Anthropogenic factors, their influence on organisms.

Anthropogenic factors- these are forms of human activity that affect living organisms and the conditions of their habitat: felling, plowing, irrigation, grazing, construction of reservoirs, water, oil and gas pipelines, laying roads, power transmission lines, etc. The impact of human activities on living organisms and their environmental conditions habitats can be direct and indirect. For example, cutting down trees in the forest during timber harvesting, it has a direct effect on the trees being cut down (felling, cleaning from branches, sawing, removal, etc.) and at the same time has an indirect effect on the plants of the tree canopy, changing the conditions of their habitat: lighting, temperature, air circulation, etc. Due to changes in environmental conditions, shade-loving plants and all organisms associated with them will no longer be able to live and develop in the felling area. Among the abiotic factors, climatic (lighting, temperature, humidity, wind, pressure, etc.) and hydrographic (water, current, salinity, flowing standing, etc.) factors are distinguished.

Factors affecting organisms and the conditions of their habitat change during the day, according to the season of the year and according to the years (temperature, precipitation, lighting, etc.). Therefore, distinguish regularly changing and arising spontaneously ( unexpectedly) factors. Regularly changing factors are called periodic factors. These include the change of day and night, seasons, ebb and flow, etc. Living organisms have adapted to the impact of these factors as a result of long evolution. Factors that arise spontaneously are called non-periodic. These include volcanic eruptions, floods, fires, mudflows, predator attacks on prey, etc. Living organisms are not adapted to the impact of non-peroidal factors and do not have any adaptations. Therefore, they lead to death, injury and disease of living organisms, destroy their habitats.

A person often uses non-periodic factors to his advantage. For example, in order to improve the renewal of the grass stand of pastures and hayfields, he arranges to fall in the spring, i.e. sets fire to old vegetation; using pesticides and herbicides destroys pests of agricultural crops, weeds of fields and gardens, destroys disease-causing microorganisms, bacteria and invertebrates, etc.

The totality of factors of the same kind constitutes the upper level of concepts. The lower level of concepts is associated with the knowledge of individual environmental factors (Table 3).

Table 3 - Levels of the concept of "environmental factor"

Despite the wide variety of environmental factors, a number of general patterns can be identified in the nature of their impact on organisms and in the responses of living beings.

Optimum law... Each factor has only certain limits of positive influence on organisms. The beneficial force of influence is called zone of optimum ecological factor or simply optimum for organisms of this species (Fig. 5).

Figure 5 - Dependence of the results of the action of the environmental factor on its intensity

The stronger the deviations from the optimum, the more pronounced the depressing effect of this factor on organisms ( pessimum zone). The maximum and minimum tolerable values ​​of the factor are critical points, beyond which existence is no longer possible, death occurs. The endurance limits between the critical points are called ecological valence living beings in relation to a specific environmental factor. The points that bound it, i.e. the maximum and minimum temperatures suitable for life are the tolerance limits. Between the optimum zone and the limits of resistance, the plant experiences increasing stress, i.e. we are talking about stress zones, or zones of oppression within the range of stability. As you move away from the optimum, eventually, upon reaching the limits of the stability of the organism, its death occurs.

Species, for the existence of which strictly defined ecological conditions are required, are called low-tolerant species stenobiontic(narrow ecological valence) , and those that are able to adapt to different environmental conditions, hardy - eurybiontic(wide ecological valence) (Fig. 6).

Figure 6 - Ecological plasticity of species (according to Yu. Odum, 1975)

Eurybionism contributes to the wide distribution of species. Stenobionism usually limits areas.

The ratio of organisms to the fluctuations of a particular factor is expressed by adding the prefix eury- or steno- to the name of the factor. For example, in relation to temperature, eury- and stenothermal organisms are distinguished, to the concentration of salts - eury- and stenohaline, to light - eury- and stenophotic, etc.

Liebig's law of minimum. The German agronomist J. Liebig in 1870 was the first to establish that the yield (production) depends on a factor in the environment at a minimum, and formulating the law of minimum, which says: last in time ”.

In formulating the law, Liebig had in mind the limiting effect on plants of vital chemical elements present in their habitat in small and variable quantities. These elements are called micronutrients. These include: copper, zinc, iron, boron, silicon, molybdenum, vanadium, cobalt, chlorine, iodine, sodium. Microelements, like vitamins, act as catalysts, chemical elements phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulfur, required by organisms in a relatively large amount are called macronutrients. But, if the soil contains more of these elements than is necessary for the normal functioning of organisms, then they are also limiting. Thus, micro- and macroelements in the habitat of living organisms should contain as much as necessary for their normal existence and vital activity. A change in the content of micro- and macroelements in the direction of decreasing or increasing from the required amount limits the existence of living organisms.

Environmental limiting factors determine the geographic range of the species. The nature of these factors can be different. So, the movement of the species to the north can be limited by a lack of heat, to desert areas - by a lack of moisture or too high temperatures. Biotic relations, for example, the occupation of a given territory by a stronger competitor, or the lack of pollinators for plants can also serve as a factor limiting the spread.

V. Shelford's law of tolerance. Any organism in nature is able to tolerate the impact of periodic factors both in the direction of decrease and in the direction of their increase up to a certain limit over a certain time. On the basis of this ability of living organisms, the American zoologist W. Shelford in 1913 formulated the law of tolerance (from the Latin “tolerantica” - patience: the ability of an organism to endure the influence of environmental factors to a certain limit), which says “The absence or impossibility of the development of an ecosystem is determined not only by lack (quantitatively or qualitatively), but also with an excess of any of the factors (light, heat, water), the level of which may turn out to be close to the limits tolerated by these organisms ”. These two limits: the ecological minimum and the ecological maximum, the impact of which a living organism can withstand, are called the limits of tolerance (tolerance), for example, if a certain organism is able to live at temperatures from 30 ° C to -30 ° C, then the limit of its tolerance lies within these limits. temperatures.

Eurobionts, due to their wide tolerance, or wide ecological amplitude, are widespread, more resistant to environmental factors, that is, more resilient. Deviations of the influence of factors from the optimum oppresses a living organism. The ecological valence in some organisms is narrow (for example, snow leopard, walnut, within the temperate zone), in others it is wide (for example, wolf, fox, hare, reed, dandelion, etc.).

Since the discovery of this law, numerous studies have been carried out, thanks to which the limits of existence for many plants and animals have become known. An example is the effect of a substance polluting the atmospheric air on the human body. At concentration values ​​C years, a person dies, but irreversible changes in his body occur at much lower concentrations: C lim. Therefore, the true range of tolerance is determined by these indicators. This means that they must be experimentally determined for each polluting or any harmful chemical compound, and not to exceed its content in a particular environment. In the sanitary protection of the environment, it is not the lower limits of resistance to harmful substances that are important, but the upper limits, since environmental pollution is the excess of the body's stability. The task or condition is set: the actual concentration of the pollutant C fact should not exceed C lim. C fact< С лим. С ¢ лим является предельно допустимой концентрации С ПДК или ПДК.

Interaction of factors. The optimal zone and limits of endurance of organisms in relation to any environmental factor can shift depending on how forcefully and in what combination other factors act at the same time. For example, heat is easier to tolerate in dry but not humid air. The risk of freezing is much higher in frost with strong wind than in calm weather . Thus, one and the same factor in combination with others has a different environmental impact. The effect of partial substitution of factors is created. For example, wilting of plants can be halted by both increasing the amount of moisture in the soil and lowering the air temperature, which reduces evaporation.

However, mutual compensation for the action of environmental factors has certain limits, and it is impossible to completely replace one of them with another. The extreme heat deficit in polar deserts cannot be replenished with either an abundance of moisture or round-the-clock illumination. .

Groups of living organisms in relation to environmental factors:

Light or solar radiation... All living organisms need energy coming from outside to carry out vital processes. Its main source is solar radiation, which accounts for about 99.9% of the total energy balance of the Earth. Albedo Is the proportion of reflected light.

The most important processes in plants and animals with the participation of light:

Photosynthesis... On average, 1-5% of the light incident on plants is used for photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is the energy source for the rest of the food chain. Light is essential for the synthesis of chlorophyll. All adaptations of plants to light are connected with this - leaf mosaic (Fig. 7), distribution of algae in aquatic communities over water layers, etc.

According to the requirements for lighting conditions, it is customary to divide plants into the following ecological groups:

Photophilous or heliophytes- Plants of open, constantly well-lit habitats. Their light adaptations are as follows - small leaves, often dissected, at noon can turn their ribs towards the sun; leaves are thicker, can be covered with cuticles or waxy bloom; cells of the epidermis and mesophyll are smaller, the palisade parenchyma is multilayer; internodes are short, etc.

Shade-loving or sciophytes- Plants of the lower tiers of shady forests, caves and deep-sea plants; they do not tolerate strong direct sunlight. Can photosynthesize even in very low light leaves are dark green, large and thin; the palisade parenchyma is single-layered and is represented by larger cells; leaf mosaic is pronounced.

Shade tolerant or facultative heliophytes- can tolerate more or less shading, but grow well in light; they are easier than other plants to rebuild under the influence of changing lighting conditions. This group includes forest and meadow grasses, shrubs. Adaptations are formed depending on the lighting conditions and can be rebuilt when the light regime changes (Fig. 8). An example is coniferous trees that have grown in open spaces and under forest canopy.

Transpiration- the process of evaporation of water by plant leaves to reduce the temperature. Approximately 75% of the solar radiation incident on plants is spent on the evaporation of water and thus enhances transpiration; this is important in connection with the problem of water conservation.

Photoperiodism... It is important for the synchronization of the life and behavior of plants and animals (especially their reproduction) with the seasons. Phototropism and photonastia in plants are important for providing plants with sufficient light. Phototaxis in animals and unicellular plants is essential for finding a suitable habitat.

Vision in animals... One of the most important sensory functions. The concept of visible light is different for different animals. Rattlesnakes see the infrared part of the spectrum; bees - closer to the ultraviolet region. In animals living in places where light does not penetrate, the eyes can be completely or partially reduced. Animals leading nocturnal or twilight life are poorly distinguishable from colors and see everything in black and white; in addition, in such animals, the size of the eyes is often hypertrophied. Light, as a means of orientation, plays an important role in the life of animals. Many birds navigate with the help of their eyes on the sun or stars during their flights. Some insects, such as bees, have the same ability.

Other processes... Synthesis of vitamin D in humans. However, prolonged exposure to ultraviolet rays can cause tissue damage, especially in animals; in this regard, protective devices have developed - pigmentation, behavioral avoidance reactions, etc. A certain signal value in animals is played by bioluminescence, that is, the ability to glow. Light signals emitted by fish, molluscs, and other aquatic organisms serve to attract prey, individuals of the opposite sex.

Temperature... Thermal regime is the most important condition for the existence of living organisms. The main source of heat is solar radiation.

The boundaries of the existence of life are the temperatures at which the normal structure and functioning of proteins is possible, on average from 0 to +50 o C. However, a number of organisms have specialized enzyme systems and are adapted to active existence at body temperatures beyond these limits (Table . five). The lowest at which living beings were found is -200 ° С, and the highest is up to +100 ° С.

Table 5 - Temperature indicators of various living environments (0 С)

In relation to temperature, all organisms are divided into 2 groups: cold-loving and thermophilic.

Cold-loving (cryophiles) able to live in conditions of relatively low temperatures. Bacteria, fungi, molluscs, worms, arthropods, etc. live at a temperature of -8 ° C. From plants: arboreal plants in Yakutia can withstand temperatures of -70 ° C. Lichens, certain species of algae, and penguins live in Antarctica at the same temperature. In laboratory conditions, seeds, spores of some plants, nematodes tolerate an absolute zero temperature of -273.16 ° C. The suspension of all life processes is called suspended animation.

Heat-loving organisms (thermophiles) - inhabitants of hot regions of the Earth. These are invertebrates (insects, arachnids, molluscs, worms) and plants. Many types of organisms can tolerate very high temperatures. For example, reptiles, beetles, butterflies can withstand temperatures up to + 45-50 ° C. In Kamchatka, blue-green algae live at a temperature of + 75-80 ° C, a camel thorn tolerates a temperature of + 70 ° C.

Invertebrates, fish, reptiles, amphibians are deprived of the ability to maintain a constant body temperature within narrow boundaries. They are called poikilothermic or cold-blooded. They depend on the level of heat coming from outside.

Birds and mammals are able to maintain a constant body temperature regardless of the ambient temperature. This is - homeothermal, or warm-blooded organisms... They are independent of external heat sources. Due to their high metabolic rate, they generate a sufficient amount of heat that can be stored.

Temperature adaptations of organisms: Chemical thermoregulation - an active increase in heat production in response to a decrease in temperature; physical thermoregulation- a change in the level of heat transfer, the ability to retain heat or, on the contrary, dissipate heat. Hair, distribution of fat reserves, body size, organ structure, etc.

Behavioral reactions- moving in space allows you to avoid unfavorable temperatures, hibernation, torpor, heaping, migration, digging holes, etc.

Humidity. Water is an important environmental factor. All biochemical reactions take place in the presence of water.

Table 6 - Water content in various organisms (% of body weight)

Anthropogenic environmental factors

Anthropogenic factors are the result of human impact on the environment in the course of economic and other activities. Anthropogenic factors can be divided into 3 groups:

) having a direct impact on the environment as a result of sudden, intensive and short-term activities, for example. laying of a road or railroad through the taiga, seasonal commercial hunting in a certain area, etc .;

) indirect impact - through economic activities of a long-term nature and low intensity, for example. pollution of the environment with gaseous and liquid emissions from a plant built near a paved railway without the necessary treatment facilities, leading to a gradual drying out of trees and slow poisoning of animals inhabiting the surrounding taiga with heavy metals;

) the complex impact of the above factors, leading to a slow but significant change in the environment (population growth, an increase in the number of domestic animals and animals accompanying human settlements - crows, rats, mice, etc., transformation of land, the appearance of impurities in water, etc.) etc.).

Anthropogenic impact on the geographic shell of the earth

At the beginning of the twentieth century, a new era began in the interaction of nature and society. The impact of society on the geographic environment, anthropogenic impact, has increased dramatically. This led to the transformation of natural landscapes into anthropogenic ones, as well as to the emergence of global environmental problems, i.e. problems that know no boundaries. The Chernobyl tragedy threatened the whole of Eastern and Northern Europe. Waste emissions affect global warming, ozone holes threaten life, and animals migrate and mutate.

The degree of influence of society on the geographic envelope primarily depends on the degree of industrialization of the society. Today, about 60% of the land area is occupied by anthropogenic landscapes. Such landscapes include cities, villages, communication lines, roads, industrial and agricultural centers. The eight most developed countries consume more than half of the Earth's natural resources and emit 2/5 of pollution into the atmosphere.

Air pollution

Human activity leads to the fact that pollution enters the atmosphere mainly in two forms - in the form of aerosols (suspended particles) and gaseous substances.

The main sources of aerosols are the building materials industry, cement production, open pit mining of coal and ores, ferrous metallurgy and other industries. The total amount of aerosols of anthropogenic origin entering the atmosphere during the year is 60 million tons. This is several times less than the volume of natural pollution (dust storms, volcanoes).

A much greater danger is posed by gaseous substances, which account for 80-90% of all anthropogenic emissions. These are compounds of carbon, sulfur and nitrogen. Carbon compounds, primarily carbon dioxide, is not poisonous in itself, but its accumulation is associated with the danger of such a global process as the "greenhouse effect". In addition, carbon monoxide is emitted, mainly by internal combustion engines. anthropogenic pollution atmosphere hydrosphere

Nitrogen compounds are represented by poisonous gases - nitrogen oxide and peroxide. They are also formed during the operation of internal combustion engines, during the operation of thermal power plants, during the incineration of solid waste.

The greatest danger is the pollution of the atmosphere with sulfur compounds, and above all with sulfur dioxide. Sulfur compounds are emitted into the atmosphere during the combustion of coal fuel, oil and natural gas, as well as during the smelting of non-ferrous metals and the production of sulfuric acid. Anthropogenic sulfur pollution is twice as high as natural. Sulfur dioxide reaches the highest concentrations in the northern hemisphere, especially over the territory of the United States, foreign Europe, the European part of Russia, and Ukraine. It is lower in the southern hemisphere.

The release of sulfur and nitrogen compounds into the atmosphere is directly related to the fallout of acid rain. The mechanism of their formation is very simple. Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides in the air combine with water vapor. Then, together with rains and fogs, they fall to the ground in the form of dilute sulfuric and nitric acids. Such precipitation sharply violates the norms of soil acidity, worsen the water exchange of plants, and contribute to the drying out of forests, especially conifers. Once in rivers and lakes, they oppress their flora and fauna, often leading to the complete destruction of biological life - from fish to microorganisms. Acid rains cause great harm to various structures (bridges, monuments, etc.).

The main regions of the distribution of acid precipitation in the world are the USA, foreign Europe, Russia and the CIS countries. But recently they have been noted in the industrial regions of Japan, China, Brazil.

The distance between the regions of formation and the regions of acid precipitation can even reach thousands of kilometers. For example, the main culprits of acid precipitation in Scandinavia are the industrial regions of Great Britain, Belgium and the Federal Republic of Germany.

Anthropogenic pollution of the hydrosphere

Scientists distinguish between three types of pollution of the hydrosphere: physical, chemical and biological.

Physical pollution is understood primarily as thermal pollution resulting from the discharge of heated water used for cooling at thermal power plants and nuclear power plants. The discharge of such waters leads to a violation of the natural water regime. For example, rivers in places where such waters are discharged do not freeze. In confined water bodies, this leads to a decrease in the oxygen content, which leads to the death of fish and the rapid development of unicellular algae ("bloom" of water). Physical contamination also includes radioactive contamination.

Biological pollution is created by microorganisms, often pathogens. They enter the aquatic environment with effluents from the chemical, pulp and paper, food industries and livestock complexes. Such effluents can be sources of various diseases.

A special issue in this topic is the pollution of the World Ocean. It happens in three ways. The first of them is river runoff, along with which millions of tons of various metals, phosphorus compounds, and organic pollution get into the ocean. At the same time, almost all suspended and most dissolved substances are deposited in river mouths and adjacent shelves.

The second way of pollution is associated with atmospheric precipitation, with which most of the lead, half of the mercury and pesticides enter the World Ocean.

Finally, the third path is directly related to human economic activity in the waters of the World Ocean. The most common type of pollution is oil pollution during the transportation and production of oil.

The results of anthropogenic impact

the warming of the climate of our planet began. As a result of the "greenhouse effect", the temperature of the Earth's surface over the past 100 years has increased by 0.5-0.6єС. The sources of CO2 responsible for most of the greenhouse effect are the combustion of coal, oil and gas and the disruption of the activity of the communities of soil microorganisms in the tundra, which consume up to 40% of the CO2 emitted into the atmosphere;

Due to the anthropogenic load on the biosphere, new environmental problems have arisen:

the process of the rise in the level of the World Ocean has considerably accelerated. Over the past 100 years, the sea level has risen by 10-12 cm and now this process has accelerated tenfold. This threatens to flood vast areas below sea level (Holland, Venice region, St. Petersburg, Bangladesh, etc.);

there was a depletion of the ozone layer of the Earth's atmosphere (ozonosphere), which traps ultraviolet radiation, which is destructive for all living things. It is believed that the main contribution to the destruction of the ozonosphere is made by chlorine-fluorine-carbons (i.e. freons). They are used as refrigerants and in aerosol cans.

Pollution of the World Ocean, the burial of poisonous and radioactive substances in it, the saturation of its waters with carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, pollution with oil products, heavy metals, complex organic compounds, the rupture of the normal ecological connection between the ocean and land waters due to the construction of dams and other hydraulic structures.

Depletion and pollution of surface water of land and groundwater, imbalance between surface and groundwater.

Radioactive contamination of local areas and some regions, in connection with the Chernobyl accident, the operation of atomic devices and atomic tests.

Continuous accumulation on the land surface of toxic and radioactive substances, household waste and industrial waste (especially non-degradable plastics), the emergence of secondary chemical reactions in them with the formation of toxic substances.

Desertification of the planet, expansion of existing deserts and deepening of the desertification process itself.

Reduction of areas of tropical and northern forests, leading to a decrease in the amount of oxygen and the disappearance of species of animals and plants.

All processes occurring in the biosphere are inextricably linked, and humanity is only a small fraction, or rather just one kind of organic life. Throughout his existence, man has striven and continues to strive not to adapt to the environment, but to use it with the maximum benefit for himself. But now comes the realization that the deterioration of the biosphere is dangerous for us. According to statistics, up to 85% of human diseases are associated with negative environmental conditions.

Human influence on the environment

Let's start by explaining what anthropogenic factors are. These are human activities that have an impact on the environment.

Types of anthropogenic factors

1. Chemical - the use of pesticides, mineral fertilizers, as well as the pollution of the earth's shells with industrial and transport waste. This category also includes alcohol, smoking, drugs.

2. Physical factors of the environment - movement in airplanes, trains, atomic energy, noise and vibration.

4. Social anthropogenic factors are associated with society.

Major negative impact

In just the last few years, only on the territory of Russia, the birth rate has decreased by 30%, and the death rate has increased by 15%. Half of the young people of military age are unsuitable for military service due to health conditions. Since the 70s of the last century, the incidence of cardiovascular and oncological diseases has increased by 50%. In many regions, allergies occur in more than half of children. This is not a complete list of what anthropogenic factors lead to.

Consequences for the atmosphere

As you know, today a huge number of industrial enterprises operate around the world, which release pollutants into the atmosphere around the clock. As a result, sanitary violations in many areas exceed all permissible figures by tens of times. This leads to the fact that the number of patients with bronchitis, allergies, asthma, ischemia is steadily growing in cities.

Greenhouse effect

If we talk about whether anthropogenic factors affect climate change, we can assure you that in such a global sense, a person does not have such an effect. Forests are being cut down, the atmosphere is being polluted, cities are being built up, and so on, but one active large volcano is capable of filling the air with carbon dioxide in such a large volume that all mankind does not produce in five years. We know that the Eyjafjallajökull volcano woke up not so long ago, due to which flights were canceled in many countries. So in this sense, anthropogenic environmental factors play only a small role.

Flora and fauna

The situation is much worse with the flora and fauna. Although, as has been repeatedly proven, in the old days there was a completely different flora and fauna, but as a result of global catastrophes, everything changed dramatically and rapidly. Of course, now humans are contributing to the destruction of many species, although there is no urgent need for food. Huge tracts of land are polluted by humans, so living conditions for animals become unsuitable.

Conclusion

In conclusion, we can say that to a greater extent anthropogenic activity is negative not so much for nature as for man himself. This means that we ourselves create negative conditions for our existence, slowly destroying each other. Man-made disasters, an increase in the number of diseases, the emergence of new viruses, an excess of the death rate and a decrease in the birth rate in developed countries are proof of this.

Anthropogenic factors- various forms of human society activities that lead to changes in the habitat of other species or directly affect their lives.

Man has begun to influence the natural environment around him since he moved from gathering to hunting and farming. The result of the hunt was the disappearance of a number of species of large mammals and birds (mammoths, bison, sea cows, etc.). Many species have become rare and are on the verge of extinction. The development of agriculture led to the development of more and more territories for the cultivation of cultivated plants. Forests and other natural biocenoses were replaced by agrocenoses - plantations of agricultural crops poor in species composition.

From the middle of the 19th century, the impact on nature associated with the development of industry, accompanied by changes in the landscape due to the extraction of minerals and the release of pollutants into the environment, began to acquire an increasing importance.

Pollution is the introduction of new, non-typical substances into any environment or the excess of the natural level of these substances in the environment. We can also say that pollution is an undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological characteristics of air, land and water, which can now or in the future have an adverse effect on the life of a person himself, the plants and animals he needs, on all kinds of production processes and living conditions. ...

Influence of human production activity on his environment

Influence on the atmosphere

Automobiles and industrial plants are the main sources of air pollution. According to scientists, more than 200 million tons of carbon oxide and dioxide, 150 million tons of sulfur dioxide, more than 50 million tons of nitrogen oxides, about the same amount of hydrocarbons, enter the atmospheric air annually. In addition, a large number of fine particles are emitted into the atmosphere, forming the so-called atmospheric aerosol (from 200 to 400 million tons annually). Due to the combustion of coal in power plants, mercury, arsenic, uranium, cadmium, lead and other elements are released into the environment in quantities that exceed the possibilities of their involvement in the natural cycle of substances. The work of vehicles and environmentally dirty enterprises in industrial centers leads to the fact that the air above them contains 150 times more dust than over the ocean, and extends to a height of 1.5-2 km, delaying a significant (from 20 to 50%) part of solar rays. It should be borne in mind that some of the gases emitted by cars (CO, CO 2, etc.) are heavier than air and accumulate at the surface of the earth.

It is necessary to pay special attention to the consequences of the increase in the concentration of CO 2 in the atmosphere. As a result of the continuously increasing combustion of fossil fuels over the past 100 years, the CO 2 content has increased by 10%. CO 2 prevents thermal radiation into outer space, creating the so-called "greenhouse effect". According to scientists' calculations, a further increase in the concentration of CO 2 in the atmosphere will create conditions for an increase in planetary temperature, retreat of the polar ice border to the north and an increase in the level of the World Ocean.

In rural areas, air pollutants include ammonia, hydrogen sulfide and pesticides.

Influence on the hydrosphere

The waters of the Earth are in continuous motion. The water cycle ties together all parts of the hydrosphere, forming a single system: ocean - atmosphere - land. For human life, industry and agriculture, fresh river waters are of the greatest importance due to their easy accessibility and renewability.

The main reason for the pollution of water basins is the discharge of untreated or insufficiently treated wastewater into water bodies by industrial and municipal enterprises. Mineral fertilizers and toxic chemicals are washed off from agricultural land and enter the rivers. In recent decades, increasing amounts of surfactant synthetic substances that make up detergents and petroleum products have been added to the traditional mineral, organic and bacterial pollutants of water bodies. More than 10% of the total flow of rivers in the world is spent on wastewater disposal.

Pollution is the reason for the deterioration of the quality of drinking water and the death of the spawning grounds of valuable commercial fish.

The level of pollution of the waters of the World Ocean is increasing. With river runoff, from the atmosphere with rain, when washing oil tankers, when extracting oil on the ocean shelf, a huge amount of lead (up to 50 thousand tons), oil (up to 10 million tons), mercury, pesticides, household waste and etc. This leads to the death of many organisms, especially in the coastal zone and in the areas of traditional routes of sea vessels. Oil has a particularly harmful effect on marine life. Oil films on the surface of seas and oceans not only poison living organisms living in the surface layer, but also reduce the saturation of water with oxygen. As a result, the reproduction of plankton, the first link in the food chain in the seas and oceans, slows down. Many kilometers of oil films on the surface of the water reduce its evaporation and thereby disrupt water exchange between the ocean and land.

Impact on the soil

The fertile soil layer under natural conditions is formed for a very long time. At the same time, tens of millions of tons of nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus - the main components of plant nutrition - are removed annually from the vast areas occupied by agricultural crops. Soil depletion does not occur only because organic and mineral fertilizers are annually applied to the fields in cultural farming. The preservation of soil fertility is also facilitated by crop rotations aimed at creating conditions for the accumulation of nitrogen in the soil (crops of legumes) and hindering the reproduction of pests of cultivated plants. Adverse changes in the soil occur when sowing the same crops for a long time, salinization with artificial irrigation, waterlogging with improper reclamation.

Excessive use of chemical means of protecting plants from pests and diseases, the use of herbicides lead to soil contamination with compounds that, due to their synthetic origin and toxicity, are very slowly rendered harmless by the microbial and fungal population of the soil. Recently, many countries are abandoning the use of synthetic potent drugs and are switching to biological methods of protecting plants and animals.

Erosion is one of the anthropogenic changes in the soil. Erosion is the destruction and demolition of soil cover by water currents or wind. Water erosion is especially destructive. It develops on slopes with improper tillage. With melt and rainwater, millions of tons of soil are carried away from the fields into gullies and ravines.

Radioactive contamination of the biosphere

The problem of radioactive contamination arose in 1945 after the explosion of atomic bombs dropped by the Americans on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Until 1962, all nuclear powers tested nuclear weapons in the atmosphere, which caused global radioactive contamination. A great danger is posed by accidents at nuclear power plants, as a result of which vast territories are contaminated with radioactive isotopes with a long half-life. Strontium-90 is especially dangerous due to its proximity to calcium and cesium-137, which is similar to potassium. Accumulating in the bones and muscles of the affected organisms, they serve as a source of long-term radioactive irradiation of tissues.

Despite the fact that humanity makes up an insignificant part of the biomass of our planet, its activities are immense. She has become one of the most important forces that change the processes in the biosphere.

Before our eyes, a transition is taking place from evolution, which is controlled by spontaneous biological factors (the period of biogenesis), to evolution, controlled by human consciousness - to the period of noogenesis, the period of conscious control of the biosphere based on perfect technology.

The new state of the biosphere, in which labor activity turned out to be very significant, V.I. Vernadsky called the noosphere, as a kind of new geological phenomenon on our planet, a new stage in the development of the biosphere, when for the first time mankind becomes the greatest natural force. The high rates of development of the industry necessitated the protection of nature resources.

Human environmental protection

Protection of inanimate nature and environment

To protect water sources of the environment, the construction of facilities for the neutralization and purification of wastewater has become a prerequisite for the construction of enterprises. Technological cycles that require a large amount of water began to improve. Systems with a multi-turn or closed cycle using the same volume of water are increasingly used. Waste-free technologies are being developed, work is being carried out on the reasonable regulation of the number of algae in reservoirs, causing "water bloom", which significantly deteriorates its quality.

The most effective measures are those that eliminate the causes of the massive development of algae - thorough cleaning of the bottom of the future sea from organic residues (trees, shrubs, humus layer of the soil), limiting the leaching of fertilizers from the shelves and getting them into the reservoir, reducing the inflow of nutritious mineral salts with household waste and industrial wastewater (primarily phosphorus, nitrogen) and other elements that cause the eutrophication of water bodies and watercourses, that is, their enrichment with nutrient mineral elements.

To protect the air from a significant amount of impurities (chemical and mechanical) emitted by industrial enterprises, systems of chemical, mechanical and electrostatic treatment facilities and filters are used.

Wildlife protection

Excessive hunting and the destruction of the natural environment by humans have led to the fact that a significant number of animals (especially commercial) and plants have become rare and even endangered. Over the past 200 years, over 150 species of animals have disappeared from the face of the Earth, and this happened with the direct participation of humans. Among the species that have been lost forever, of course, there were economically valuable: tours, tarpans (wild European horses), sea (Steller's) cow, wingless auk, wandering pigeon, etc. Humanity has lost many representatives of the animal world for selection and genetic work with them , a significant part of the genetic fund for modern animal husbandry. In many cases, only crossing wild and domestic animals makes it possible to increase the productivity of the latter, despite the fact that they are under constant human care, in incomparably better growing conditions.

The number of some species of animals and plants has decreased so much that there was a threat to their further existence. Currently, on our planet, about a thousand species of animals belong to this category. In this regard, the "Red Book" was created, which includes the most valuable species that are under the threat of destruction or extinction and therefore require careful protection.

The fauna independently and rather effectively regulates the number of certain species. Human intervention, not always deliberate, interferes with this. Not so long ago, birds of prey and animals were destroyed. In Norway, at one time, hawks (enemies of ptarmigan) were almost completely exterminated, but the number of partridges still did not increase; the destruction of sparrows in China did not give the expected positive results. Regular shooting of wolves in many hunting farms of our country led, oddly enough, to a decrease in the number of wild ungulates - elk, deer due to diseases and weakening of offspring. A small number of wolves performed the function of orderlies, destroying first of all sick and weakened animals, as a result of which there was an effective biological rejection of genetically undesirable specimens.

To control the preservation of the ecological situation from further destruction, for the continuation in the biosphere of the persistent cycle of substances formed during evolution, ensuring the harmonious interaction and self-renewal of its most important elements, at the 16th session of the UNESCO General Conference in October 1970, the International Coordinating Committee for Implementation a new long-term program "Man and the Biosphere".

The main task of the program was to preserve the values ​​of ecosystems through in-depth study of the basic laws of interaction between nature and society. The program includes 14 projects covering various aspects of environmental protection and rational use of biosphere resources, as well as combating its pollution.

The projects of the program focus on the selection of new highly productive plants and animals in order to eliminate the deficiency of food protein, the use of fertilizers and land reclamation, and the control of pests and diseases; better study of replacing natural ecosystems with artificially created ones and assessing the future performance of such systems. The productivity of different biocenoses, the prospects and consequences of a possible overpopulation of the planet, the prospects for the development of cities, industrial, hydraulic structures, etc., are thoroughly studied. Special attention is paid to the need to teach environmental sciences in schools and universities in order to deeply understand the urgency of this problem by the public.

Within the framework of one of the projects of the "Man and the Biosphere" program, the creation of biosphere reserves is being carried out. UN experts have proposed a zoning concept for biosphere reserves, which consists in the creation of three special zones: a core, a buffer zone and a transition zone, or a zone of cooperation with the local population. In 1974, the first biological reserve was founded in the United States, the main activity of which was the conduct of long-term research.

In our country, there are reserves in almost every natural zone, which makes it possible to preserve the animals and plants characteristic of this zone. The XX session of the General Conference of UNESCO classified seven reserves as biosphere in our country: Berezinsky, Prioksko-Terrasny, Central Black Earth, Caucasian, Repeteksky, Sary-Cheleksky, Sikhote-Allnsky, and since 1985 - two reserves and on the territory of Ukraine - Askania-Nova and Black Sea. The largest and most famous reserves, besides the listed biosphere reserves, are: Altai, Astrakhan, Barguzinsky, Darvinsky, Ilmensky, Suputinsky, Teberdinsky (RSFSR); Carpathian, Polessky (Ukrainian SSR); Berezinsky (BSSR); Alma-Ata (KazSSR); Issyk-Kul (Kyrgyz SSR); Borzhomsky, Pontinsky (GSSR) and others. In addition, there are numerous nature reserves, hunting grounds, several thousand landscape, zoological, botanical and geological reserves and individual protected natural objects.

A large role is played by school forestry departments, which harvest seeds of valuable species of trees and shrubs, hang artificial nests for birds, monitor the cleanliness of lakes and rivers, protect fish resources, save fry from drying up reservoirs, carry out certification of small rivers and springs.

Student construction teams take an active part in the campaign "For the protection of the nature of the native land". Students check the sanitary condition of rivers and lakes, promote the ideas of nature conservation and rational use of natural resources among the population.

Due to the limited and non-renewable mineral resources, at present, serious attention is paid to the protection and rational use of organic and mineral resources, the protection of land resources, including the improvement and directional change of land tracts. Environmental protection is strictly regulated in the development of mineral resources by mining enterprises.

There is a system of state bodies for the protection of nature and its resources. These include bodies of state standard control, water protection, mining supervision, forest protection, quarantine service, fisheries supervision, the State Committee for Hydrometeorology, etc. Any activity that can lead to undesirable changes in the natural environment is limited or stopped.

A number of decrees have been adopted aimed at improving the environment and improving the use of natural resources. These are measures to preserve the wealth of lakes Baikal and Sevan, the Caspian Sea, the Volga and Ural basins, and the Donetsk basin. Many new reserves and sanctuaries have been created as a kind of reference samples of nature, including biosphere and national parks.

We have every opportunity to preserve for ourselves and future generations clean, reservoirs, air, soil with their fauna and flora. All these are important and irreplaceable details of a single mechanism - the Earth's biosphere, of which man himself is a part and outside of which he cannot exist.