Pacific Ocean. Research History

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Average depth- 3988 m. The deepest point of the ocean (it is also the deepest point in the world) is located in the Mariana Trench and is called the Challenger Abyss (11.022 m).
. Average temperature: 19-37°C. The widest part of the Pacific Ocean is located in the equatorial-tropical latitudes, so the temperature surface water much higher than in other oceans.
. Dimensions: area - 179.7 million sq. km, volume - 710.36 million sq. km.

Numbers are enough to imagine how big the Pacific Ocean is: it occupies a third of our planet and makes up almost half of the world's oceans.

Salinity - 35-36 ‰.

Currents of the Pacific Ocean

Alaskan- washes the western coast of North America and reaches the Bering Sea. It spreads to great depths, down to the bottom. Flow speed: 0.2-0.5 m/s. Water temperature: 7-15°C.

East Australian- the largest off the Australian coast. It starts at the equator (Coral Sea), runs along the east coast of Australia. The average speed is 2-3 knots (up to 7). Temperature - 25°C.

Kuroshio(or Japanese) - washes the southern and eastern shores of Japan, transferring the warm waters of the South China Sea to the northern latitudes. It has three branches: East Korean, Tsushima and Soya. Speed: 6 km/h, temperature 18-28°C.

North Pacific- continuation of the Kuroshio current. It crosses the ocean from west to east, near the coast of North America it branches into Alaska (leaves to the north) and California (to the south). Off the coast of Mexico turns and crosses the ocean into reverse direction(North Passat Current) - up to Kuroshio.

South Passatnoe- flows in the southern tropical latitudes, stretches from east to west: from the coast of South America (Galapogos Islands) to the coast of Australia and New Guinea. Temperature - 32°C. Gives rise to the Australian current.

Equatorial countercurrent (or Intertrade)- stretches from west to east between the North Passat and South Passat currents.

Cromwell current- a subsurface countercurrent that passes under the South Passatny. Speed 70-150 cm/sec.

Cold:

california- the western branch of the North Pacific Current, flows along the western coasts of the United States and Mexico. Speed - 1-2 km / h, temperature 15-26 ° С.

Antarctic Circumpolar (or West Wind Current)- envelops the entire globe between 40 ° and 50 ° S.l. Speed 0.4-0.9 km/h, temperature 12-15 °С. This current is often referred to as the "roaring forties" because powerful storms rage here. The Peruvian current branches off from it in the Pacific Ocean.

Peruvian Current (or Humboldt Current)- flows from south to north from the coast of Antarctica along the western coast of Chile and Peru. Speed 0.9 km/h, temperature 15-20 °С.

The underwater world of the Pacific Ocean

The flora and fauna of the underwater world in the Pacific Ocean is the richest and most diverse. Almost 50% of all living organisms of the World Ocean live here. The most densely populated area is considered to be the area near the Great Balier Reef.

All nature The ocean is located according to climatic zones - in the north and south it is poorer than in the tropics, but the total number of each species of animals or plants is greater here.

The Pacific Ocean provides more than half of the world's seafood. Of the commercial species, the most popular are salmon (95% of the world catch), mackerels, anchovies, sardines, horse mackerels, halibuts. There is a limited whale fishery: baleen and sperm whales.

The richness of the underwater world is eloquently evidenced by the numbers:

more than 850 types of algae;
more than 100 thousand species of animals (of which over 3800 species of fish);
about 200 species of animals living at a depth of more than 7 thousand km;
more than 6 thousand species of mollusks.

The largest number of endemics (animals that are found only here) live in the Pacific Ocean: dugongs, fur seals, sea otters, sea lions, holothurians, polychaetes, leopard sharks.

The nature of the Pacific Ocean has been studied only by 10 percent. Every year, scientists discover more and more new species of animals and plants. For example, in 2005 alone, more than 2,500 new species of molluscs and more than 100 species of crustaceans were found.

Pacific exploration

According to scientists, the Pacific Ocean is the oldest on the planet. Its formation began in the Cretaceous period of the Mesozoic, that is, more than 140 million years ago. The development of the ocean began long before the advent of writing. People who lived on the shores of the greatest water area used the gifts of the ocean for thousands of years ago. Thus, Thor Heyerdahl's expedition on the Kon-Tiki balsa raft confirmed the scientist's theory that the islands of Polynesia could be settled by people from South America who were able to cross the Pacific Ocean on the same rafts.

For Europeans, the history of ocean exploration is officially calculated from September 15, 1513. On this day, the traveler Vasco Nunez de Balboa first saw the water surface, stretching to the horizon, and dubbed it the South Sea.

According to legend, the ocean got its name from F. Magellan himself. During his trip around the world, the great Portuguese for the first time rounded South America and ended up in the ocean. Having sailed over it for more than 17 thousand kilometers and having not experienced a single storm during all this time, Magellan dubbed the Pacific Ocean. And only later studies proved that he was wrong. The Pacific Ocean is actually one of the most turbulent. It is here that the largest tsunamis occur, and typhoons, hurricanes and storms are more frequent here than in other oceans.

Since then, active research has begun on the largest ocean on the planet. We list only the most significant discoveries:

1589 - A. Ortelius publishes the world's first detailed map of the ocean.

1642-1644 - the ocean conquers A. Tasman and opens a new continent - Australia.

1769-1779 - D. Cook's three round-the-world voyages and exploration of the southern part of the ocean.

1785 - J. Laperouse voyage, exploration of the southern and northern parts of the ocean. The mysterious disappearance of the expedition in 1788 still haunts the minds of researchers.

1787-1794 - the journey of A. Malaspina, who compiled a detailed map of the western coast of America.

1725-1741 - two Kamchatka expeditions led by V.I. Bering and A. Chirikov, study of the northern and northwestern parts of the ocean.

1819-1821 - round-the-world trip of F. Bellingshausen and M. Lazarev, discovery of Antarctica and islands in the southern part of the ocean.

1872-1876 - organized the world's first scientific expedition to study the Pacific Ocean on the corvette "Challenger" (England). Maps of depths, bottom topography were drawn up, a collection of flora and fauna of the ocean was collected.

1949-1979 - 65 scientific voyages of the vessel "Vityaz" under the flag of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (measurement of the depth of the Mariana Trench and detailed maps of the underwater relief).

1960 - the first dive to the bottom of the Mariana Trench.

1973 - creation of the Pacific Oceanological Institute (Vladivostok)

Since the 1990s, a comprehensive study of the Pacific Ocean has begun, which combines and systematizes all the data obtained. Currently, the priority areas are geophysics, geochemistry, geology and commercial use of the ocean floor.

Since the discovery of the Challenger Deep in 1875, only three people have descended to the very bottom of the Mariana Trench. The last dive took place on March 12, 2012. And the brave diver was none other than the famous film director James Cameron.

Gigantism is characteristic of many representatives of the fauna of the Pacific Ocean: giant mussels and oysters, the clam tridacna (300 kg).

There are over 25,000 islands in the Pacific Ocean, more than all other oceans combined. Here is also the oldest island on the planet - Kauai, whose age is estimated at 6 million years.

More than 80% of tsunamis are "born" in the Pacific Ocean. The reason for this is the large number of underwater volcanoes.

The Pacific Ocean is full of secrets. There are many mystical places here: the Devil's Sea (near Japan), where ships and planes disappear; the bloodthirsty island of Palmyra, where everyone who remains there perishes; Easter Island with its mysterious idols; Truk Lagoon, where the largest cemetery of military equipment is located. And in 2011, a sign island, Sandy Island, was discovered near Australia. It appears and disappears, as evidenced by numerous expeditions and Google satellite photos.

In the north of the ocean, the so-called Garbage Continent was discovered. It is a large garbage heap containing over 100 million tons of plastic waste.

The largest and oldest of all oceans. Its area is 178.6 million km2. It can freely accommodate all the continents and combined, which is why it is sometimes called the Great. The name "Quiet" is associated with the name of F., who made a round-the-world trip and sailed across the Pacific Ocean under favorable conditions.

This ocean is really great: it occupies 1/3 of the surface of the entire planet and almost 1/2 of the area. The ocean has an oval shape, it is especially wide at the equator.

The peoples inhabiting the Pacific shores and islands have long sailed the ocean and mastered its riches. Information about the ocean was accumulated as a result of the voyages of F. Magellan, J.. The beginning of its wide study was laid in the 19th century by the first round-the-world Russian expedition of I.F. . At present, a special department has been set up for the study of the Pacific Ocean. Behind last years new data on its nature have been obtained, the depth has been determined, the currents, the topography of the bottom, and the ocean are being studied.

The southern part of the ocean from the shores of the Tuamotu Islands to the shores is an area of calm, and stable. It is for this calmness and silence that Magellan and his companions called the Pacific Ocean. But west of the Tuamotu Islands, the picture changes dramatically. Calm weather is rare here, usually stormy winds blow, often turning into. These are the so-called southern squalls, especially fierce in December. Tropical cyclones are less frequent but more severe. They arrive at the beginning of autumn from northern tip they move into warm westerly winds.

The tropical waters of the Pacific Ocean are clean, transparent and have an average salinity. Their deep dark blue color amazed observers. But sometimes the waters here turn green. This is due to the development of marine life. In the equatorial part of the ocean, favorable weather conditions. The temperature above the sea is around 25°C and almost does not change throughout the year. Moderate winds blow here. At times there is complete silence. The sky is clear, the nights are very dark. The equilibrium is especially stable in the zone of the islands of Polynesia. In the belt of calm, strong, but short-lived showers are frequent, mostly in the afternoon. Hurricanes are extremely rare here.

The warm waters of the ocean contribute to the work of corals, of which there are many. The Great Reef stretches along the eastern coast of Australia. This is the largest "ridge" created by organisms.

The western part of the ocean is under the influence of monsoons with their sudden vagaries. Terrible hurricanes arise here and. They are especially fierce in the northern hemisphere between 5 and 30 °. Typhoons are frequent from July to October, in August there are up to four in a month. They originate in the area of the Caroline and Mariana Islands and then "make raids" on the coast, and. Since in the west of the tropical part of the ocean it is hot and rainy, the islands of Fiji, New Hebrides, New are not without reason considered one of the most unhealthy places on the globe.

The northern regions of the ocean are similar to the southern ones, only, as it were, in mirror image: circular rotation of the waters, but if in the southern part it is against, then in the northern part - clockwise; unsettled weather in the west where typhoons move north; cross currents: Northern Equatorial and Southern Equatorial; there is little floating ice in the north of the ocean, since the Bering Strait is very narrow and protects the Pacific Ocean from the influence of the Arctic Ocean. This distinguishes the north of the ocean from its south.

The Pacific Ocean is the deepest. Its average depth is 3980 meters, and the maximum reaches 11022 m. The coast of the ocean is located in the seismic zone, as it is the boundary and the place of interaction with other lithospheric plates. This interaction is accompanied by ground and underwater and.

Feature- confinement of the greatest depths to its outskirts. Deep-sea trenches stretch in the form of long narrow trenches in the western and eastern parts of the ocean. Large uplifts divide the ocean floor into basins. In the east of the ocean, the East Pacific Rise is located, which is part of the system of mid-ocean ridges.

Currently, the Pacific Ocean plays an important role in the life of many countries. Half of the world's fish catch falls on this area, a significant part of it is made up of various mollusks, crabs, shrimp, krill. In some countries, mollusks and various algae are grown on the seabed and used as food. Metal placers are being developed on the shelf, oil is being produced off the coast of the California Peninsula. Some countries desalinate sea water and use it. Important sea routes pass through the Pacific Ocean, the length of these routes is very large. Navigation is well developed, mainly along the coast of the mainland.

Human economic activity has led to the pollution of ocean waters and to the extermination of some species of animals. So, in the 18th century, sea cows discovered by one of the members of the expedition V. were exterminated. On the verge of extermination are seals, whales. Currently, their fishery is limited. A great danger to the ocean is water pollution, industrial waste.

Location: bounded by east coast, west coast of North and South America, north, south.
Area: 178.7 million km2
Average depth: 4,282 m.

Maximum depth: 11022 m (Marian Trench).

Bottom relief: East Pacific Rise, Northeast, Northwest, Central, East, South and other basins, deep-sea trenches: Aleutian, Kurile-, Mariana, Philippine, Peruvian and others.

Inhabitants: a large number of unicellular and multicellular microorganisms; fish (pollock, herring, salmon, cod, sea bass, beluga, chum salmon, pink salmon, sockeye salmon, cinnamon and many others); seals, seals; crabs, shrimps, oysters, squids, octopuses.

: 30-36.5‰.

Currents: warm -, North Pacific, Alaska, South Tradewind, East Australian; cold - California, Kuril, Peruvian, for the Western winds.

Additional Information: The Pacific Ocean is the largest in the world; for the first time it was crossed by Ferdinand Magellan in 1519, the ocean was called "Pacific", because for all three months of the journey Magellan's ships did not fall into a single storm; The Pacific Ocean is usually divided into northern and southern regions, the border of which runs along the equator line.

The study and development of the Pacific Ocean began long before the appearance of a written history of mankind. Junks, catamarans and simple rafts. The expedition of 1947 on a raft of balsa logs "Kon-Tiki" under the leadership of the Norwegian Thor Heyerdahl proved the possibility of crossing the Pacific Ocean in a westerly direction from central South America to the islands of Polynesia. Chinese junks made trips along the ocean coast to the Indian Ocean (for example, Zheng He's seven voyages in 1405-1433). The first well-documented voyages of Europeans along the western fringes of the Pacific Ocean are the voyages of António de Abreu and Francisco Serrana from the Malay Peninsula to the Moluccas in 1512 (although medieval European travelers, such as Giovanni Montecorvino, most likely sailed the western seas of the Pacific before them). The first European who saw the Pacific Ocean from the east coast was the Spanish conquistador Vasco Nunez de Balboa, who in 1513 from one of the peaks of the mountain range on the Isthmus of Panama “in silence” saw the boundless water surface of the Pacific Ocean spreading to the south and dubbed it the South Sea.
In the autumn of 1520, the Portuguese navigator Ferdinand Magellan circled South America, breaking the strait, after which he saw new expanses of water. During the further transition from Tierra del Fuego to the Philippine Islands, which took more than three months, the expedition did not encounter a single storm, which is obviously why Magellan called the Pacific Ocean. The first detailed map of the Pacific Ocean was published by Ortelius in 1589. As a result of the expedition of 1642-1644 under the command of Tasman, it was proved that Australia is a separate mainland.
Active exploration of the ocean began in the 18th century. The leading states of Europe began to send research expeditions to the Pacific Ocean, led by navigators: the Englishman James Cook (exploration of Australia and New Zealand, the discovery of many islands, including Hawaii), the French Louis Antoine Bougainville (exploration of the islands of Oceania) and Jean-Francois La Perouse , Italian Alessandro Malaspina (mapped the entire western coast of South and North America from Cape Horn to the Gulf of Alaska). The northern part of the ocean was explored by Russian explorers S. I. Dezhnev (discovery of the strait between Eurasia and North America), V. Bering (exploration of the northern shores of the ocean) and A. I. Chirikov (exploration of the northwestern coast of North America, the northern part of the Pacific Ocean and northeast coast of Asia). During the period from 1803 to 1864, Russian sailors completed 45 round-the-world and half circumnavigations, as a result of which the Russian military and commercial fleet mastered the sea route from the Baltic Sea to the Pacific Ocean and discovered several islands in the ocean along the way. During the round-the-world expedition of 1819-1821, under the leadership of F.F. Bellingshausen and M.P. Lazarev, Antarctica was discovered along with 29 islands of the Southern Ocean.
From 1872 to 1876, the first scientific oceanic expedition took place on the English sailing steam corvette Challenger, new data were obtained on the composition of the ocean waters, on the flora and fauna, on the bottom topography and soils, the first map of the depths of the ocean was compiled and the first collection was collected deep sea animals. A round-the-world expedition on the Russian propeller-sailing corvette "Vityaz" of 1886-1889, led by oceanographer S. O. Makarov, explored the northern part of the Pacific Ocean in detail. The results of this expedition and all previous Russian and foreign expeditions, many around the world travel Makarov carefully studied and for the first time drew a conclusion about the circular rotation and counterclockwise direction of surface currents in the Pacific Ocean. The result of the American expedition of 1883-1905 on the ship "Albatross" was the discovery of new types of living organisms and the laws of their development. A great contribution to the study of the Pacific Ocean was made by the German expedition on the ship Planet (1906-1907) and the American oceanographic expedition on the non-magnetic schooner Carnegie (1928-1929) led by the Norwegian X. W. Sverdrup. In 1949, a new Soviet research vessel "Vityaz" was launched under the flag of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Until 1979, the ship made 65 scientific voyages, as a result of which many "white spots" were closed on the maps of the underwater relief of the Pacific Ocean (in particular, the maximum depth in the Mariana Trench was measured). At the same time, expeditions from Great Britain - the Challenger II (1950-1952), Sweden - the Albatross III (1947-1948), Denmark - the Galatea (1950-1952) and many others, were conducting research, which brought a lot of new information about topography of the ocean floor, bottom sediments, life in the ocean, the physical characteristics of its waters. Within the framework of the International Geophysical Year (1957-1958), international forces (especially the USA and the USSR) carried out research, as a result of which new bathymetric and marine navigation charts of the Pacific Ocean were compiled. Since 1968, regular deep-water drilling, work on the movement of water masses at great depths, and biological research have been carried out on the American ship Glomar Challenger. On January 23, 1960, the first human dive was made to the bottom of the deepest trench in the World Ocean - the Mariana. On the Trieste research bathyscaphe, US Navy Lieutenant Don Walsh and explorer Jacques Picard descended there. On March 26, 2012, American director James Cameron on the Deepsea Challenger made the first solo and second-ever dive to the bottom of the Mariana Trench. The device stayed at the bottom of the depression for about six hours, during which samples of underwater soil, plants and living organisms were collected. Cameron's footage will form the basis of a National Geographic Channel science documentary.
In 1966-1974, the monograph "Pacific Ocean" was published in 13 volumes, published by the Institute of Oceanography of the USSR Academy of Sciences. In 1973, the Pacific Oceanological Institute named after V.I. V. I. Ilyichev, who carried out extensive studies of the Far Eastern seas and the open space of the Pacific Ocean. In recent decades, numerous measurements of the ocean have been carried out from space satellites. The result was a bathymetric atlas of the oceans released in 1994 by the US National Geophysical Data Center with a map resolution of 3-4 km and a depth accuracy of ±100 m.

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COURSE WORK

Analysis of modern Pacific research

Introduction

Chapter 1. Historical and geographical review of research Pacific Ocean second half of the XX - beginning of the XXI centuries.

1.1 Curriculum vitae

1.2 Results of research vessels

Chapter 2

2.1 Stages: background, technology level, study geography and study timeline

2.2 Key directions, objectives of the study of the Pacific regions by various states

2.3 Regional division and zoning of the Pacific Ocean

Chapter 3 Achievements in Research and International Projects 1990-2010

3.1 International project"Argo"

3.2 Satellite research

3.3 Other studies

Conclusion

List of sources used

Introduction

To reveal all aspects of the study of the Pacific Ocean is necessary for the development of its riches - huge, but not unlimited. The use of energy, mineral and biological resources is associated with the decision environmental issues, weather control and maritime transport.

For Belarus, studies of the Pacific Ocean are of applied importance. First of all, this is the organization of fishing in the water area, the development of trade relations and recreation. The creation of the Belarusian merchant marine fleet is one of the directions for the implementation of the Program for the Development of Inland Water and Sea Transport for 2011-2015. Up to 20 million tons of Belarusian export cargoes are annually transported with sea transport: mineral fertilizers, oil products, metal, wheeled vehicles, tires, sugar, to countries Latin America and Asia. Also important are the studies of El Niño and La Niña, the consequences of which indirectly affect the agro-climatic conditions of Belarus.

aim term paper was the analysis of modern studies of the Pacific Ocean. The following tasks were set:

To characterize the personal contribution of modern scientists to the research of the Pacific Ocean;

To analyze the research activities of three round-the-world expeditions and compare the directions of Soviet and foreign research;

Present the history of research and systematize data on research directions.

The preparation of the course work included several stages. At the first stage, the goal and objectives of the course research were formulated and analytical methods for performing the work were selected. The second stage is the collection of factual data, the processing of the source base. Scientific publications, maps, monographs, electronic and network resources were studied. The third stage is data processing: the materials were systematized according to the time and directions of research, individual details were clarified. Further data analysis allowed to create a clear structure of the work; processing of graphic material included the search for photographs and vectorization of maps. The fourth stage is the interpretation of the data and the formulation of conclusions. The results of the work were summed up, the results and prospects for further study of the topic were evaluated. The stage also included the design of the course work: the layout and writing of the main text components; compiling a list of references, designing a table of contents and title page; schematic modeling of the logical content of the entire work.

Chapter 1. Historical and geographical review of the research of the Pacific Ocean in the second half of the 20th - early 21st centuries.

Navigation in the Pacific began long before recorded human history. However, there is evidence that the first European to see the Pacific Ocean was Vasco Balboa; in 1513 the ocean opened before him from the Darien Mountains in Panama. In the history of Pacific exploration there are such famous names as Ferdinand Magellan, Abel Tasman, Francis Drake, Charles Darwin, Vitus Bering, James Cook, George Vancouver and others.

To the east of New Zealand, G. Menard discovered and described in 1964 a long (1100 km) ridge of volcanoes 4.2-4.5 km high. The studies he carried out in 1964 north of Hawaii changed the old views on the topography of the bottom of this part of the Pacific Ocean. Instead of a single ridge, he identified several isolated peaks and a series of short chains. G. Menard called the entire structure the mountains of Musicians.

Since 1949, the Soviet expedition ship Vityaz began to operate in the Pacific Ocean. The Vityaz expeditions studied and described three main types of ocean floor uplifts: domed uplifts, which mainly include structures that come to the surface in the form of the Marshall Islands, Line, Tuamotu and a number of others; blocky ridges and massifs (the Shatsky hill, the Nazca ridge); marginal ramparts, confined mainly to the outer sides of a number of deep-water trenches - the Aleutian, Kuril-Kamchatsky, Philippine.

In addition to the Vityaz, Soviet research vessels worked in the Pacific Ocean: Ob in 1957-1958, explored the eastern margin of the East Pacific Rise to the latitude of about. Easter; "Dmitry Mendeleev" in 1974-1975 conducted a detailed study of the western margin of the same underwater structure.

In 1986, the R/V Akademik Mstislav Keldysh, carrying the Paisis submersible on board, made a special flight to study volcanically active areas of the northeastern Pacific Ocean.

The study of the islands of Oceania remained an urgent direction of research. In the early 1990s, the Rajaampat group of islands was first discovered, which has now become an important recreational area.

A team of Australian scientists in 2006 explored a trough in the Tasmanian fault zone, in which scientists were able to find species not studied by modern science - soft corals.

In May 2009, using the Jenson ROV, oceanographers were able to locate and record the first video and photographs of the deepest underwater volcano spewing molten lava to the ocean floor.

1.1 Curriculum vitae

Thor Heyerdahl

Pioneer researchers play an important role in the study of new, undiscovered regions of the Earth. Their personality draws attention. They pave the way that form the cutting edge of science. Some of them are worth mentioning separately.

Thor Heyerdahl (October 6, 1914, Larvik, Norway - April 18, 2002, Alassio, Italy) was a famous Norwegian traveler and anthropologist.

In 1946, he put forward a theory according to which Polynesia was settled by immigrants from South America who lived in pre-Inca times in Peru. Before the expedition, T. Heyerdahl and five other travelers - Knut Haugland, Bengt Danielsson, Eric Hesselberg, Thorstein Robyu and Hermann Watzinger - arrived in Peru, where they built a pae-pae raft from balsa wood and other natural materials, which they called "Kon-Tiki ". On August 7, 1947, after 101 days of navigation, the Kon-Tiki, having covered 4,300 nautical miles (8,000 km) in the Pacific Ocean, nailed the Tuamotu Islands to the reefs of Raroia Atoll.

Figure 1.1 Thor Heyerdahl.

Rice. 1.2 Thor Heyerdahl and Ra-II.

Rice. 1.3 Ocean currents and the Kon-Tiki route [comp. by the author according to 6].

The Kon-Tiki demonstrated that a primitive raft, using the Humboldt current and a tailwind, could indeed cross the Pacific Ocean in a relatively simple and safe direction due to the keel system and sail.

In 1955-1956. T. Heyerdahl organized a Norwegian archaeological expedition to Easter Island.

His theories rarely received scientific recognition, while T. Heyerdahl himself rejected scientific criticism and concentrated on publishing his theories in popular literature intended for the widest masses. T. Heyerdahl was an activist in green politics. He was the recipient of numerous medals and prizes, as well as eleven honorary degrees from American and European universities.

T. Heyerdahl died at the age of 87 from a brain tumor in the Italian city of Alassio, surrounded by his family. In his homeland, a monument was erected to him during his lifetime, and a museum was opened in his house.

Despite the fact that most of the works of T. Heyerdahl caused controversy in scientific circles, he raised public interest in ancient history and the achievements of various cultures and peoples around the world. He also showed that long-distance travel across the ocean was technically possible for a Mesolithic man.

Rice. 1.4 Raft of the Tangaroa Expedition 2006 .

In 2006, the path of "Kon-Tiki" was repeated by a crew of 6 people, which included the grandson of T. Heyerdahl Olav Heyerdahl. The expedition was called "Tangaroa" and was organized in honor of T. Heyerdahl with the aim of observing the state of the environment in the Pacific Ocean.

Jacques-Yves Cousteau

Speaking of the Pacific Ocean, mention should be made of Jacques-Yves Cousteau (June 11, 1910, Saint-Andre-de-Cubzac, France - June 25, 1997, Paris, France) - the famous French explorer of the World Ocean, photographer, director, inventor , author of numerous books and films.

Cousteau was born in Saint-André-de-Cubzac, the son of a lawyer, Daniel and Elisabeth Cousteau. In 1930 he joined the navy as head of an underwater research group. Fascinated by scuba diving, J.-I. Cousteau in 1938 created a group of divers and began research into the physiology of diving. In 1943, he tested the first prototype of an aqualung, developed by him together with Emil Gagnan. This allowed for long dives. J.-I. Cousteau became the creator of waterproof cameras and lighting devices, and also invented the first underwater television system.

Figure 1.5 Jacques-Yves Cousteau.

Rice. 1.6 Calypso.

In the process of underwater research, J.-I. Cousteau designed submersibles for various sea depths (Dipstar, Deniz), adapted a movie camera for underwater filming. An important area of research activity J.-I. Cousteau began to study underwater life at different latitudes of the World Ocean and the relationship of man with marine animals in their natural environment. For this, in November 1951, a long-term oceanographic expedition was organized on board the Calypso ship. In 1957, he began the Konshelf program - extensive underwater research on the continental shelf. The program included the creation of underwater stations and habitable blocks at various depths, as well as experiments in which people lived and worked in the underwater world. In the same 1957, J.-I. Cousteau was appointed director of the Oceanographic Museum in Monaco.

By the beginning of 1967, Calypso was adapted for underwater filming. During long voyages, J.-I. Cousteau researched marine life and filmed in the Pacific Ocean. The object of his study were whales, dolphins, sharks, various fish and other animals of the deep sea and underwater caves of oceanic islands. Expeditions J.-I. Cousteau discovered and carefully studied many sunken ships of various centuries and civilizations, created the scientific direction of modern underwater archeology.

In 1973, he founded the non-profit "Cousteau Society" for the protection of the marine environment in Hampton (Virginia, USA). Since 1985, the ship "Calypso" has replaced the new turbo-sailing ship "Alkion". In 1997 J.-I. Cousteau died at the age of 87 from a myocardial infarction as a result of a complication of a respiratory illness.

Already from childhood, Jacques-Yves Cousteau was distinguished by high efficiency, the will to achieve the goal. Cousteau was very courageous, knew how to take a punch. This fact is confirmed by the fact that in 1936 he got into a car accident, having received many broken ribs, displacement of the vertebrae, a punctured lung, paralyzed hands ...

All research activities of J.-I. Cousteau was closely associated with the struggle to preserve the purity of the ocean environment, its animal life and balance. biological systems in the ocean. Its slogan was the world-famous phrase: "If you love the sea, you save it." His work also led to the creation new type scientific communication, criticized at that time by some academicians. The Cousteau Society and its French partner "Team Cousteau", founded by J.-I. Cousteau, are still active today.

1.2 Results of research vessels

Among the first should be mentioned "Vityaz" - a research vessel (R/V) of the Institute of Oceanology. P. P. Shirshov RAS (Moscow). The ship made 65 scientific voyages, covered about 1,481,600 km, completed 7942 scientific stations. The maximum depth (11022 m) in the Mariana Trench was measured from its board. A school of Soviet oceanology was formed on the Vityaz; scientists from 50 scientific institutes of the USSR and 20 countries of the world worked on expeditions. The guests of the "Vityaz" T. Heyerdahl and J.-I. Cousteau.

In 1939, the passenger-and-freight ship "Mars" was launched in Bremerhaven (Germany). During World War II, Mars became a military transport. In 1945, under reparation, the ship was transferred to Great Britain, where it was renamed Empire Forward (Forward, Empire), but already in May 1946 it became part of the USSR merchant fleet.

Between 1947-1949 on the initiative of the staff of the Institute of Oceanology, the Equator, renamed the Admiral Makarov, was converted into a research vessel of the USSR Academy of Sciences. In 1949, the ship changed its name for the last time, becoming Vityaz in memory of two Russian corvettes of the 19th century. "Vityaz" -

1) a sail-propeller corvette (1862-1895), which made 2 round-the-world voyages under the command of Captain P.N. Nazimov and delivered in 1871 N. Miklukho-Maclay to New Guinea;

2) a sail-propeller corvette (1883-1893), which circumnavigated the world under the command of Captain S.O. Makarov.

The uniqueness of the ship was provided by scientific equipment. First of all, this is a deep-sea anchor winch, which made it possible to anchor at depths of up to 11 km. No less unique was the deep-water trawl winch, which can be used to trawl at depths of up to 11 km. The ship had 14 laboratories, a scientific library, and sample storage facilities. The first studies of the "Vityaz" - a comprehensive study of the Bering, Okhotsk, Sea of Japan, work on the programs of the International Geophysical Year (IGY).

The geophysical work carried out on the Vityaz made it possible to formulate reasonable hypotheses about the structure earth's crust in general, and subsequently - to develop new ideas about the global evolution of the Earth (New global tectonics). As a result of research by the R/V Vityaz on the physics, chemistry and geology of the ocean. For 30 years of navigation, the expeditions of the R/V Vityaz have collected huge zoological collections, as a result of which more than 1100 new species of living organisms, previously unknown to science, have been described; 171 new genera and subgenera were established, as well as 26 new taxa of the rank of family, order and higher categories, including the new type of living organisms Brachiata. The name of this ship, enshrined in the names of one genus (Vitiaziella Rass) and eight species of fish.

Thanks to the research experience of 65 scientific expeditions, the Vityaz was born and won the right to exist new science- marine meteorology, the science of atmospheric processes over the ocean, with special measuring equipment, special methods of measurement and visual observations; the theory of the interaction between the ocean and the atmosphere received in-depth development.

Rice. 1.7 R/V Vityaz on sea trials, 1948 .

The second most important should be considered the R/V "Dmitry Mendeleev". Research vessel of the Institute of Oceanology. P.P. Shirshov of the Russian Academy of Sciences "Dmitry Mendeleev" was built in 1968 and went on its first scientific voyage in February 1969. Expeditionary voyages continued for 24 years and ended in 1993. In total, 50 voyages were made during this period, of which 30 are in the Pacific Ocean with its seas. Collected by scientific teams huge material in all areas of ocean science, which led to a number of scientific discoveries and generalizations of a theoretical order.

There are four thematic directions of flights in the Pacific Ocean:

· Hydrophysical direction (10);

· Geological and geophysical (one geochemical trip) direction (12);

· Hydrobiological direction (5);

· Complex (geographical) direction (1) (see Table 1.1).

Fig. 1.8 R/V "Dmitry Mendeleev" in the Pacific Ocean, 1978.

As can be seen from the table above, the R/V Vityaz and Dmitry Mendeleev conducted a comprehensive study of the waters of the Pacific Ocean. During this study, a number of discoveries were made that allowed people to learn more about the Pacific Ocean - its structure, physical and chemical properties, bottom structure, biodiversity. Also, thanks to these studies, knowledge about the mechanism of tectonic movements in the earth's crust was expanded.

Western European round-the-world expeditions 1950-2010 could take third place in the Pacific Ocean exploration picture. If we compare three famous round-the-world expeditions - the Swedish one on the Albatross (1947-1948), the Danish on the Galatea (1950-1952) and the British on the Challenger II (1950-1952) , with the work of the research vessel "Vityaz" and "Dmitry Mendeleev", you can find significant differences, both in the duration of the expeditions and in the nature of the research being carried out. First of all, the expeditions took place on vessels of small tonnage, they lasted less than two years, a small number of scientific personnel dealt only with individual problems of physical oceanography.

The first major voyage after the Second World War was made by the Swedish oceanographic expedition on board the Albatross (displacement 1450 tons) under the leadership of Hans Petterson. The purpose of the researchers was to study the history of the oceans. The main task of the expedition was to study sedimentation at great depths of the Pacific Ocean, to establish the nature of soils, and to measure the radioactivity of their waters and soils. On the Albatross, for the first time, a long soil piston tube designed by Kullenberg was successfully used, which served to select columns of bottom sediments. The expedition carried out several deep-sea trawls in the Pacific Ocean at depths up to 7600 m. A complex of meteorological and oceanographic observations was also carried out in tropical and equatorial latitudes. In the Panama Canal, the expedition found that, compared to the Atlantic, loose sediments in the Pacific Ocean are much younger, and often alternate with layers of volcanic lava.

Fig. 1.9 Research vessel "Albatross III", 1948.

Before the expedition on the Danish ship "Galatea" (displacement 1630 tons) were faced with the task of studying life at great depths. This expedition succeeded in the Pacific Ocean, in the Philippine Trench, to catch bottom dwellers with a trawl from great depths. In 1949, a Danish expedition vessel dredged from a depth of 10,190 m. It contained 25 sea anemones, 75 holothurians, 5 bivalve shells, and other living creatures. This discovery proved the existence of life at great depths.

Fig. 1.10 The ship "Galatea", image in the Museum of the World Ocean, 1986.

The British expedition on the vessel "Challenger II" (displacement 1140 tons) carried out oceanographic and hydrobiological research, having only 5 scientists in its composition. The route of the Challenger basically repeated the path of the Albatross, but the tasks of the expedition were different. Scientists led by T.F. Heskell pioneered the use of seismic sounding. According to the results of the research, dozens of sections of the earth's crust were built. The data obtained made it possible to explain how the main landforms of the seabed were formed. In 1951, the Mariana Trench was explored by a ship, after which the deepest part of the trench was named the Challenger Fault. The expedition confirmed the assumption that all oceans have central ridges associated with the instability of the vast and even ocean floor.

Fig. 1.11 The vessel "Challenger II".

On the whole, oceanographic research in the Pacific Ocean has been intensified abroad in the postwar years. Circumnavigations bring an extremely large amount of new information about the topography of the ocean floor, about bottom sediments, about life in the ocean, and about the physical characteristics of its waters.

The world's largest oxygen minimum zone is located in the eastern Pacific Ocean off the coast of Peru and Ecuador. It was she who became the goal of a four-month expedition of German oceanologists from the Leibniz Institute in Kiel to the R/V Meteor.

Rice. 1.12 R/V Meteor

One of the main questions facing researchers is how do such zones change as a result of climate change?

Oceanologists from the Working Group Climate-Biogeochemical Interactions in Tropical Oceans (SFB 754) investigated this phenomenon and conducted a four-month expedition to the world's largest oxygen minimum zone in the Eastern Pacific Ocean.

From mid-October 2008 to February 2009, a total of four teams of geologists, geochemists, oceanographers, biologists and meteorologists from SFB 754 worked on the German research vessel METEOR and took a host of physical, chemical and biological measurements that can provide an answer to the state of the Pacific oxygen zone. minimum.

The first comparison of current data with the results of measurements made in 1993 in the open part of the Pacific Ocean showed that in the equatorial region the oxygen content in the water has decreased. At the same time, measurements to the south showed an increase in oxygen volumes. This, however, is not enough to negate a general decrease in oxygen levels in the Pacific, as general trend allows short-term spatial and temporal deviations.

Closer to the Peruvian coast, the oxygen minimum zone is located in an area in which rich nutrients water masses rise from a depth of more than 150 meters to the surface and are the cause of very high biological productivity there. After the death of organisms, bacteria create a large amount of organic material, while consuming the oxygen that marine life needs to survive.

Another surprise awaited microbiologists: along with the usual high level of chlorophyll observed near the surface - plant plankton lives here - a second maximum was recorded at a depth of 100 meters, that is, in the center of the oxygen minimum. Presumably, there is a community of photosynthetic algae (cyanobacteria and blue-green algae), about which nothing has been known in this region until now.

Since very few in situ measurements of oxygen content have been made so far, it is difficult to draw conclusions about long-term variability from these data. This requires historical climate data such as sediment cores. Almost 400 meters of cores were taken on board during the M 77 expedition.

During the expedition, German oceanologists collaborated with the Peruvian Marine Research Institute IMARPE (Instituto del Mar del Perъ).

This chapter provides an insight into the phased exploration of the Pacific Ocean in modern period. Such personalities as Thor Heyerdahl, Jacques-Yves Cousteau are considered. The work of the R/V and individual research vessels is analyzed.

Chapter 2

Due to the rapidity and disequilibrium of the processes of self-accelerating growth and its sudden cessation during the demographic transition, those long-term ties created by centuries of historical process will be violated not only at the level of a person, individual and society, but also at a higher level of countries and states, on the scale of world history. . In other words, the world is now more likely to be dominated by centrifugal forces, rather than centripetal, organizing and self-organizing factors as trends in global development.

Rice. 2.1 Population growth.

2.1 Stages: background, technology level, study geography and study timeline

The history of the exploration of the Pacific Ocean is divided into 7 periods: from ancient voyages to 1749, from 1749 to 1873, from 1873 to 1939, from 1939 to 1973, from 1973 to 1984, from 1984 to 1998 and finally from 1998 to 2012.

The exploration of the Pacific Ocean by Soviet expeditions on the ships Vityaz (1949), A.I. Voeikov” (since 1959), “Yu.M. Shokalsky" (1960), "Academician Sergei Korolev" (1970), which for the first time began to conduct a wide complex geophysical research aimed at studying the hydrosphere and high layers of the atmosphere. At the same time, research was carried out by US expeditions on the ships "Horizon" (Horizn) (1946), "Hew M. Smith" (Hugh M. Smith) (1950), "Spenser F. Berd" (Spencer F. Byrd) (1946) and others , Great Britain - "Challenger II" (Challenger II) (1950-52), Sweden - "Albatros III" (Albatross III) (1947-48), Denmark - "Galatea" (Galatea) (1950-52) and many others.

Of particular importance were observations under the Norpac (Norpak) plan (August 1955) and Ecvapac (Ekvapak) (in subsequent years), under the program of the International Geophysical Year (IGY) and the International Geophysical Cooperation (since 1957), as well as under the program International studies of Kuroshio and adjacent areas (since 1965). The implementation of these programs made it possible to unite and synchronize the work of a large number of expedition ships from different countries. The most active in the study of the underwater relief of the Pacific Ocean during the International Geophysical Year was shown by the United States (expeditions on the ships "Spencer F. Byrd", "Horizon", "Vima", "Atka", "Glacier" and others) and the Soviet Union (the most important the results were obtained in expeditions on the Vityaz and Ob).

Rice. 2.2 Research regions of the Pacific Ocean in different years [comp. by the author on 23].

The materials collected during the IGY made it possible to compile new bathymetric and marine navigation charts of the Pacific Ocean. Of great value are also the work on deep-water drilling carried out since 1968 on the American ship Glomar Challenger, work on the movement of water masses at great depths, and biological research.

2.2 Key directions, objectives of the study of the Pacific regions by various states

Until 1749, the main areas of research were the development of sea routes, trade with other peoples, and the creation of colonies.

From 1789 to 1873 year, a specialized study of the surface waters of the ocean was carried out.

From 1873 to 1939 studies were carried out for the purpose of commercial research.

From 1939 to 1973 route networks are being created.

From 1973 to 1984 networks of stationary observations with satellite control are being created.

From 1984 to 1998 accumulated knowledge is systematized.

From 1998 to 2012 comprehensive study, integration of all knowledge.

Current areas of research in the Pacific will be: regional tectonics, geology, geophysics and geochemistry of the seafloor, hydrothermal systems, physical properties of the ocean surface, and commercial exploitation of the ocean floor.

2.3 Regional division and zoning of the Pacific Ocean

The nature of the World Ocean, as well as the nature of land, is subject to the law of geographical zoning. The zoning of the ocean is the main regularity in the distribution of all properties in the waters of the World Ocean, manifested in a change in the physical geographical zones to a depth of 1500-2000 m. But this pattern is most clearly observed in the upper active layer of the ocean to a depth of 200 m.

First of all, the largest zoning units are distinguished: the Atlantic, Arctic, Pacific, and Indian oceans. The oceans are divided into physiographic zones, which are characterized by the specificity of the natural processes occurring. The boundaries of these belts in some cases significantly deviate from the latitudinal direction, which is mainly due to the nature of the horizontal circulation in a particular area of the World Ocean. In specific parts of geographical zones, regions are distinguished in which natural processes are determined by the peculiarity of the geographical position of these regions in relation to the continents and islands, their depths, wind systems, etc. This originality is especially pronounced in the coastal parts of the belts.

The cycle of work on zoning the ocean, carried out by the SOI, ends with a monograph by V.M. Gruzinov "Frontal zones of the World Ocean". In this work, the idea is advanced that the natural boundaries of the main oceanic regions are the frontal zones, which, in the opinion of this author, coincide with the boundaries of geographical belts. Thus, the ocean is divided by V.M. Gruzinov into relatively homogeneous areas, and homogeneity turns out to be the main principle of division.

Rice. 2.3 Ocean fronts and water masses (according to Stepanov, 1974).

1 - ocean fronts: E - equatorial; FROM b E - subequatorial; Ts - tropical northern; Chu - tropical south; SbAr - subarctic, SbAn - subantarctic; Ar - arctic; An - antarctic, 2 - water masses (designations in circles); E - equatorial; Ts - north tropical; Chu - south tropical; Tar - tropical waters of the Arabian Sea; Tb - tropical waters of the Bay of Bengal; CbTe - subtropical northern, SbTu - subtropical southern; SbAr - subarctic; SbAn subantarctic; Ar - arctic; An - Antarctic.

Unfortunately, it should be noted that the concept of "front" is not formulated in modern oceanological literature quite clearly, and therefore the fronts are drawn convergently and divergently. So, V.N. Stepanov believed that "ocean fronts are the boundary zones of two adjacent macrocirculation systems and the water masses formed in them" .

Leontiev O.K. made regionalization of the Pacific Ocean on the basis of vegetation zones on land.

Rice. 2.4 Physiographic zones on the bottom of the Pacific Ocean (according to Leontiev, 1974) .

Northern zones: 1 - polar, 2 - subpolar, 3 - temperate, 4 - subtropical, 5 - tropical, 6 - equatorial; southern: 7 - tropical, 8 - subtropical, 9 - temperate, 10 - subpolar, 11 - polar.

In 1985 D.V. Bogdanov came up with the idea of dividing the ocean into regions that are homogeneous in terms of the natural processes prevailing in them.

In the scheme proposed by him, the characteristic of the thermohaline structure and, to some extent, the main currents (Fig. 2.5) are taken as the main criterion.

Rice. 2.5 Zoning of the Pacific Ocean (D.V. Bogdanov, 1985).

D.V. Bogdanov in the Pacific Ocean identified (from north to south) the following natural zones (Fig. 2.5.), which are in good agreement with the natural zones of land:

Northern temperate SU with water temperature 5-15°С; corresponds to the temperate (taiga, broad-leaved forests, steppe) zone;

Northern subtropical SST coinciding with quasi-stationary areas of high pressure (Azores and Hawaiian highs); corresponds to dry and humid subtropics and northern areas of deserts;

Northern tropical (trade wind) ST, located between the average annual northern and southern boundaries of the trade wind; corresponds to tropical deserts and savannahs;

Equatorial E, slightly shifted to the north along with the thermal equator and characterized by very warm (27-29°C) freshened waters; corresponds to humid equatorial forests;

Southern tropical (trade wind) UT; corresponds to savannas and tropical deserts;

Southern subtropical UST, which is less pronounced than in the northern hemisphere; corresponds to dry and humid subtropics;

South temperate SE, located between the subtropical convergence and the Antarctic convergence; corresponds to a temperate, treeless zone;

the southern subpolar (subantarctic) SSP between the Antarctic convergence and the Antarctic divergence; corresponds to the subpolar land zone;

the South Polar (Antarctic) SP, which includes mainly shelf seas around Antarctica; corresponds to the ice zone of Antarctica.

Despite the fact that D.V. Bogdanov corresponded to the general geographical principles of zoning, it needs to clarify the spatial position of various zones and their boundaries.

Apparently, the zonal classification should be based on the main oceanic and dynamic fronts in the ocean, which will be fairly clear boundaries between the physical and geographical zones in the oceans.

Gruzinov V.M. taking into account the natural boundaries between latitudinal zones, he developed a scheme of geographical zones of the World Ocean (from north to south):

Subpolar zone, located between the polar and subpolar fronts;

The temperate zone, located between the northern subpolar front and the northern subtropical convergence;

Subtropical zone located between the northern subtropical convergence and the northern tropical front; the northern boundary of the zone is eroded;

Tropical zone bounded by the northern tropical front and the northern tropical divergence;

Equatorial zone, located between the northern and southern tropical divergences;

the Southern Tropical Zone, located between the Southern Tropical Divergence and the Southern Tropical Front;

Southern subtropical zone, bounded by the southern tropical front and the southern subtropical convergence;

South temperate zone, located between the southern subtropical convergence and the southern subpolar front;

Southern subpolar zone, located between the southern subpolar and southern polar fronts;

The South Polar Zone, located south of the South Polar Front.

A comparison of certain physical-geographical zoning schemes shows that they are based on the zonal-azonal principle of zoning the surface waters of the World Ocean, with the emphasis being placed on the zone-zonal division of the oceans and the allocation of water areas adjacent to the continents.

At present, the most accepted scheme for the physiographic zoning of the World Ocean is D.V. Bogdanov (Fig. 2.5.).

Thus, an analysis of the experience of zoning the World Ocean shows that this important scientific and practical problem is extremely complex and multifaceted. Despite the progress made, the natural zoning of the World Ocean continues to be the weakest link in the overall scientific systematization of the spatial structure of the geographic envelope. This concerns both the fundamental principles and the applied methodology of oceanic zoning. Although today there are numerous schemes for sectoral (component or private) zoning of the ocean, theoretical level and practical developments in ocean geography in terms of complex physical-geographical zoning are noticeably behind the level achieved by the corresponding section of land geography.

Chapter 3 Achievements in Research and International Projects 1990-2010

heyerdahl pacific ocean expedition

Russian exploration of the Pacific present stage conducted with the use of deep-sea manned vehicles (GOA) "Mir-1" and "Mir-2" (1987-2005). The integrated data collection system, which combines a variety of measuring equipment and computing facilities of 15 laboratories, makes it possible to automatically collect, process and record data on the atmosphere, water environment and bottom soil. Of great importance for scientific research is the unique working depth of the Mirs - 6000 m.

Research continues, in particular, in the Mariana Trench in 2005: "At the bottom of the world's deepest Mariana Trench in the center of the Pacific Ocean, Japanese researchers discovered 13 species of unicellular organisms unknown to science, existing unchanged for almost a billion years" . Microorganisms were found in soil samples taken in the autumn of 2002 in the Challenger Fault by the Japanese Kaiko submersible at a depth of 10,900 meters. In 10 cm 3 of soil, a group of specialists led by Professor H. Kitazato from the Japanese Ocean Research and Development Organization discovered 449 unknown primitive unicellular organisms.

A team of Australian scientists in 2006 explored a trough in the Tasmanian Fault Zone. The dives made have helped explore the deepest known Australian fauna, including the predatory sea squirt, sea spiders and giant sponges.

In May 2009, using the Jenson remotely operated submersible, oceanographers were able to locate and record the first video and photographs of the deepest underwater volcano spewing molten lava to the ocean floor. This phenomenon is about 1.2 km below the surface of the Pacific Ocean, in the region of the volcanic belt, near Fiji, Tonga and Samoa. Samples collected near the volcano showed high acidity of sea water. Despite the harsh conditions, one species of shrimp lives here.

The unmanned robot "Nereus" reached the deepest known part of the ocean and became the third vessel in history to explore the Mariana Trench in the western Pacific Ocean. On May 31, 2009, the Nereus sank to a depth of approximately 10,902 m and withstood pressures over 1,000 times atmospheric pressure.

Oceanographers from the Institute of Marine Research. Leibniz in December 2009 sailed on the German research vessel Sonne to the Woodlark basin east of Papua New Guinea. The purpose of the expedition was to study the ocean floor in a geologically complex and active region of the Earth.

Rice. 3.1 Study area of the German ship "Sonne".

In this region, several plates collide in a small area, resulting in a new seabed. As a result - numerous earthquakes, manifestations of volcanic activity, and related dangerous phenomena such as tsunamis. While on the research vessel Sonne, German oceanographers carried out detailed studies of these complex structures in the Woodlark Basin for six weeks.

An important area of modern research is ecological: the world ocean is littered with waste that causes negative impact not only on the underwater world, but also on coastal life and ecology (Fig. 3.2.).

Posted on http://www.allbest.ru/

Rice. 3.3 Movement of debris in the North Pacific .

In 2009, the United Nations Environment Agency prepared a report entitled Marine Debris: A Global Challenge. Much of the garbage ends up in the ocean from land. In Australia, an experiment found that 80% of ocean debris was dumped on land. The most acute problem of pollution is in the Pacific Ocean, where the American ships New Horizon and Project Kaisei in August 2009 explored the "island" of garbage, which was noticed by scientists as early as 2004.

Rice. 3.4. Pacific Ocean Research Regions [comp. by the author on 6, 16, 23, 29].

3.1 International project "Argo"

The Argo project, in fact, comes down to the creation of a long-term global network of permanent oceanographic stations based on drifting measuring buoys.

Data from this network are received daily and in large quantities (with a planned number of 3,000 buoys, about 100,000 STD stations should be produced annually). The measurement discreteness of each buoy is 10 days, and the planned lower measurement horizon is 2000 m.

Each buoy drifts for 10 days at a given depth, then descends to a horizon of 2000 m. From a horizon of 2000 m it floats to the surface, measuring temperature and salinity (electrical conductivity). Then, within 6 hours, the data is transmitted to several Argos satellites, which continuously forward them to two onshore Argos centers. The buoy then descends to the drift depth and the cycle continues until the batteries are depleted (operating period is about 4 years or about 120 stations).

The buoy may finish its work prematurely (get into fishing nets or be washed ashore). Some areas of the World Ocean may be exposed due to drifting buoys. To compensate for this, it is envisaged to replenish the buoys and reuse them. In the future, the independent movement of the buoys at the end of the cycle on command and the use of feedback to change the operation parameters (for example, drift depth) are envisaged.

In addition to oceanographic stations, when using buoys, the characteristics of deep (at the drift horizon) currents, surface currents (for the period of being on the surface) are determined.

Measurements of currents, temperature, salinity, as well as the density determined from them, together with data on the elevation of the sea surface from special satellites, provide a comprehensive picture of the state of the ocean.

The created network of oceanographic stations is useful both for monitoring the state of the World Ocean and for long-term weather forecasting. Together with a network of existing surface buoys and a network of coastal weather stations, the network being created forms the basis of a new oceanographic science - operational oceanography.

The buoy technology was developed during the World Ocean Circulation (WOCE) project. The buoys are currently manufactured by WEBB corporations (Falmouth, USA), three organizations in the USA and in France.

All observational data from the buoys are fed through satellite receiving stations to two Argo data centers and Argo national data centers.

There are currently two Argo Global Data Centers in Monterrey (USA) and Toulouse (France).

All countries participating in the project (USA, France, Great Britain, Canada, Australia, Germany, Japan, South Korea) have national data centers.

All data on the Argo project are declared freely available to the world community (through the global GTS network). Full controlled observations (so-called delayed data) are available through the Argo national data centers with a delay of up to 5 months.

It should be noted that the measuring buoys were used before the start of the project (2001), and also, some measurements made with their help are used outside of this project.

Over the next 10 years, the global network of Argo buoys will improve understanding of the processes occurring in the World Ocean and its impact on processes in the atmosphere, namely:

determine the structure of the waters of the World Ocean and its variability;

· clarify the nature of the global water circulation in the oceans;

· estimate the meridional heat transfer in the ocean;

· to determine the impact of long-term anomalies in ocean surface temperature on changes in atmospheric circulation;

· to study the cause-and-effect relationships of such phenomena as El Niño and others;

· assess the role of the World Ocean in climate change.

This range of tasks can be expanded depending on the completeness of data on the World Ocean, both in space and in time.

To obtain new operational information on the World Ocean, it is necessary to develop:

Methods for restoring ocean surface parameters based on satellite data and data obtained from measuring buoys;

Computational methods for mapping parameters that make it possible to assess the state of the ocean (vertical and horizontal distribution of T, S, TS-curves, dynamic heights, maps of currents on the surface and at a horizon of 2000 m, etc.);

New numerical models of ocean circulation and improve existing ones for forecasting hydrometeorological parameters;

Procedures for Four-Dimensional Objective Analysis of Oceanic Parameters.

The governing bodies of the project are:

Information center "Argo" (Toulouse);

· Scientific Committee "Argo" (meets once a year);

· Argo Data Committee (also meets annually).

To date, there have been 4 Scientific Committee meetings and two Data Committee meetings.

Argo consists of five regional centers (Pacific, indian ocean, northern part Atlantic Ocean, South Atlantic Ocean, Southern Ocean), which are separated mainly by an ocean basin. These regional centers are an important part of the Argo program as they help ensure the quality of Argo's data in a more targeted manner than DACs (Data Analysis Center software) or GDACs (Global Disaster Alert Coordination Network), but in a broader sense than individual PIs. They can also promote participation and cooperation between big amount countries working on the same ocean region.

The Argo Pacific Regional Center (PARC) was established as joint cooperation between Japan and the Marine Science and Technology Center (JAMSTEC), as well as the International Pacific Research Center (IPRC) at the University of Hawaii, and the Commonwealth of Science and Industrial Research (CSIRO). PARC undertakes to record all sailing data in the Pacific Ocean through rigorous research and obtain detailed information based on these voyages.

The figure below shows the location of all buoys that are deployed in the Pacific Ocean:

Rice. 3.5 Location of all buoys .

3.2 Satellite research

Modern studies of the Pacific Ocean are also carried out with the help of images from space satellites. This method allows you to quickly and efficiently collect information from a large area. In particular, it was in this way that the amplitude of the tsunami was obtained, which was caused by an earthquake with a magnitude of 9.0-9.1 on the Richter scale (Fig. 3.6.). This earthquake occurred on March 11, 2011 to the east of about. Honshu (Japan). With the help of the satellite, the time of passage of each wave of this tsunami was also calculated (Fig. 3.7.).

Rice. 3.6 Tsunami amplitude (cm) .

Rice. 3.7 Tsunami transit times

3.3 Other studies

Recently, the waters of the Pacific Ocean have been widely used in various areas: scientific, economic, military, transport (Fig. 3.8.). In particular, the map below shows this:

Rice. 3.8 Use of the waters of the Pacific Ocean for transport, economic and scientific purposes [comp. by the author on 3, 4, 24, 32, 36, 37, 38].

Conclusion

The first chapter examines the research activities of T. Heyerdahl and J.-I. Cousteau. The research activity of T. Heyerdahl consisted in practical research. They gave impetus to further study of the Polynesian problem. It is thanks to his books and films that Easter Island became widely known. T. Heyerdahl was the first to draw attention to the threatening scale of pollution of the World Ocean. J.-I. Cousteau was the inventor of scuba gear. He devoted his scientific activity to the study of underwater life at different latitudes of the World Ocean and the relationship of man with marine animals in their natural environment. The work of J.-I. Cousteau created a simple way to exchange scientific concepts, soon spread to other disciplines, and became one of the most important characteristics of modern television broadcasting. Also, the first chapter examines the research activities of the 1950s-1990s: it analyzes the geophysical, geological, biological and meteorological data accumulated during the expeditions of the R/V Vityaz and Dmitry Mendeleev, as well as around the world voyages.

The second chapter deals with the periodization of the surveys of the Pacific Ocean. There are 2 of them: before 1873 and after 1873. The first stage was characterized by the study of the distribution of water and land in this part of the globe, the establishment of the boundaries of the Pacific Ocean and its connection with other oceans, as well as the study of the physical properties of water and deep-sea research. The second period - the development of complex oceanological research, special expeditions and coastal stations, the organization of oceanological scientific institutions and international associations. This chapter also discusses regionalization schemes for the Pacific Ocean.

The third chapter presents the latest research aimed at discovering, studying and clarifying the conditions of the least studied areas of the Pacific Ocean (the discovery of new groups of islands in Oceania, the study of the biota of individual trenches). The purpose and objectives of the work were implemented in the form of structured chapters of the work, tables, illustrative and cartographic material.

All the tasks set in the work have been completely solved. The data on the latest studies of the Pacific Ocean are summarized.

Prospects for further consideration of this topic lie in the study of research trends, the latest technical means and measurement techniques. The most relevant in the 21st century is the study of the ocean from space (cosmography, space geography).

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Characteristics of the Pacific Ocean

It should be noted that the Pacific Ocean is part of the World Ocean and occupies a leading position in terms of area, as it makes up 49.5% of the entire water surface. As a result of the research, it was revealed that the maximum depth is 11.023 km. The deepest point is called "Challenger Abyss" (after the research vessel that first recorded the depth of the ocean).

Thousands of different islands are scattered across the Pacific Ocean. It is in the waters of the Great Ocean that the most big islands, including New Guinea and Kalimantan, as well as the Greater Sunda Islands.

History of development and study of the Pacific Ocean

People began to explore the Pacific Ocean in ancient times, as the most important transport routes passed through it. The tribes of the Incas and Aleuts, Malays and Polynesians, Japanese, as well as other peoples and nationalities actively used the natural resources of the ocean. The first Europeans who explored the ocean were Vasco Nunez and F. Magellan. Members of their expeditions made outlines of the coastlines of islands, peninsulas, recorded information about winds and currents, weather changes. Some information about the flora and fauna was also recorded, but very fragmentary. In the future, naturalists collected representatives of flora and fauna for collections, in order to study them later.

The pioneer conquistador Nunez de Balboa took up the study of the waters of the Pacific Ocean in 1513. He was able to discover a previously unseen place thanks to a trip through the Isthmus of Panama. Since the expedition went to the waters of the ocean in the bay, located in the south, Balboa gave the name to the ocean "South Sea". After him, Magellan went out into the open ocean. And because he passed all the tests in exactly three months and twenty days (in beautiful weather conditions), the traveler gave the name to the ocean "Pacific".

A little later, namely, in 1753, a geographer named Buache proposed calling the ocean the Great, but everyone has long been fond of the name "Pacific Ocean" and this proposal has not received universal recognition. Until the beginning of the nineteenth century, the ocean was called the "Pacific Sea", "Eastern Ocean", etc.

The expeditions of Kruzenshtern, O. Kotzebue, E. Lenz and other navigators mastered the ocean, collected various information, measured the temperature of the water and studied its properties, and conducted research under water. By the end of the nineteenth century and into the twentieth, the study of the ocean began to acquire a complex character. Special coast stations were organized and oceanological expeditions were carried out, the purpose of which was to collect information about various features of the ocean:

physical;
geological;
chemical;
biological.

Expedition Challenger

A comprehensive study of the waters of the Pacific Ocean began during the period of study by an English expedition (at the end of the eighteenth century) on the famous ship Challenger. During this period, scientists studied the bottom topography and features of the Pacific Ocean. This was extremely necessary in order to carry out the laying of an underwater telegraph cable. As a result of numerous expeditions, uplifts and depressions, unique underwater ridges, basins and trenches, bottom sediments and other features were revealed. The availability of data helped to compile all kinds of maps characterizing the bottom topography.

A little later, with the help of a seismograph, it was possible to identify the Pacific seismic ring.

The most important direction in the study of the ocean is the study of the system of trenches. The number of species of underwater flora and fauna is so huge that even its approximate number cannot be established. Despite the fact that the development of the ocean has been going on since time immemorial, people have accumulated a lot of information about this area, but there is still so much unknown under the water of the Pacific Ocean, so research continues to this day.