Lesson "Russian turmoil and the people's militia". Time of Troubles (Troubles)

Second Militia At the end of 1611 the Moscow state presented a spectacle of complete visible destruction. The Poles took Smolensk; a Polish detachment burned down Moscow and fortified itself behind the surviving walls of the Kremlin and China-city; the Swedes occupied Novgorod and put one of their

The first popular militia is the collective name for the liberation movement against Moscow in 1611 (during the Time of Troubles) against foreign invaders under the leadership of Zarutsky, Lyapunov and Trubetskoy.

The militia was preceded by the extremely difficult situation in Russia at the beginning of the 17th century. The two-year, Norwegian occupation of Novgorod, the Polish government in Moscow, internal devastation, gangs of robberies of thieves inside the country - all this could not remain unpunished for such a long time. At the same time, the power in the person of the boyar duma was losing its authority. The country was practically in a state of anarchy. In different regions of the country, the power of the Polish king, and False Dmitry II, and his son, and local leaders of robber groups was recognized. In such anarchic conditions, rapid and radical steps were needed.

The people's militia was not assembled in the capital. The elected authorities in the provinces were the first to not withstand the oppression. They wanted to break with the power of the "traitors" who had settled in the Kremlin. For this, the rulers exchanged letters with each other, in which they discussed steps to organize and create a general army to liberate Moscow, and then at the Zemsky Sobor, according to all laws, elect the tsar.

The success in organizing the militia is associated with the name, which from the very beginning of the events of 1611 began to send a letter to Russian cities, in which he called for an end to the plundering of the fatherland, abuse of churches and shrines, and the shedding of innocent Russian blood.

Ryazan was the first to respond to the letter, which responded very warmly to the letter of the patriarch and himself began to send the letter to the nearest cities with a request to join the struggle against. Prince Dmitry Trubetskoy did the same. Upon learning of the Ryazan uprising, the Pole called on the Little Russian Cossacks to ravage the cities around Ryazan. During the defense of Pronsk, Voivode Lyapunov was besieged, although he recaptured the city. The troops of Prince Pozharsky came to his aid, who managed to defeat the Cossacks who besieged Pronsk. Pozharsky himself went to Zaraysk, where the surviving Cossacks at night captured the Kremlin prison in Zaraysk, where the voivode Pozharsky was. But the prince managed to break them. The remainder of the Cossack army fled.

Meanwhile, residents of Galich, Kostroma, Vologda, a number of Siberian and Volga provinces responded to the letters. As a result, the First Militia was convened. The militia under the leadership of Lyapunov was significantly reinforced by the former adherents, "who over time ruined his enterprise. Among the militias were the Cossacks Prosovetsky and Zarutsky with their "Cossack freemen". the first zemstvo militia was led by prince Lyapunov.

The campaign to liberate Moscow

Throughout the winter of 1611, detachments of the First Militia were formed in different cities (Nizhny Novgorod, Vladimir, etc.). By March 1611, these regiments approached the capital and took the capital under siege.

The besieged seven thousandth Polish garrison was headed by Hetman Gonsevsky. The formed army consisted of 2 thousand German mercenaries. Seeing the regiments of compatriots arrived in time, Muscovites revolted against the invaders. In addition, the vanguard detachments of Kotlovsky, Pozharsky and Buturlin entered the city from the outer perimeter of the siege. Kotlovsky's detachment fought with the Poles on Zamoskvorechye, Pozharsky's detachment - on Sretenka, Buturlin's detachment - on the Yauzsky gate. Unfortunately, the internal uprising was thwarted by the Poles and their henchmen from among the Russian boyars.

Finding no other way out, the strangers started a fire. To do this, they appointed special companies, which were instructed to set fire to houses in different parts of the city. Seeing numerous fires in various parts of Moscow, the townspeople began to save their relatives and their property. The fire turned out to be uncontrollable and engulfed almost all of Moscow. Many churches were plundered in a general panic. Less than half of the Moscow settlement was preserved. But the goal was fulfilled: the insurgent townspeople forgot about their rebellion. During this uprising, according to modern historical data, about seven thousand residents of the capital were killed.

The first militia managed to reach Moscow and enter the capital only a few days after the fire. A combined army from different cities entered the burning city.

A counterattack of the First Militia, which was at the Lubyanka, was launched on March 20. In this attack, the Poles seriously wounded Prince Pozharsky. He was taken to the Trinity Monastery. But the invaders failed to seize Zamoskvorechye. They had to retreat to the Kremlin and Kitai-Gorod.

On March 24, an attempt was made to storm Moscow by the arriving Cossack detachment of Prosovetsky. However, he was counterattacked and was forced to retreat, suffering heavy losses (about 200 people). The Poles did not continue the attack of the Cossacks who had gone over to the defensive and remained in place and retreated to the capital.

The main 100-thousandth militia forces approached the capital only on March 27 and stopped at the Simonov Monastery. All militia forces were assembled on April 1. On April 6, militias attacked the defense towers of the White City, and on May 22 they stormed Kitay-Gorod. The militia recaptured the White City and laid siege to the Kremlin and Kitai-Gorod (which were not affected by the fire). The besieged Poles were able to repulse all attempts to storm these powerful fortifications.

The failure of the people's militia

Having risen near Moscow, the militia was engaged not in active assault actions, but in the restoration of central power. The militia included representatives of different classes. On the basis of the headquarters of the militia, a numerous Zemsky Sobor was convened, which included boyars, clerks, Tatar khans, princes, nobles, service people, officials, Cossacks and other classes.

The reasons for the defeat and disintegration remain controversial. The militia did not have the training and discipline. Therefore, soon in the camp, strife and enmity began between the Cossacks, who only sought to consolidate and increase their liberties, and the nobles, who sought to strengthen discipline and serfdom. Firewood was also thrown into the fire of discord by the Poles and adherents of the Seven Boyars, who sent to the Cossacks false letters, which mentioned the intention of the voivode Lyapunov to destroy the Cossacks as an estate. This played a role and led to the death of Lyapunov, whom the Cossacks accused of treason and executed in the Cossack circle. The nobles, without their commander, returned to their native estates and homes. The militia became decentralized and completely disintegrated. Only part of the Cossack army continued to camp under the capital and periodically storm the besieged foreigners.

Results of the First Militia

The date of the final disintegration of the 1st militia can be considered July 28, 1612, when an active participant in hostilities, Ataman Zarutsky with his 3-thousandth Cossack detachment departed from Moscow, yielding primacy to the vanguard. In September 1612, the remaining detachments of Dmitry Timofeevich Trubetskoy became part of. This is considered to be the end of the 1st militia.

The militia did not manage to free Moscow from the Poles. The situation in the state was catastrophic. The first militia led to nothing decisively. But nevertheless, it was the first attempt of Russian people from different estates and social groups to unite and self-organize. The nobles fought side by side with people of the military rank and the Cossacks. The militia was voluntary, and the military ranks were elective. As a result of the activities of the First Militia, traditions of self-organization of the people were laid to solve national political problems.

The government of seven boyars, who became Polish puppets, did not think about repulsing the enemy. The people rose up to fight for liberation. In Ryazan, under the leadership of the nobleman Lyapunov, the first militia was formed from the nobles, townspeople and Cossacks. In the spring of 1611. It approached Moscow and began a siege. However, in the summer, a struggle broke out between the noblemen of the militia and the Cossack peasant part, which ended with the murder of Lyapunov and the collapse of the first militia. The situation in the country also worsened due to the fact that Smolensk fell. Taking advantage of Russia's weakness, the Swedes occupied Novgorod. This news triggered a new wave of the liberation movement. Nizhny Novgorod became the center of the formation of the second militia. Its organizer and inspirer was the zemstvo head Kuzma Minin, and was headed by Dmitry Pozharsky. By the end of 1612. Moscow was liberated, and the invaders were defeated. The Time of Troubles was over with great territorial losses for Russia. Smolensk was occupied by the Poles, and Novgorod by the Swedes. According to the Stolovsky Peace Treaty of 1617. Sweden returned Novgorod, but retained Izhora with the banks of the Neva and the Gulf of Finland. Russia was deprived of access to the Baltic Sea. In 1618. The Deulinskoe truce was concluded, the Smolensk land passed to Poland. The economic devastation lasted for a long time. Nevertheless, the historical significance of the struggle against the interventionists lies in the fact that the Russian people defended the independence of Russia.

19. The beginning of the reign of the Romanovs. The end of the Troubles.

In the specific historical conditions of the beginning of the 17th century. the first priority was the question of restoring central authority, which meant the election of a new king. In Moscow, the Zemsky Sobor gathered, at which, in addition to the Boyar Duma, the higher clergy and the capital's nobility, numerous provincial nobility, townspeople, Cossacks and even black-haired (state) peasants were represented. 50 cities of Russia sent their representatives. The main issue was the election of a tsar. A sharp struggle broke out around the candidacy of the future tsar at the council. Some boyar groups offered to call a "prince" from Poland or Sweden, others nominated applicants from the old Russian princely families (Golitsyn, Mstislavsky, Trubetskoy, Romanov). The Cossacks even offered the son of False Dmitry II and Marina Mnishek ("vorenka"). After long disputes, the members of the cathedral agreed on the candidacy of 16-year-old Mikhail Romanov, the cousin of the last tsar from the Moscow Rurik dynasty - Fyodor Ivanovich, which gave grounds to associate him with the "legitimate" dynasty. The nobles saw in the Romanovs successive opponents of the "boyar tsar" Vasily Shuisky, the Cossacks - supporters of "Tsar Dmitry". The boyars, who hoped to retain power and influence under the young tsar, did not mind either. On February 21, 1613, the Zemsky Sobor announced the election of Mikhail Romanov as Tsar. An embassy was sent to the Kostroma Ipatiev Monastery, where Mikhail and his mother "nun Martha" were hiding at that time, with a proposal to take the Russian throne. This is how the Romanov dynasty established itself in Russia, who ruled the country for more than 300 years. One of the heroic episodes of Russian history dates back to this time. The Polish detachment tried to capture the newly elected tsar, looking for him in the Romanovs' estates in Kostroma. But the headman of the village of Domnina, Ivan Susanin, not only warned the tsar about the danger, but also led the Poles into impenetrable forests. The hero died from Polish sabers, but he also killed the nobles who got lost in the forests. In the first years of Mikhail Romanov's reign, the country was actually ruled by the boyars Saltykovs, relatives of the “nun Martha,” and since 1619, after the return of the tsar's father, Patriarch Filaret Romanov, from captivity, the patriarch and “great sovereign” Filaret. Troubles shattered the tsarist power, which inevitably increased the significance of the Boyar Duma. Mikhail could not do anything without boyar advice. The local system, which regulated relations within the ruling boyars, existed in Russia for more than a century and was distinguished by its exceptional strength. The highest posts in the state were held by persons whose ancestors were distinguished by nobility, were related to the Kalita dynasty and achieved the greatest success in the service. The transfer of the throne to the Romanovs destroyed the old system. Kinship with the new dynasty began to acquire paramount importance. But the new system of parochialism did not take root immediately. In the first decades of turmoil, Tsar Mikhail had to put up with the fact that the first places in the Duma were still occupied by the highest titled nobility and the old boyars, who had once tried the Romanovs and handed them over to Boris Godunov for reprisal. During the Time of Troubles, Filaret called them his worst enemies. To enlist the support of the nobility, Tsar Michael, having no treasury and land, generously distributed the Duma ranks. Under him, the Boyar Duma became more numerous and influential than ever. After Filaret's return from captivity, the composition of the Duma was sharply reduced. The restoration of the economy and state order began. In 1617, in the village of Stolbovo (near Tikhvin), an "eternal peace" was signed with Sweden. The Swedes returned Novgorod and other northwestern cities to Russia, but the Swedes retained the Izhora land and Korela. Russia lost access to the Baltic Sea, but it managed to get out of the state of war with Sweden. In 1618, the Daulin truce was concluded with Poland for fourteen and a half years. Russia lost Smolensk and about three dozen more Smolensk, Chernigov and Seversk cities. The contradictions with Poland were not resolved, but only postponed: both sides were not able to continue the war further. The terms of the armistice were very difficult for the country, but Poland refused to claim the throne. The Time of Troubles in Russia is over. Russia managed to defend its independence, but at a very heavy cost. The country was ruined, the treasury was empty, trade and crafts were upset. It took several decades to restore the economy. The loss of important territories predetermined further wars for their liberation, which laid a heavy burden on the entire country. The Time of Troubles further strengthened the backwardness of Russia. Russia emerged from the Troubles extremely exhausted, with huge territorial and human losses. According to some reports, up to a third of the population died. Overcoming the economic ruin will be possible only by strengthening serfdom. The country's international position has deteriorated sharply. Russia found itself in political isolation, its military potential weakened, for a long time its southern borders remained practically defenseless. Anti-Western sentiments have intensified in the country, which has aggravated its cultural and, as a result, civilizational isolation. The people managed to defend their independence, but as a result of their victory autocracy and serfdom revived in Russia. However, most likely, there was no other way to save and preserve Russian civilization in those extreme conditions.

20. Major events during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich (salt revolt, copper revolt, dispute between the tsar and the patriarch, urban uprisings, the revolt of Stepan Razin).

1646 - Salt revolt in Moscow, the population of the city attacked the royal retinue. Muscovites wanted to be given two clerks and boyar Morozov, who was the tsarist educator. He managed to hide from the angry people, and Muscovites lynched the orders Trakhaniotov and Pleshcheyev. This affected the government, and the salt tax was abolished, at the same time increasing the collection of direct taxes. Soon the situation began to escalate again, the state demanded more money from the population. They began to take tax not on land, but on households, tax on income was taken several times, copper coins were issued, which cost like silver.

1648 - Publication of a decree on the indefinite search for fugitive peasants. Return of Smolensk, Chernigov and a number of other cities to Russia.

1649 - Compilation of the "Code" (a set of Russian laws).

1654 - Pereyaslavskaya Rada. Reunification of the Left-Bank Ukraine with Russia.

1654-1667 - War with the Commonwealth for the annexation of the Left-Bank Ukraine, which ended with the Andrusiv armistice (January 30, 1667).

1656-1658 - War with Sweden, ending with Valiesar truce (December 20, 1658) for three years.

1658 - The beginning of the construction of new cities in Siberia (Nerchinsk, Irkutsk, Selenginsk).

1662 - Copper riot in Moscow. By then, prices had risen sharply again, and many refused to believe copper coins and only demanded silver coins. The revolt was suppressed, but the minting of coins was stopped.

1662-1666 - Establishment of regular infantry with the involvement of more than a hundred foreign colonels. 1668-1676 - Solovetsky uprising.

1670-1671 - Mutiny led by Stenka Razin, which ended with his execution. The actions of Razin and his followers arouse sympathy among the people and a desire to support them, and over time they attract them as thousands of ordinary people, peasants and townspeople go over to Razin's side and help the movement achieve its goal. Stepan Razin creates "lovely letters" - appeals, which are entailed by a simple people, burdened with constant, unfair taxes. Construction of the first Russian ships in the village of Dedilovo on the Oka River.

21. Culture of Russia in the ΧVΙΙ century.

XV11 century. A kind of period in the history of Russian culture. It completes the development of culture over the previous centuries. Such a transitional culture in the XV11th century, in turn, led to very interesting tendencies in it. Many genres continue to exist, but new content is ripening inside them, exploding them from the inside. There are processes of secularization, secularization of culture, its humanization. The interest in the person and his life is growing. All this breaks out of the narrow framework of the medieval canon, sometimes creating crisis phenomena, and sometimes leading to an unprecedented take-off of the spirit, and now it is amazing our imagination. This century turned out to be a turning point for the development of Russian music. Church music is becoming more festive. “Kants” appeared - musical works that were performed outside the church. In Russian architecture of the XV11th century. Also takes a special place. The striving to abandon the age-old canons, to "secularize" art was manifested with tremendous force. Wooden architecture played an important role in the development of architecture as a whole. Even at the end of the XV1 century. An order for stone affairs arose, concentrating the best forces in this area. The techniques of stone architecture have improved, the volumes of buildings are significantly complicated. Various side-altars and annexes adjoin the main massif, covered porch-galleries are spreading, etc. Craftsmen began to widely use colored tiles, complex brick belts and other decorative details, due to which the facades of buildings acquire an unusually elegant, colorful appearance. The first collections of proverbs appear, many of which have survived to our time. Legends, songs and legends are widespread. One of their favorite heroes is Stepan Razin, who is endowed with heroic features and finds himself in the same circle with the epic heroes. Handwritten books are becoming more widespread, especially collections containing various materials. The growth of written clerical work led to the final victory of cursive writing and new attempts to organize the production of paper in Russia. Along with handwritten books, printed books were increasingly distributed. The printing house was actively working, which also published educational literature (for example, "Grammar" by Meletiy Smotritsky). Chronicles remained one of the main monuments of social and political thought and literature. At this time, the patriarchal vaults, Belsky, Mazurinsky chroniclers, vaults of 1652, 1686 were created. and many other monuments of chronicle writing. Along with the general Russian, provincial, local, family and even family chronicle writings appear. The focus of attention of the writers of that time increasingly turned out to be questions of economic life and political problems.

22. The beginning of the reign of Peter Ι. Power Struggle.

From 1682 to 1696 The Russian throne was occupied by the sons of Tsar Alexei from different marriages - Peter (1672-1725) and Ivan (1666-1696). Since they were young, their sister, Princess Sophia (1657-1704), who ruled from 1682 to 1689, was the ruler. During this period, the role of Prince V. Golitsyn (1643-1714), the favorite of the princess, increased.

In 1689, Peter I came of age, got married and showed a desire to fight the old outdated boyar traditions. Sophia made an attempt, with the help of the archers, dissatisfied with the creation of regiments of a new system, the loss of many of her privileges, to deprive Peter of power. However, she failed. Peter was supported by the Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky regiments, many boyars and nobles, the Moscow patriarch and even some rifle regiments. Peter retained the throne, punished the rebellious archers, disbanded the streltsy army, Sophia was tonsured into a monastery.

In 1696 Ivan V died, Peter became the sovereign ruler. Peter's first task was to continue the struggle for the Crimea. He directed his actions towards the capture of Azov - a Turkish fortress at the mouth of the Don. But due to poorly prepared siege equipment and a lack of ships, the Russian troops failed. Then Peter started building a fleet on the river. Voronezh. Having built in one year 30 large ships, doubling the land army, Peter in 1696 blocked Azov from the sea and took possession of it. To anchor on the Sea of ​​Azov, he built the Taganrog fortress. In 1697, he went with the "Grand Embassy" to Europe, combining diplomatic missions with diverse cognitive tasks in shipbuilding, military affairs, and craft.

23. Northern War. Major battles.

1. Having enlisted the support of a number of European powers, Peter I in 1700 declared war on Sweden, the Great Northern War began (1700–1721).

2. At the first stage of the war, Russian troops were defeated during the siege of Narva. The first setbacks, however, did not break Peter, he energetically set about creating a regular army.

3. The Russians won their first significant victory near Dorpat at the end of 1701. Following were new victories - the capture of the Noteburg fortress (Oreshek), which was renamed Shlisselburg.

4. In 1703 Peter I founded a new city - St. Petersburg - to protect the Neva from the Swedes. Here he later moved the capital of Russia. In 1704, Russian troops managed to capture Narva, the fortress Ivan-Gorod.

5. The most significant battle of the Northern War was the battle of Poltava, victorious for the Russian army (June 27, 1709), which changed the entire course of the war and increased the prestige of Russia.

6. The war after the Battle of Poltava continued for another 12 years. It ended in 1721 with the Peace of Nishtad.

Year and place of battle

Result

1703 Spring-Fall of Nyenskans

1704 - Capture of the cities of Yam, Koporye, Dorpat, Narva

1710-Taking of Riga, Reval, Vyborg, Kexholm

1714-Capture of the Aland Islands, landing on the coast of Sweden

24. The main reforms of Peter Ι.

The goals of the reforms of Peter I (1682-1725) are the maximum strengthening of the tsar's power, the growth of the country's military power, the territorial expansion of the state and access to the sea. The most prominent associates of Peter I are A. D. Menshikov, G. I. Golovkin, F. M. Apraksin, P. I. Yaguzhinsky.

Military reform. A regular army has been created with the help of recruiting, new regulations have been introduced, a fleet has been built, equipment in the western manner.

Public administration reform. The Boyar Duma was replaced by the Senate (1711), orders - by collegia. The "Table of Ranks" has been introduced. The decree on succession to the throne allows the king to appoint anyone as heir. The capital was moved to St. Petersburg in 1712. In 1721 Peter assumed the imperial title.

Church reform. The patriarchate was liquidated, the church began to be governed by the Holy Synod. The priests were transferred to the state salary. # 15

Changes in the economy. The capitation tax has been introduced. Up to 180 manufactories have been created. State monopolies have been introduced for various goods. Canals and roads are being built.

Social reforms. The decree on single inheritance (1714) equated estates with estates and forbade them to be split up during inheritance. Passports are being introduced for peasants. Serfs and slaves are actually equated.

Reforms in the field of culture. Navigation, Engineering, Medical and other schools, the first public theater, the first newspaper "Vedomosti", a museum (Kunstkamera), and the Academy of Sciences were created. The nobles are sent to study abroad. Introduced western dress for nobles, shaving beards, smoking, assemblies.

Results. Absolutism is finally formed. The military power of Russia is growing. The antagonism between the top and bottom is sharpening. Serfdom is beginning to take on slavish forms. The upper class merged into one noble estate.

In 1698, the archers, dissatisfied with the deteriorating conditions of service, revolted, in 1705-1706. there was an uprising in Astrakhan, on the Don and in the Volga region in 1707-1709. - the uprising of K. A. Bulavin, in 1705-1711. -in Bashkiria.

25. The era of palace coups in the ΧVΙΙΙ century.

January 28, 1725 Peter 1 died. The question arose about the heir. According to the decree on succession to the throne (1722), the emperor himself must appoint an heir for himself. However, he did not have time to do this. The contenders for the throne were Peter's widow - Ekaterina Alekseevna and his grandson Peter Alekseevich. Menshikov, with the help of the guards regiments, elevated Ekaterina Alekseevna to the throne. Since she did not show state abilities, Menshikov actually became the ruler of the country. To better govern the state, the Supreme Privy Council was created - the highest state body that limited the power of the Senate. It included A. D. Menshikov, F. M. Apraksin, G. I. Golovkin, P. A. Tolstoy, A. I. Osterman, D. M. Golitsyn and the Duke of Holstein Karl Friedrich - husband of Peter I's eldest daughter Anna ... The majority of the Supreme Privy Council were the closest advisers of Peter I, only Prince D. M. Golitsyn belonged to the old nobility. An attempt by P.A.Tolstoy to oppose A.D. Menshikov led to his exile and death in Solovki, opening the era of palace coups. A palace coup is a change of power carried out by a narrow circle of members of court groups and the hands of guards regiments. In May 1727. Died Catherine 1. Shortly before her death, she chose as her successor 12-year-old Tsarevich Peter, the son of the murdered Tsarevich Alexei. After the death of Catherine, as well as during her lifetime, Menshikov actually ruled the country, by decree of the emperor he appointed himself generalissimo. Menshikov hoped to give his daughter Maria in marriage to Peter 11. But during Menshikov's illness, the Dolgorukov princes and Vice-Chancellor Osterman restored Peter against his Serene Highness. Menshikov was arrested, deposed by the decision of the Upper Privy Council and, together with his family, was exiled to the Siberian city of Berezov, where he died two years later. The Supreme Privy Council under Peter II underwent significant changes. Four princes Dolgoruky and two Golitsyns, as well as the master of intrigue A.I. The Dolgoruky came to the fore. Sixteen-year-old Ivan Dolgoruky was the tsar's closest friend in hunting with dogs and his other entertainments. Ivan's sister, Catherine, became the sovereign's bride. The nobles who came to Moscow for the coronation and wedding, as well as the courtyard who moved to the old capital, witnessed the illness and death of Peter II at the age of fifteen. Peter's death fell on the day of the announced wedding. The Romanov dynasty was cut short in the male line. The question of the new emperor was to be decided by the Supreme Privy Council.

In the Privy Council, disputes immediately began about the candidacy of the ruler of Russia. It was decided to invite Peter 1's niece (daughter of his brother Ivan), Anna Ivanovna (1730-1740). The Secret Chancellery headed by A.I. a business"). 10 thousand people passed through the Secret Chancellery.

The absolutist state went to meet the demands of the nobles to expand their rights and privileges. So, under Anna Ioannovna, the distribution of land to the nobles resumed. In 1731, the single inheritance introduced by the Peter's decree of 1714 was abolished, the estates were recognized as the full property of the nobility. Two new guards regiments were created - Izmailovsky and Konnogvardeisky, where a significant part of the officers were foreigners. Since the 30s of the XVIII century. ignorant noblemen were allowed to be enrolled in the guards regiments, taught at home and, after the exam, promoted to officer. In 1732, the Land Gentry Cadet Corps was opened to train noblemen. This was followed by the opening of the Naval, Artillery and Pages corps. From 1736 the term of service for the nobles was limited to 25 years. Anna Ivanovna fell ill and died in October. But, dying, she took care of the heir: the two-month-old son of Anna Leopoldovna's niece, Ivan IV Antonovich, was appointed to him, and Biron became regent under him. Biron ruled for only 22 days. He was overthrown by Minich, and Anna Leopoldovna became regent. In November 1741. Guards-conspirators, outraged by the dominance of the Germans, enthroned the daughter of Peter I, Ekaterina Petrovna (1741-1761). Elizabeth Petrovna proclaimed the goal of her reign to return to the order of her father, Peter the Great. The Senate, the Berg and Manufacturing Collegiums, and the Chief Magistrate were reinstated. Under Elizabeth, a university was opened in Moscow (1755, January 25) - the first in Russia. The conference at the highest court took the place of the abolished Cabinet of Ministers. The activities of the Secret Chancellery became invisible. To support the nobility, the Noble Land Bank was established. After the death of Elizabeth Petrovna in 1761, 33-year-old Peter III (1761-1762) became the emperor of Russia. The absurd, unbalanced Peter III did not like Russians, but he idolized Frederick II. An admirer of the Prussian drill, Peter III said that he prefers to be a colonel in the Prussian army, rather than an emperor in Russia. This "adult child" did not develop as a mature person, he spent most of his time in revelry, adored watch parades. His favorite pastime was playing soldiers.

The six-month reign of Peter III is striking in the abundance of adopted state acts. During this time, 192 decrees were issued. The most important of these was the Manifesto on the granting of freedom and liberty to the Russian nobility of February 18, 1762. The Manifesto exempted noblemen from compulsory state and military service. A nobleman could leave the service at any time, except for the war. It was allowed to travel abroad and even enter foreign service, to give children home schooling. On June 28, 1762, guards officers led by the Orlov brothers and Peter III's wife Catherine made a palace coup. The Izmailovsky and Semenovsky guards regiments enthusiastically supported the new ruler, who was proclaimed the autocratic empress in the Kazan Cathedral of St. Petersburg. The Manifesto on the accession of Catherine II to the throne was read in the Winter Palace. The Senate and the Synod swore allegiance to her. The next day, Peter III signed the abdication of the throne. A few days later he died (apparently, he was killed by Alexei Orlov and the guards.

26. "Enlightened absolutism" by Catherine II.

It is known that the time of Catherine's reign coincided with the era of the Enlightenment. One way or another, the ideology of the enlighteners - Voltaire, Diderot, Montesquieu and others influenced the policy of European monarchs. Catherine did not escape such influence. Possessing a lively mind and developed thinking, she was familiar with the works of the enlighteners and their views on state structure and administration. Already as a Russian empress, she corresponded with Voltaire and Diderot, discussing with them the problems of organizing power and the role of a monk in governing society. We must not forget that the empress had to implement her views, gleaned from the enlighteners, in a huge autocratic state, based on the political and economic domination of the nobility, who could not tolerate infringement of their interests. Finding a resultant between the goals of power and the privileged class was not easy. Nevertheless, the events of the first years of Catherine's reign are traditionally associated with the pursuit of a policy of enlightened absolutism. In addition to the distribution of state lands and peasants, which were already familiar to the aristocracy, as awards to participants in the palace coup, Catherine carried out a number of transformations that contributed to the strengthening of her power. So, she abolished the special, Hetman rule in Ukraine, reformed the Senate, in which she saw a danger for her autocratic

authorities. In order to avoid the possibility of interference in the competence of the supreme power and to streamline its work, Catherine divided the Senate into 6 departments, thereby making it a purely administrative body, deprived of legislative rights. 4 Petersburg and 2 Moscow departments of the Senate became independent institutions with their own range of affairs and their own chancellery, which destroyed the unity of the Senate and weakened it. Contrary to the personal desire of the Empress to abandon all the legislative acts adopted by Peter 111, she had to confirm some of them, and above all: the Decree on the abolition of the Secret Investigative Affairs of the Chancellery; decree on the transfer to the state. administration of monastic and church lands (secularization); the prohibition to buy peasants for manufactories. But the most remarkable event of the beginning of the Catherine's era, of course, was the work of the Legislative Commission. Even in her youth, having studied the views of European philosophers, and again returning to this occupation as an empress, Catherine came to the conclusion that order and stability in the state, the prosperity of her subjects can be ensured by ensuring compliance with the laws. Therefore, she saw her immediate task in creating a new, more perfect system of legislation to replace the archaic Cathedral Code of 1649. Another interesting undertaking of Catherine 11 was the creation in 1765. Free economic society, which was supposed to promote rational methods of economic management. For this, various works on agronomy, selection, animal husbandry, etc. began to be published.

27. Diplomacy and wars of the Catherine period.

The reign of Catherine 11 occupies a special place in the history of Russian diplomacy. For the first time since the era of Peter I, the outstanding victories of the Russian army were supported by the equally brilliant successes of diplomats. Turkey, incited by France and England, in the fall of 1768 declared war on Russia. Military operations began in 1769 and were fought on the territory of Moldavia and Wallachia, as well as on the Azov coast, where, after the capture of Azov and Taganrog, Russia began building a fleet. In 1770, the Russian army under the command of a talented commander P.A.Rumyantsev won brilliant victories at the Larga and Cagul rivers (tributaries of the Prut river) and reached the Danube. In the same year, the Russian fleet under the command of A.G. Orlov and admirals G.A. Spiridov and I.S. Greig, leaving Petersburg, entered the Mediterranean Sea through Gibraltar and completely destroyed the Turkish squadron in the Chesme Bay off the coast of Asia Minor. The Turkish fleet was blocked in the Black Sea.

In 1771, Russian troops under the command of Prince V. M. Dolgorukov captured Crimea, which meant the end of the war. However, Turkey, relying on the support of France and Austria and using the internal difficulties of Russia, where the Peasant War was going on, thwarted the negotiations. Then in 1774 the Russian army crossed the Danube. The troops under the command of A. V. Suvorov defeated the army of the grand vizier near the village of Kozludzha, opening the way to Istanbul for the main forces led by P. A. Rumyantsev. Turkey was forced to ask for peace. The Kucuk-Kaynardzhi peace of 1774. Defining the program of Russian foreign policy in the Black Sea-Balkan direction for decades, the effective mediating role of Russia during the Teshen Congress in 1779, the proclamation in 1780. The principle of armed maritime neutrality, which has become a serious contribution of Russia and the strengthening of the legal basis of international relations, the annexation of the Crimea and the Northern Black Sea region, the signing of the Geogiev treaty with Eastern Georgia in 1783, the inclusion of Lithuania into the Russian state, the reunification of Belarus and Right-Bank Ukraine with it. This is not a complete list of the accomplishments of Catherine's era. The orientation not of state interest was organically combined in the foreign policy of Catherine 11 with the diplomatic practice of the era of late absolutism with her desire to "round off borders" and weaken her neighbors. “Rounding the borders”, carrying out a multi-vector territorial expansion, Catherine built an empire, guided by the political and moral concepts of her time. From the very beginning of her reign, Catherine firmly took into her own hands the leadership of foreign policy and did not release him until the end of her days. As the main feature of Catherine's foreign policy, the correspondence of the foreign policy pursued by the empress to the long-term state interests of Russia should be emphasized. Pragmatism, flexibility, ability to take advantage of circumstances.

28. The Pugachev revolt of 1773-1775

In 1773. In the Yaik Cossack army, Emelyan Pugachev proclaimed himself Peter 111 Fedorovich. Pugachev was a Don Cossack. He called for the overthrow of the noble Empress Catherine 11, who deceived him, took over from the throne. E. Pugachev found support on Yaik. The performance began on September 17, 1773. He approached Orenburg and laid siege to it. The number of the rebels reached 30 thousand. human. March 22, 1773 There was a battle

with the tsarist troops, the Pugachevites were defeated. Pugachev issued a manifesto in which he called for the destruction of the nobles and tsarist officials and the freeing of the peasants from serfdom. To replenish his army, he rushed to the south, where he was joined by the Don and Yaik Cossacks, barge haulers. With them, he approached Tsaritsyn, but he could not take possession of the city. It was soon defeated by the government army. September 12, 1774 He was captured and turned over to the Russians. January 10, 1775 Pugachev and his closest associates were executed.

29. The uprising of the highlanders of the North Caucasus under the leadership of Sheikh Mansur (Ushurma).

On March 8, 1785, the Chechen religious and political figure Sheikh Mansur (Ushurma) spoke in the village of Aldy with a sermon on ghazavat (holy war) against the Russian army in the Caucasus. In June 1785, Sheikh Mansur's army defeated the Russian punitive detachment of Colonel Pieri, and in July-August laid siege to the Kizlyar fortress. By the fall, the uprising spread to the territory of Kabarda and Dagestan. In November 1785, Mansur was defeated in Kabarda, and in January 1787 Colonel Retinder's detachment suppressed the uprising in Chechnya. In the summer, Sheikh Mansur, who left for the Kuban, led the uprising of the Trans-Kuban Circassians and Nogais, which was suppressed in October of the same year, and in 1788-1789 led the unrest among the Trans-Volga Kyrgyz-Kaisaks. In June 1791, Mansur actually headed the defense of the Turkish fortress of Anapa. After the capture of Anapa by Russian troops on June 21, 1791, Sheikh Mansur was captured and imprisoned in the Shlisselburg fortress (he died on April 13, 1794 in prison). Despite the suppression of the uprising of Sheikh Mansur, the Russian administration of the Caucasus actually failed to create its own governing bodies on the territory of Chechnya.

30. The reign of Paul Ι. His domestic and foreign policy.

Domestic policy.

Paul began his reign by changing all the orders of Catherine's reign. During his coronation, Paul issued a series of decrees. In particular, Paul established a clear system of succession to the throne. From that moment on, the throne could only be inherited through the male line; after the death of the emperor, he passed to the eldest son or the next oldest brother, if there were no children. A woman could only take the throne when the male line was cut off. By this decree, Paul excluded palace coups, when emperors were overthrown and erected by the force of the guards, the reason for which was the lack of a clear system of succession to the throne (which, however, did not prevent the palace coup on March 12, 1801, during which he himself was killed). Also, in accordance with this decree, a woman could not occupy the Russian throne, which excluded the possibility of the appearance of temporary workers (who accompanied the empresses in the 18th century) or a repetition of a situation similar to the one when Catherine II did not transfer the throne to Paul after he came of age. Paul restored the collegium system, and attempts were made to stabilize the country's financial situation (including the famous action to melt down the palace coin sets). The manifesto on the three-day corvee banned the landowners from sending corvee on Sundays, holidays and more than three days a week (the decree was almost never executed in the localities). He significantly narrowed the rights of the nobility in comparison with those that were granted by Catherine II, and the orders established in Gatchina were transferred to the entire Russian army. Fearing the spread of the ideas of the French Revolution in Russia, Paul I banned the departure of young people abroad to study, the import of books, including sheet music, was completely prohibited, and private printing houses were closed. The regulation of life reached the point that the time was set when it was supposed to extinguish the lights in the houses. By special decrees, some words of the Russian language were withdrawn from official use and replaced by others. Thus, among the seized were the words “citizen” and “fatherland” with a political connotation (replaced by “man in the street” and “state”, respectively), but a number of Paul's linguistic decrees were not so transparent - for example, the word “detachment” was changed to “detachement” or “command”, “execute” to “execute”, and “doctor” to “doctor”.

Foreign policy.

Paul's foreign policy was notable for inconsistency. In 1798, Russia entered the anti-French coalition with Great Britain, Austria, Turkey, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. At the insistence of the allies, the disgraced A.V.Suvorov was appointed commander-in-chief of the Russian troops. The Austrian troops were also transferred to his jurisdiction. Under the leadership of Suvorov, Northern Italy was liberated from French rule. In September 1799, the Russian army made the famous passage of Suvorov across the Alps. However, in October of the same year, Russia broke off the alliance with Austria due to the failure of the Austrians to fulfill allied obligations, and Russian troops were withdrawn from Europe.

31. Culture of Russia in the ΧVΙΙΙ century.

In the 18th century, the pace of cultural development accelerated, which is associated with economic success. The secular trend in art has become the leading one, replacing the traditionalist culture permeated with a religious worldview of the previous centuries. The nature of education is changing, it also becomes mainly secular. In 1701, the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences was founded in Moscow. From the senior classes of this school, transferred to St. Petersburg, later, in 1715, the Maritime Academy was created. Then the Artillery, Engineering, Medical Schools, the School of Clerical Officers, and Mining Schools were opened. In 1708, a civil printing script, Arabic numerals, was introduced, making it easier to train. But education as a whole remained class-based, since it did not become universal, compulsory and the same for all categories of the population. An outstanding event was the creation in 1755 of Moscow University on the initiative and project of MV Lomonosov and the opening of the Academy of Arts in 1757. Geographic knowledge of the country expanded. The interior regions of Siberia, the coast of the Caspian and Aral seas, the Arctic Ocean, and Central Asia were surveyed. In the middle of the century, the geographer I.K. Kirillov published the first "Russian Atlas" .VN. Tatishchev and M.V.

Lomonosov laid the foundation for Russian historical science. Outstanding scientists of that time worked in Russia: mathematician L. Euler, founder of hydrodynamics D. Bernoulli, naturalist K. Wolf, historian A. Schletzer. Later, a cohort of Russian scientists appeared - astronomer S.Ya. Rumovsky, mathematician M.E. Golovin, geographers and ethnographers S.P. Krasheninnikov and I.I. Lepekhin, physicist G.V. Richman. Russian literature has been enriched by the writers, poets and publicists A.D. Kantemir, V.K. Trediakovsky, M.V. Lomonosov, A.P. Sumarokov, N.I. Novikov, later A.N. Radishchev, D.I. Fonvizin, G.R. Derzhavin, I.A. Krylov, N.M. Karamzin and others.

32. Alexander Ι. Domestic and foreign policy.

Alexander I canceled all the innovations of Paul I: he restored the "letters of gratitude" to the nobility and cities, freed the nobles and clergy from corporal punishment, announced an amnesty to all those who fled abroad, returned from exile up to 12 thousand disgraced and repressed, abolished the Secret Expedition, which was engaged in the search and reprisal.

After 1801, it was forbidden to print advertisements for the sale of serfs without land, but it was allowed to carry out such a sale. In 1803, a decree was issued on free farmers, which allowed the peasants to redeem themselves free by agreement with the landowners. The censorship charter of 1804 was the most liberal in the 19th century. in Russia. In 1803 - 1804, a reform of public education was carried out: representatives of all classes could study, the continuity of educational programs was introduced and new high fur boots and privileged lyceums were opened - Demidovsky (in Yaroslavl) and Tsarskoselsky. The bodies of the state were transformed. management. Through the efforts of M.M. Speransky, the old Petrine colleges were replaced by ministries. In 1811, the law strictly delimited the rights and obligations of the Senate, the Committee of Ministers and the State. advice. The new order of state. management existed with minor changes until 1917. In 1805 - 1807 Alexander I took part in coalitions against Napoleon, was defeated at Austerlitz (1805) and was forced to conclude the Tilsit Peace Treaty (1807), which was extremely unpopular in Russia. But the successful wars with Turkey (1806-12) and Sweden (1808-09) strengthened Russia's international position. Vost. Georgia (1801), Finland (1809), Bessarabia (1812) and Azerbaijan (1813), Duchy of Warsaw (1815). From 1810, the rearmament of the Rus. army, the construction of fortresses, but with an archaic system of recruitment and serfdom, it was not possible to complete this. Having granted a liberal constitution to the Kingdom of Poland, he promised in 1818 that this order would be extended to other lands "when they reach the proper maturity." In 1816 - 1819 a peasant reform was carried out in the Baltic. Secret projects were prepared for the abolition of serfdom in Russia, but, faced with tough opposition from the nobles, Alexander I retreated. Military settlements were established in 1816, and the role of Alexander I in their creation was no less significant than A.A. Arakcheeva. From 1814 the tsar became interested in mysticism, bringing Archimandrite Photius closer to him.

In 1822, Alexander I issued a rescript banning Chinese societies and Masonic lodges, and in 1821 - 1823 introduced an extensive network of secret police in the guard and army. In 1825, he received reliable information about a conspiracy against him in the army, left for the south, wanting to visit military settlements, but caught a bad cold on the way from Balaklava to the St. George Monastery. The unexpected death of Alexander I, a healthy and not yet old man, gave rise to numerous legends.

33. Patriotic War of 1812. Foreign campaigns of the Russian army (1812-1815)

Causes and nature of the war. The outbreak of the Patriotic War of 1812 was caused by Napoleon's desire for world domination. In Europe, only Russia and England retained their independence. Despite the Treaty of Tilsit, Russia continued to oppose the expansion of Napoleonic aggression. Napoleon's particular irritation was caused by her systematic violation of the continental blockade. Since 1810, both sides, realizing the inevitability of a new clash, prepared for war. Napoleon flooded the Duchy of Warsaw with his troops and created military warehouses there. The threat of invasion looms over the borders of Russia. In turn, the Russian government increased the number of troops in the western provinces.

Napoleon became the aggressor. He launched hostilities and invaded Russian territory. In this regard, for the Russian people, the war became a liberation and a Patriotic one, since not only the regular army, but also the broad masses of the people took part in it.

The balance of forces. Preparing for the war against Russia, Napoleon gathered a significant army - up to 678 thousand soldiers. They were led by a galaxy of brilliant marshals and generals - L. Davout, L. Berthier, M. Ney, I. Murat, and others. They were commanded by the most famous commander of that time - Napoleon Bonaparte.

The active preparations for the war, which Russia has been waging since 1810, have yielded results. She managed to create modern armed forces for that time, powerful artillery, which, as it turned out during the war, was superior to the French. The troops were led by talented military leaders - M.I.Kutuzov, M. B. Barclay de Tolly, P. I. Bagration, A. P. Ermolov, N. N. Raevsky, M. A. Miloradovich and others.

However, at the initial stage of the war, the French army outnumbered the Russian. The first echelon of troops entering Russia numbered 450 thousand people, while there were about 210 thousand Russians on the western border, divided into three armies. 1st - under the command of MB Barclay de Tolly - covered the St. Petersburg direction, 2nd - led by P.I.Bagration - defended the center of Russia, 3rd - General A.P. Tormasov - was located in the southern direction .Plans of the parties. Napoleon planned to seize a significant part of Russian territory up to Moscow and sign a new treaty with Alexander to subjugate Russia. Napoleon's strategic design was based on his military experience gained during the wars in Europe. He intended to prevent the dispersed Russian forces from connecting and decide the outcome of the war in one or more border battles. The balance of forces forced the Russian command to choose an active defense strategy at first. As shown by the move

war, it was the most correct decision.

The stages of the war. The history of the Patriotic War of 1812 is divided into two stages. First: from June 12 to mid-October - the retreat of the Russian army with rearguard battles in order to lure the enemy into the depths of Russian territory and disrupt his strategic plan. Second: from mid-October to December 25 - a counter-offensive by the Russian army with the aim of completely driving the enemy out of Russia.

The beginning of the war. On the morning of June 12, 1812, French troops crossed the Niemen and invaded Russia with a forced march.

The 1st and 2nd Russian armies were retreating, evading a general engagement. They fought stubborn rearguard battles with individual units of the French, exhausting and weakening the enemy, inflicting significant losses on him.

The two main tasks faced by the Russian troops were to eliminate disunity (not to allow themselves to be smashed one by one) and to establish one-man command in the army. The first task was completed on July 22, when the 1st and 2nd armies united near Smolensk. Thus, the original plan of Napoleon was thwarted. On August 8, Alexander appointed M.I.Kutuzov Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Army. This meant solving the second problem. MI Kutuzov took command of the combined Russian forces on 17 August. He did not change the tactics of the retreat. However, the army and the whole country expected a decisive battle from him. Therefore, he gave the order to look for a position for a general battle. She was found near the village of Borodino, 124 km from Moscow.

Battle of Borodino. MI Kutuzov chose defensive tactics and deployed his troops in accordance with this. The left flank was defended by the army of P.I.Bagration, covered with artificial earth fortifications - flushes. An earthen mound was poured in the center, where the artillery and troops of General N.N.Raevsky were stationed. Army MB Barclay de Tolly was on the right flank.

Napoleon adhered to offensive tactics. He intended to break through the defenses of the Russian army on the flanks, surround it and finally crush it.

The balance of forces was almost equal: the French - 130 thousand people with 587 guns, the Russians - 110 thousand regular forces, about 40 thousand militias and Cossacks with 640 guns.

Early in the morning of August 26, the French launched an offensive on the left flank. The fight for the flushes lasted until 12 noon. Both sides suffered huge losses. General P.I.Bagration was seriously wounded. (A few days later, he died of his wounds.) Borodino was a moral and political victory for the Russians: the combat potential of the Russian army was preserved, while the Napoleonic one was significantly weakened. Far from France, in the endless Russian expanses, it was difficult to restore it.

From Moscow to Maloyaroslavets. After Borodino, Russian troops began to retreat to Moscow. Napoleon followed, but did not strive for a new battle. On September 1, a military council of the Russian command took place in the village of Fili. MI Kutuzov, contrary to the general opinion of the generals, decided to leave Moscow. The French army entered it on September 2, 1812.

MI Kutuzov, withdrawing troops from Moscow, carried out the original plan - the Tarutinsky march-maneuver. Retreating from Moscow along the Ryazan road, the army turned sharply to the south and in the area of ​​Krasnaya Pakhra entered the old Kaluga road. This maneuver, firstly, prevented the capture of the Kaluga and Tula provinces by the French, where ammunition and food were collected. Secondly, MI Kutuzov managed to break away from Napoleon's army. He set up a camp in Tarutino, where Russian troops rested, replenished with fresh regular units, militia, weapons and food supplies.

The occupation of Moscow did not benefit Napoleon. Abandoned by the inhabitants (an unprecedented event in history), it blazed into flames. There was no food or other supplies in it. The French army was completely demoralized and turned into a bunch of robbers and marauders. all peace proposals of the French emperor were unconditionally rejected by M.I.Kutuzov and Alexander I.

On October 7, the French left Moscow. On October 12, another bloody battle took place near the town of Maloyaroslavets. Again, neither side achieved a decisive victory. However, the French were stopped and forced to retreat along the ruined Smolensk road.

Expulsion of Napoleon from Russia. The retreat of the French army was like a disorderly flight. It was accelerated by the unfolding partisan movement and the offensive actions of the Russians.

The patriotic upsurge began literally immediately after Napoleon entered Russia. Looting and looting French. nikh soldiers aroused the resistance of local residents. But this was not the main thing - the Russian people could not put up with the presence of invaders in their native land. The history includes the names of ordinary people (G. M. Kurin, E. V. Chetvertakov, V. Kozhina) who organized partisan detachments. In the rear of the French were also sent "flying detachments" of regular army soldiers, led by regular officers (A. S. Figner, D. V. Davydov, A. N. Seslavin, etc.).

At the final stage of the war, MI Kutuzov chose the tactics of parallel pursuit. He was the coast of every Russian soldier and understood that the enemy's forces were diminishing every day. The final defeat of Napoleon was planned at Borisov. For this purpose, troops were pulled up from the south and northwest. Serious damage was inflicted on the French near the city of Krasny in early November, when more than half of the 50 thousand people of the retreating army were taken prisoner or died in battle. Fearing encirclement, Napoleon hastened to ferry his troops across the Berezina River on November 14-17. The battle at the crossing completed the defeat of the French army. Napoleon abandoned her and went secretly to Paris. MI Kutuzov's order on the army of December 21 and the Tsar's Manifesto of December 25, 1812 marked the end of the Patriotic War. But Napoleon still held in obedience almost all of Europe. To ensure its security, Russia continued military operations in Europe. In January 1813 Russian troops entered Prussia. Austria, England, Sweden joined Russia. In October 1813 there was a battle near Leipzig - “the battle of the nations”. Napoleon was defeated. Paris fell in March 1814. In 1814-1815. the Vienna Congress of European States was held, Norton decided the question of the post-war structure of Europe. By the decision of the Congress, the Polish kingdom entered the Russian Empire. In March 1815, Russia, England, Austria and Prussia signed an agreement on the formation of a quadruple alliance. Victory in the Patriotic War strengthened Russia's international position as a strong European power.