighting squads. They thereby ensured obedience and the possibility of plundering the conquered population.
In the second half of the 1st millennium AD, as a result of internal development and external pressure, a division of a single ancient Mordovian tribe.
In the 10th century, the Khazar Khagan Joseph in one of his messages mentioned the people " arisu". This was the first written mention of erze. Following about Erzyans (« arjanah”) reported the chronicler of the Mongols Rashid al-Din, later the Nogai prince wrote about them Yusuf.
The first mention of moksha found later, it was found in the notes of the Flemish traveler Guillaume Rubruk. O moksha write Rashid al-Din, Venetian Josaphat Barbaro. There is an ethnonym in the form " mukhshy» later on the Bulgaro-Tatar gravestones.
These ethnonyms are of Indo-European origin. Erzya originates from the Iranian word arsan, which translates as the male, hero, a moksha by origin is associated with the name of the river, the origins of which go to Indo-European population Middle Volga, who lived here in separate groups even before settling Finno-Ugric.
By the end of I - the beginning of the II millennium AD, the differences between moksha and erzey have become very significant. The main distinguishing feature was the differences in the funeral rite. The northern group, Erzya, buried their dead with their heads to the north, less often to the northwest. For the southern, Moksha, group of burial grounds, on the contrary, the southern and southwestern orientation of the burials is characteristic.
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The struggle against the Khazar dominion, of course, was carried out. However, the forces were too unequal. The situation changes in the X century. The Khaganate begins to be torn apart by internal unrest, shaken by the blows of external enemies - Pechenegs and Russians princes. The last blow dealt Khazaria Kiev prince Svyatoslav, which, as the Russian chronicler informs us, "Easily walked in the moves, like a pardus, and fought a lot". In 964, his squad appeared on the banks Oki and Volga. Here Svyatoslav spent a whole year preparing a solid rear for his campaign in the heart of the Khazar state - Itil. According to an Arabic author Ibn Haukala during this time, he neutralized the allies of the Khazars on Middle Volga. In 965, Russian squads went down the Volga and took Itil and other Khazar fortresses: Semender on the Terek and Sarkel on the Don. |
Arabic geographer Ibn Haukal wrote about the consequences of the campaign Svyatoslav :"Now there is no trace left of Bulgar, neither from Burtasov, neither from Khazar, because Russia destroyed all of them, took away from them and annexed their land, and those who escaped ... fled to the surrounding places in the hope of coming to an agreement with Russia and come under her control.
The collapse of the Khazar state led to the liberation of the peoples who paid tribute to the Khazars. The Mordovian tribes also get the opportunity for free development. They begin to heal the wounds inflicted during the unequal struggle.
According to V. Yurchenkov
Drawings by A. Korovin
