How many years ago did World War I start? Russian theater of operations - Eastern Front

Turning to the international relations of the first decades of the 20th century, historians most often try to find an answer to the question: why did the World War? Consider events and phenomena that will help to find out the causes of its occurrence.

International relations in the late XIX - early XX century

The rapid industrial development of European countries and North America at that time pushed them to enter the broad world market, spread their economic and political influence in different parts Sveta.
The powers that already had colonial possessions sought to expand them in every possible way. So, France in the last third of the XIX - early XX century. increased the territory of its colonies by more than 10 times. The clash of interests of individual European powers led to armed confrontation, as, for example, in Central Africa, where the British and French colonizers competed. Great Britain also tried to strengthen its position in South Africa- in the Transvaal and the Orange Republic. The determined resistance of the descendants of European settlers who lived there - the Boers - led to Anglo-Boer War (1899-1902).

The guerrilla struggle of the Boers and the cruelest methods of warfare by the British troops (up to the burning of peaceful settlements and the creation of concentration camps, where thousands of prisoners died) showed the whole world the terrible face of war in the coming 20th century. Great Britain defeated the two Boer republics. But this inherently imperialist war was then condemned by most European countries, as well as by democratic forces in Britain itself.

Completed by the beginning of the 20th century. colonial partition peace did not bring peace to international relations. Countries that have made significant progress in industrial development (USA, Germany, Italy, Japan) are actively involved in the struggle for economic and political influence in the world. In some cases, they tore away the colonial territories from their owners by military means. This is what the United States did by unleashing a war against Spain in 1898. In other cases, the colonies "bargained". This was done, for example, by Germany in 1911. Having declared its intention to seize part of Morocco, it sent a warship to its shores. France, which had previously penetrated into Morocco, in exchange for the recognition of its priority, ceded to Germany part of its possessions in the Congo. The following document testifies to the decisiveness of Germany's colonial intentions.

From the parting words of Kaiser Wilhelm II to the German troops heading to China in July 1900 to suppress the Yihetuan uprising:

“The newly emerged German Empire faces great tasks across the sea ... And you ... must present to the enemy good lesson. Converging with the enemy, you must beat him! Give no mercy! Take no prisoners! With those who fall into your hands, do not stand on ceremony. Just as a thousand years ago, under their king Attila, the Huns glorified their name, which is still preserved in fairy tales and legends, so the name of the Germans should evoke such feelings in China in a thousand years, so that no Chinese would ever again dare to look askance to the German!

The increased conflicts between the great powers in different parts of the world caused concern not only in public opinion, but also among the politicians themselves. In 1899, at the initiative of Russia, a peace conference was held in The Hague with the participation of representatives of 26 states. The second conference in The Hague (1907) already involved 44 countries. At these meetings, conventions (agreements) were adopted that contained recommendations on the peaceful settlement of international disputes, limiting cruel forms of warfare (prohibiting the use of explosive bullets, poisonous substances, etc.), reducing military spending and armed forces, humane treatment of prisoners, and also determined the rights and obligations of neutral states.

The discussion of the general problems of maintaining peace did not prevent the leading European powers from dealing with completely different issues: how to ensure the achievement of their own, not always peaceful, foreign policy goals. It was increasingly difficult to do this alone, so each country was looking for allies. FROM late XIX in. two international blocs began to take shape - the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy) and the Franco-Russian alliance, which outgrew at the beginning of the 20th century. in the Triple Entente of France, Russia, Great Britain.

Dates, documents, events

Triple Alliance
1879 - secret treaty between Germany and Austria-Hungary on joint defense against Russian attack.
1882 - Triple alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy.

Franco-Russian alliance
1891-1892 - Consultative pact and military convention between Russia and France.

Entente
1904 - agreement between Great Britain and France on the division of spheres of influence in Africa.
1906 - negotiations between Belgium, Great Britain and France on military cooperation.
1907 - agreement between Great Britain and Russia on the division of spheres of influence in Iran, Afghanistan and Tibet.

International conflicts of the early XX century. were not limited to disputes over overseas territories. They also appeared in Europe itself. In 1908-1909. the so-called Bosnian crisis. Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina, which were formally part of the Ottoman Empire. Serbia and Russia protested, as they were in favor of granting independence to these territories. Austria-Hungary announced mobilization and began to concentrate troops on the border with Serbia. The actions of Austria-Hungary received the support of Germany, which forced Russia and Serbia to come to terms with the capture.

Balkan Wars

Other states also sought to take advantage of the weakening of the Ottoman Empire. Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece and Montenegro formed the Balkan Union and in October 1912 attacked the empire in order to liberate the territories inhabited by Slavs and Greeks from Turkish rule. AT short term Turkish army was defeated. But the peace negotiations turned out to be difficult, because the great powers joined in: the Entente countries supported the states of the Balkan Union, and Austria-Hungary and Germany supported the Turks. Under the peace treaty signed in May 1913, the Ottoman Empire lost almost all of its European territories. But less than a month later, a second Balkan war broke out - this time between the victors. Bulgaria attacked Serbia and Greece, trying to get its part of Macedonia liberated from Turkish rule. The war ended in August 1913 with the defeat of Bulgaria. She left behind unresolved interethnic and interstate contradictions. These were not only mutual territorial disputes between Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece, Romania. The dissatisfaction of Austria-Hungary with the strengthening of Serbia as a possible center for the unification of the South Slavic peoples, some of which were in the possession of the Habsburg Empire.

The beginning of the war

On June 28, 1914, in the capital of Bosnia, the city of Sarajevo, a member of the Serbian terrorist organization Gavrilo Princip killed the heir to the Austrian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, and his wife.

June 28, 1914 Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sofia in Sarajevo Five minutes before the assassination attempt

Austria-Hungary accused Serbia of instigation, to which an ultimatum note was sent. The fulfillment of the requirements contained in it meant for Serbia the loss of its state dignity, consent to Austrian interference in its affairs. Serbia was ready to fulfill all the conditions, except for one, the most humiliating for it (about the investigation by the Austrian services on the territory of Serbia of the reasons for the Sarajevo assassination attempt). However, on July 28, 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. Two weeks later, 8 states of Europe were involved in the war.

Dates and events
August 1 - Germany declares war on Russia.
August 2 - German troops occupied Luxembourg.
August 3 - Germany declared war on France, its troops moved to France through Belgium.
August 4 - Britain enters the war against Germany.
August 6 - Austria-Hungary declares war on Russia.
August 11 - France enters the war against Austria-Hungary.
August 12 - Great Britain declares war on Austria-Hungary.

On August 23, 1914, Japan declared war on Germany and began seizing German possessions in China and the Pacific. In the autumn of the same year, the Ottoman Empire entered the struggle on the side of the Triple Alliance. The war went beyond the borders of Europe and turned into a world war.

The states that entered the war, as a rule, explained their decision by “higher interests” - the desire to protect themselves and other countries from aggression, allied duty, etc. But the true goals of most of the participants in the conflict were to expand their territories or colonial possessions, to increase the influence in Europe and other continents.

Austria-Hungary wanted to subjugate the growing Serbia, to weaken Russia's position in the Balkans. Germany sought to annex the border territories of France and Belgium, the Baltic states and other lands in Europe, and also to expand its colonial possessions at the expense of English, French, and Belgian colonies. France resisted the onslaught of Germany and at least wanted to return Alsace and Lorraine captured from her in 1871. Britain fought to preserve its colonial empire and wished to weaken Germany, which had gained strength. Russia defended its interests in the Balkans and the Black Sea, and at the same time was not averse to annexing Galicia, which was part of Austria-Hungary.

Some exceptions were Serbia, which became the first victim of the attack, and Belgium, occupied by the Germans: they fought the war primarily for the restoration of their independence, although they had other interests.

War and society

So, in the summer of 1914, the wheel of war rolled out of the hands of politicians and diplomats and invaded the lives of millions of people in dozens of countries in Europe and the world. How did people feel when they learned about the war? In what mood did the men go to the mobilization points? What were those who were not supposed to go to the front preparing for?

Official announcements about the beginning of hostilities were accompanied by patriotic appeals and assurances of an imminent victory.

French President R. Poincaré noted in his notes:

“The German declaration of war aroused in the nation a magnificent outburst of patriotism. Never in all its history has France been so beautiful as in these hours which we have been given to witness. The mobilization, which began on August 2, ended today, was carried out with such discipline, in such order, with such calmness, with such enthusiasm, that the government and military authorities admire ... In England, the same enthusiasm as in France; the royal family was the subject of repeated standing ovations; patriotic demonstrations everywhere. The Central Powers aroused the unanimous indignation of the French, English and Belgian peoples.

A significant part of the population of the countries that entered the war was seized by nationalist sentiments. The attempts of pacifists and some socialists to raise their voice against the war were drowned out by a wave of jingoistic patriotism. The leaders of the workers' and socialist movement in Germany, Austria-Hungary, France put forward the slogans of "civil peace" in their countries and voted for war loans. The leaders of the Austrian Social Democracy called on their supporters "to fight against tsarism", while the British socialists decided above all to "fight against German imperialism". The ideas of the class struggle and the international solidarity of the workers were relegated to the background. This led to the collapse of the Second International. Only a few groups of social democrats (including the Russian Bolsheviks) condemned the outbreak of the war as imperialist and called on the working people to refuse to support their governments. But their voices were not heard. Thousands of armies went to fight, hoping for victory.

The failure of the lightning war plans

Although the leadership in declaring war belonged to Austria-Hungary, the most decisive action was immediately launched by Germany. She sought to avoid a war on two fronts - against Russia in the east and France in the west. The plan of General A. von Schlieffen, developed even before the war, provided first for the rapid defeat of France (in 40 days), and then for an active struggle against Russia. The German strike group, which invaded Belgian territory at the beginning of the war, approached the French border in a little over two weeks (later than planned, because the fierce resistance of the Belgians prevented it). By September 1914, the German armies crossed the Marne River and approached the fortress of Verdun. Execute the Blitzkrieg Plan ( lightning war) failed. But France was in a very difficult position. Paris was in danger of being invaded. The government left the capital and turned to Russia for help.

Despite the fact that the deployment and equipping of the Russian troops had not been completed by that time (this is exactly what Schlieffen was counting on in his plan), two Russian armies under the command of Generals P.K. Rennenkampf and A.V. Samsonov were abandoned on the offensive in August in East Prussia (here they soon failed), and the troops under the command of General N.I. Ivanov in September - in Galicia (where they dealt a serious blow to the Austrian army). The offensive cost the Russian troops heavy losses. But to stop him, Germany transferred several corps from France to the Eastern Front. This allowed the French command to gather forces and repel the onslaught of the Germans in a difficult battle on the Marne River in September 1914 (more than 1.5 million people participated in the battle, losses on both sides amounted to almost 600 thousand killed and wounded).

The plan to quickly defeat France failed. Unable to get the better of each other, the opponents "sat down in the trenches" along the huge front line (600 km long) that crossed Europe from the coast North Sea to Switzerland. A protracted positional war broke out on the Western Front. By the end of 1914, a similar situation had developed on the Austro-Serbian front, where the Serbian army managed to liberate the country's territory, previously captured (in August - November) by the Austrian troops.

During a period of relative calm on the fronts, diplomats became more active. Each of the warring groups sought to attract new allies into their ranks. Both sides negotiated with Italy, which at the beginning of the war declared its neutrality. Seeing the failure of the German and Austrian troops in conducting a blitzkrieg, Italy in the spring of 1915 joined the Entente.

On the fronts

Since the spring of 1915, the center of hostilities in Europe has moved to the Eastern Front. The combined forces of Germany and Austria-Hungary carried out a successful offensive in Galicia, driving out Russian troops from there, and the army under the command of General P. von Hindenburg captured the Polish and Lithuanian territories that were part of the Russian Empire (including Warsaw) by autumn.

Despite the difficult situation Russian army, the French and British command was in no hurry to advance on their front. Military reports of the time included the proverbial phrase: "All Quiet on the Western Front." True, positional warfare was also an ordeal. The fight intensified, the number of victims steadily increased. In April 1915, on the Western Front near the Ypres River, the German army carried out its first gas attack. About 15 thousand people were poisoned, of which 5 thousand died, the rest remained disabled. In the same year, war at sea between Germany and Great Britain intensified. To block the British Isles, German submarines began to attack all ships going there. During the year, over 700 ships were sunk, including many civilian ships. Protests from the United States and other neutral countries forced the German command to abandon attacks on passenger ships for some time.

After the successes of the Austro-German forces on the Eastern Front in the fall of 1915, Bulgaria entered the war on their side. Soon, as a result of a joint offensive, the Allies occupied the territory of Serbia.

In 1916, believing that Russia was sufficiently weakened, the German command decided to deliver a new blow to France. The goal of the German offensive, undertaken in February, was the French fortress of Verdun, the capture of which would open the way for the Germans to Paris. However, it was not possible to take the fortress.

This was explained by the fact that during the previous break in active operations on the Western Front, the British-French troops secured a superiority over the Germans by several dozen divisions. In addition, at the request of the French command in March 1916, an offensive was launched by Russian troops near Lake Naroch and the city of Dvinsk, which diverted significant German forces.

Finally, in July 1916, a massive offensive by the British-French army began on the Western Front. Particularly heavy fighting took place on the Somme. Here the French concentrated powerful artillery, which created a continuous shaft of fire. The British, for the first time, used tanks, which caused a real panic among the German soldiers, although they had not yet been able to turn the tide of battles.

The bloody battle, which lasted almost half a year, in which both sides lost about 1 million 300 thousand people killed, wounded and captured, ended with a relatively small advance of the British and French troops. Contemporaries called the battles of Verdun and the Somme "meat grinders".

Even the inveterate politician R. Poincare, who at the beginning of the war admired the patriotic upsurge of the French, now saw a different, terrible face of the war. He wrote:

“How much energy does this life of troops require every day, half underground, in trenches, in rain and snow, in trenches destroyed by grenades and mines, in shelters without clean air and light, in parallel ditches, always subject to the destructive action of shells, in side passages , which can suddenly be cut off by enemy artillery, at posts advanced forward, where a patrol can be caught every minute by an impending attack! How can we still know moments of deceptive calm in the rear, if there, at the front, people like us are doomed to this hell?

Significant events unfolded in 1916 on the Eastern Front. In June, Russian troops under the command of General A. A. Brusilov broke through the Austrian front to a depth of 70-120 km. The Austrian and German command hastily transferred 17 divisions from Italy and France to this front. Despite this, Russian troops occupied part of Galicia, Bukovina, entered the Carpathians. Their further advance was suspended due to lack of ammunition, isolation of the rear.

In August 1916, Romania entered the war on the side of the Entente. But by the end of the year, her army was defeated, the territory was occupied. As a result, the front line for the Russian army increased by another 500 km.

Position in the rear

The war demanded from the warring countries the mobilization of all human and material resources. The life of people in the rear was built according to the laws of wartime. The working hours were extended at the enterprises. Restrictions were imposed on holding meetings, rallies, strikes. The newspapers were censored. The state strengthened not only political control over society. During the war years, its regulatory role in the economy grew noticeably. State bodies distributed military orders and raw materials, disposed of the produced military products. They formed an alliance with the largest industrial and financial monopolies.

The daily life of people has also changed. The work of young, strong men who left to fight fell on the shoulders of old men, women and teenagers. They worked in military factories, cultivated the land in immeasurably more difficult conditions than before.

From the book by S. Pankhurst "The Home Front" (the author is one of the leaders of the women's movement in England):

“In July (1916) I was approached by women who worked in aviation enterprises in London. They covered airplane wings with camouflage paint for 15 shillings a week, working from 8 o'clock in the morning until half past six in the evening. They were often asked to work until 8 o'clock in the evening, and they were paid for this overtime work as usual ... According to them, constantly six or more of the thirty women who worked on the painting were forced to leave the workshop and lie down on the stones for half an hour and more before they could return to their workplace.”

In most of the warring countries, a system of strictly rationed distribution of food and essential goods on cards was introduced. At the same time, the norms, compared with the pre-war level of consumption, were cut two to three times. It was possible to buy products in excess of the norm only on the "black market" for fabulous money. Only industrialists and speculators who got rich on military supplies could afford it. Most of the population was starving. In Germany, the winter of 1916/17 was called "rutabaga", because due to a poor potato harvest, rutabaga became the main food product. People also suffered from lack of fuel. In Paris, during the said winter, there were cases of people dying from the cold. The prolongation of the war led to an ever greater deterioration in the situation in the rear.

The crisis is ripe. The final stage of the war

The war brought ever-increasing losses and suffering to the peoples. By the end of 1916, about 6 million people died on the fronts, about 10 million were injured. The cities and villages of Europe became battlefields. In the occupied territories, the civilian population was subjected to robbery and violence. In the rear, both people and machines worked for wear and tear. The material and spiritual forces of the peoples were depleted. This was already understood by both politicians and the military. In December 1916, Germany and its allies proposed that the Entente countries begin peace negotiations, and representatives of several neutral states spoke in favor of the same. But each of the warring parties did not want to recognize itself as a loser and sought to dictate its own terms. The negotiations did not take place.

Meanwhile, in the warring countries themselves, dissatisfaction with the war and those who continued to wage it was growing. "Civil Peace" was falling apart. Since 1915, the strike struggle of the workers has intensified. At first, they demanded mainly higher wages, which were depreciated all the time due to rising prices. Then, anti-war slogans began to sound more and more often. The ideas of struggle against the imperialist war were put forward by the revolutionary Social Democrats in Russia and Germany. On May 1, 1916, during a demonstration in Berlin, the leader of the leftist Social Democrats, Karl Liebknecht, issued calls: "Down with the war!", "Down with the government!" (for this he was arrested and sentenced to four years in prison).

In England, the strike movement of workers in 1915 was led by the so-called guild elders. They presented the demands of the workers to the administration and steadily achieved their fulfillment. Active anti-war propaganda was launched by pacifist organizations. The national question has also become aggravated. In April 1916 there was an uprising in Ireland. Rebel detachments led by socialist J. Connolly seized government buildings in Dublin and proclaimed Ireland an independent republic. The uprising was mercilessly crushed, 15 of its leaders were executed.

An explosive situation has developed in Russia. Here the matter was not limited to the growth of strikes. The February Revolution of 1917 overthrew the autocracy. The provisional government intended to continue the war "to the bitter end." But it did not retain power over either the army or the country. In October 1917, Soviet power was proclaimed. As for their international consequences, the most tangible at that moment was Russia's withdrawal from the war. At first, unrest in the army led to the collapse of the Eastern Front. And in March 1918, the Soviet government concluded the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany and its allies, under whose control vast territories in the Baltic States, Belarus, Ukraine and the Caucasus remained. Impact Russian revolution it was not limited to events in Europe and the world, it, as it became clear later, also touched the internal life of many countries.

Meanwhile, the war continued. In April 1917, the United States of America declared war on Germany, and then on its allies. They were followed by several states of Latin America, China and other countries. The Americans sent their troops to Europe. In 1918, after the conclusion of peace with Russia, the German command made several attempts to attack France, but to no avail. Having lost about 800 thousand people in battles, German troops retreated to their original positions. By the autumn of 1918, the initiative in the conduct of hostilities passed to the Entente countries.

The question of ending the war was decided not only on the fronts. Anti-war protests and discontent grew in the warring countries. At demonstrations and rallies, the slogans put forward by the Russian Bolsheviks were increasingly heard: “Down with the war!”, “A world without annexations and indemnities!” AT different countries workers' and soldiers' councils began to appear. The French workers adopted resolutions stating: "From the spark ignited in Petrograd, light will light up over the rest of the world enslaved by militarism." In the army, battalions and regiments refused to go to the front lines.

Germany and her allies, weakened by defeats on the fronts and internal difficulties, were forced to ask for peace.

September 29, 1918 stopped fighting Bulgaria. On October 5, the German government made a request for a truce. On October 30, the Ottoman Empire signed a truce with the Entente. On November 3, Austria-Hungary surrendered, seized by the liberation movements of the peoples living in it.

On November 3, 1918, an uprising of sailors broke out in Germany in the city of Kiel, which marked the beginning of the revolution. On November 9, the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II was announced. On November 10, a Social Democratic government came to power.

On November 11, 1918, the commander-in-chief of the allied forces in France, Marshal F. Foch, in his staff car in the Compiègne forest, dictated the terms of the armistice to the German delegation. Finally, the war ended, in which more than 30 states participated (by the number of inhabitants they accounted for more than half of the world's population), 10 million were killed and 20 million were injured. The road to peace lay ahead.

References:
Aleksashkina L. N. / General History. XX- beginning of XXI century.

Today, June 28, 95 years ago, the FIRST WORLD WAR began between two coalitions of powers: the Central Powers (Germany, Turkey, Bulgaria) and the Entente (Russia, France, Great Britain, Serbia, later Japan, Italy, Romania, the USA, etc.; 34 states in total) .

At the same time, it ended on the same day in accordance with the VERSAILLES PEACE TREATY of 1919.

Treaty that ended World War I. Signed at Versailles on June 28 by the victorious powers of the United States, the British Empire, France, Italy, Japan, Belgium, etc., on the one hand, and defeated Germany, on the other.

How it was..

On June 28, 1914, in the city of Sarajevo, a Serbian terrorist student, Gavrilo Princip, shot the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand. In response to this assassination, on July 10, Austria-Hungary issued an ultimatum to Serbia containing a number of obviously unacceptable demands, and then, on July 28, declared war.

Nicholas II, bound by an alliance treaty with Serbia, carried out a general mobilization in the Russian Empire. In response, Germany, an ally of Austria-Hungary, declared war on Russia. Great Britain and France, allies of Russia, declared war on Germany. And it went and went...

Franz Ferdinand was born on December 18, 1863 in Graz and was the nephew of Emperor Franz Joseph I. Despite their Habsburg origin, the family of Franz Ferdinand was not among the richest families in the empire. However, at the age of 12, the Archduke was very lucky. After the death of Franz V d'Este, Duke of Madena, all of his considerable fortune and the title of d'Este went to Franz Ferdinand. Like many other Habsburgs, he was destined for a military career that suited him perfectly. He was a serviceable soldier and, starting with the rank of lieutenant in 1978, after 12 years he was already a colonel, which is not so bad at 27 years old.

In the future, his military career developed even more rapidly. Nevertheless, no one imagined that he could become the heir to the throne. Young and healthy was the emperor's son Rudolf. However, fate decreed otherwise. Rudolf committed suicide on January 30, 1889 and the emperor, in 1898, appointed his nephew heir to the throne.

But while this happened, military service, which, as you know, is not an easy task even for the highest ranks, brought the Archduke to serious problems. Along with the promotion in ranks, various ailments also developed. In the end, the Archduke was diagnosed with tuberculosis, and then he, already a major general, had to say goodbye to his faithful soldiers, most of whom, including officers, wholeheartedly hated this self-contained pedant. Franz Ferdinand left the Hungarian city of Sopron, with its unfriendly climate, for warmer Mediterranean places. Less than two years later, the Archduke completely got rid of his ailments, which was a kind of miracle, and again returned to the military path, now as heir to the throne.

Having become the owner of various regiments, including Russian, Spanish, Prussian and others, he also received the rank of admiral and field marshal.

Franz Ferdinand devoted more and more time to strengthening the military power of the monarchy, making plans for the transformation of the army. In the nineties, he traveled a lot around the world. He paid a visit to St. Petersburg, where he was warmly received. Tsar Alexander III met the Archduke at the station, he was awarded the Order of St. Andrei, and at the court ball he danced a quadrille with the princess. Franz Ferdinand retained his sympathy for Russia until the end of his days and believed that it would be disastrous to fight with her.

The political views of the Archduke were moderately conservative and very balanced. He leaned towards the idea of ​​trialism, i.e. wanted to elevate the rights of the Slavic peoples in a dual monarchy. (It is paradoxical that it was the Slavs who later killed the most Slavic Habsburg.)

Franz Ferdinand was in no hurry to marry, but when he was ripe for marriage, his choice caused shock in the highest circles. Once, he saw a representative of the old Czech nobility, Countess Sophia Hotek von Hotkov-und-Voynin - and immediately fell in love. The story was romantic: the lovers met secretly for many months; then, when everything was revealed, the emperor for almost a year did not give his heir consent to a morganatic marriage. He eventually relented on the condition that his children would not be eligible for the throne. This did not stop Franz Ferdinand. On July 2, 1900, the long-awaited marriage took place. The emperor did not come to the wedding, but on August 8 of the same year he granted the bride the title of Princess Hohenberg. The couple lived in perfect harmony. A few years later they already had a daughter and two sons.

In Vienna, Princess Hohenberg was not noticed at close range, so the couple preferred to live outside the capital, especially since the Archduke had enough castles. As a permanent residence, he chose Konopiste Castle in the Czech Republic, as well as the magnificent Artstetten Castle in the Wachau Valley, in Austria.

The favorite occupation of the heir was hunting and gardening. His castles, surrounded by magnificent parks, were full of hunting trophies.

But let's get back to government affairs. Austria-Hungary had long wanted to seize Serbia. Demonstrating its military power, it, in 1914, held major maneuvers in Bosnia. The Archduke was considered the inspector general of the armed forces of the empire and it was in this capacity that he oversaw the maneuvers in Sarajevo. The maneuvers went well; On June 28, a solemn passage of the heir through the city was to take place.

Franz Ferdinand, who wanted the people to be able to properly see the future emperor, was dressed in the uniform of a cavalry general (blue uniform, black trousers with red stripes, a high cap with green parrot feathers), his August wife was wearing an elegant white dress and a wide hat with ostrich feather.

Everything was solemn and festive. 24 volleys of salutatory fireworks have already thundered over the city, people on the embankment waved their hands and shouted greetings in German and Serbian.

The cortege, heading for the town hall, caught up with one of the bridges, when suddenly a young man from the crowd waved his hand and threw some object into the car of the heir. The object bounced off the canvas roof of the car, flew under the wheels of the escort car, and there exploded with a deafening roar. It was an attempt. The thrown bomb was filled with nails, which wounded twenty people in the crowd and two officers from the retinue of the heir. He himself was not injured at all, the countess's neck was easily scratched.

One of the officers rushed at the one who threw the bomb, for some reason a policeman who happened to be nearby began to interfere with him. Meanwhile, the terrorist managed to get poison out of his pocket, swallow it and throw himself into the river. The poison had no effect on him, and right in the shallow water he was, in the end, captured.

Before ordering to move on quickly, the Archduke also inquired about the condition of the wounded. He was beside himself with anger, and when the mayor, unaware of the assassination attempt, began a flowery speech in the town hall, he abruptly cut him off with the words: “Mr. headman! I came to Sarajevo on a friendly visit, and they meet me here with bombs.”

Then Franz Ferdinand mastered himself, delivered a prepared speech and ordered to go to the hospital to visit the wounded officers.
This time the cars were going faster. Next to the heir, the August wife and the military governor of Bosnia, General Potiorek, were still sitting. At the corner of Franz Josef Street, Potiorek noticed that they were going the wrong way and abruptly ordered the driver to change the route. The car slowed down and came to a stop on the pavement.

By an unfortunate coincidence, the next of the trained terrorists (there were six of them on the embankment) was just at this place - 19-year-old Gavrilo Princip. He could not miss the moment and, having pulled out a revolver from his pocket, began to shoot. The first bullet tore the carotid artery of the Archduke, the second interrupted the abdominal aorta of his wife. Both passed away. The last words of the heir were: "Sophie, Sophie! Don't die, for the sake of the children!" The countess was brought to the government palace already dead, Archduke Franz Ferdinand breathed unconsciously for another fifteen minutes.

On the embankment, in the meantime, the shooter Princip was seized. He desperately resisted, tried to swallow the poison and shoot himself, they didn’t let him, they beat him a lot, inflicted several blows with a saber (then he had to amputate his hand in prison). An amateur photographer who miraculously happened to be nearby took almost the very moment of the assassination attempt - but no one knew yet that the Sarajevo shots meant the beginning big war.

The apologies brought by the Serbian side could well satisfy the Austrians, but Vienna was determined to defeat Serbia and no longer paid attention to anything.

Franz Ferdinand and Sophia were buried in the family vault of Artstetten Castle in the presence of Emperor Franz Joseph

Later in Sarajevo took place trial which took place in compliance with all legal norms. As a result, sixteen terrorists were convicted, nine were acquitted, three were sentenced to death penalty. Princip, as a minor, was commuted to 20 years in prison.

Princip served his term in a prison in the Czech town of Terezin, where he died of tuberculosis in 1918. He was buried in an unmarked place, the grave was razed to the ground. One of the soldiers involved in this procedure remembered the place of burial, and later, according to him, the body was found. In 1926, the murderer's remains were reburied with pomp in Sarajevo.

The First World War - one of the longest, bloodiest and most significant in terms of consequences in the history of mankind, lasted more than four years. It was attended by 33 countries out of 59 that had state sovereignty at that time. The population of the warring countries amounted to more than 1.5 billion people, that is, about 87% of all inhabitants of the Earth. A total of 73.5 million people were put under arms. Over 10 million were killed and 20 million wounded.

Today, in the castle of Artstetten, in Austria, there is an interesting museum of Franz Ferdinand. The abundance of documents and personal items tell in detail about the life of the Archduke and his family. It is curious to note that in 1945, when Soviet army occupied Artstetten, then one of the sons of the Archduke was sent to a concentration camp near Kharkov, and the other was appointed by the Soviet command as mayor of the town.

Campaign 1914

The fighting on the Western Front began in August with the invasion of German troops into Luxembourg and Belgium. On August 20, they occupied Brussels, having been able to move unhindered to the borders of France. On August 21-25, in a border battle, the German armies threw back the Anglo-French troops, invaded Northern France, and by the beginning of September reached the Marne River between Paris and Verdun (see); in an effort to cover each other's open flanks, the opponents resorted to maneuver operations (called "Run to the Sea"), as a result of which the front reached the sea coast. In October and November, bloody battles in Flanders exhausted and balanced the forces of the parties. From the Swiss border to the North Sea stretched a solid front line. Maneuvering actions in the West were replaced by positional struggle. Germany's hopes for a quick defeat of France failed. In many ways, this was facilitated by the offensive operations of the Russian troops in East Prussia (see), in Galicia (see), and other operations.

On August 23, Japan declared war on Germany, and in October, Turkey entered the war on the side of the German bloc. New fronts were formed in Transcaucasia, Mesopotamia, Syria and the Dardanelles. As a result of the 1914 campaign, none of the parties achieved their goals, the calculations for a quick defeat of the enemy failed, on the Western Front the war acquired a positional, trench character.

Campaign 1915

The German command concentrated its main efforts on the Eastern Front. The fighting on the Russian front began in January and continued with short breaks until late autumn. In the summer, German troops made a breakthrough near Gorlitsa. Soon they launched an offensive in the Baltic. Russian armies left Galicia, Poland, part of Latvia and Belarus. In October the front stabilized. On the Western Front in the fall, Anglo-French troops carried out offensive operations in Artois and Champagne, which, however, did not significantly change the situation. On May 23, Italy entered the war on the side of the Entente, and in October Bulgaria joined the Austro-German bloc. At the end of September, the troops of the German coalition attacked Serbia and occupied it 2 months later. An attempt by the Anglo-French troops that landed in Thessaloniki to assist Serbia was unsuccessful. The large-scale Dardanelles landing operation of the Anglo-French fleet ended in failure.

The most important result of the campaign was the failure of the German plans. The German command was faced with the need to continue the war on two fronts. Russia bore the brunt of the struggle in 1915, providing France and Great Britain with a respite to mobilize the economy for military needs.

Campaign 1916

Germany again shifted its main efforts to the west. The main blow was supposed to be delivered to France in the Verdun region, which was of great operational importance (see). Despite great efforts, the German troops could not break through the defenses. This was facilitated by the offensive of the Russian armies on the Southwestern Front in Galicia (). The German-Austrian command was forced to transfer 34 divisions from the Western and Italian fronts to the Eastern Front. The offensive actions of the Anglo-French troops on the Somme were also unsuccessful. Although the allies used a new means of fighting tanks in the operation, they were never able to break through the enemy defenses, losing about 800 thousand people. On August 27, Romania entered the war on the side of the Entente, but by the end of the campaign, the Romanian army was defeated. In the Middle East theater, the victories of the Russian troops of the Caucasian Front were of great importance. The Russian armies advanced 250 km in Turkey and captured the cities of Erzurum, Trebizond and Erzinjan. May 31 On June 1, off the Jutland Peninsula in the North Sea, one of the largest naval battles in the war. The British lost 14 ships in it, about 7 thousand people, the losses of the Germans amounted to 11 ships and more than 3 thousand people. As a result of the campaign, the German-Austrian bloc lost its strategic initiative. Germany was forced to defend on all fronts. The superiority of the Entente became obvious. In the course of the coordinated actions of the allied forces in the West and in the East, a turning point was laid in the course of the war.

Campaign 1917

By 1917, the war had significantly weakened the economies of the opposing powers. The German coalition could no longer conduct major offensive operations and switched to strategic defense. Germany concentrated its main efforts on conducting submarine warfare. The plans of the Entente were based on using its superiority in forces and means. This advantage became more significant after the US entered the war on April 6, 1917 on the side of the Entente. The High Command intended to launch a general coordinated offensive on the Western and Eastern fronts in order to finally defeat Germany and Austria-Hungary. However, the offensive of the Anglo-French troops, undertaken in April between Reims and Soissons, failed. Did not change the general situation on the Western Front and individual operations carried out by the allies at Messines, on Ypres, near Verdun, at Cambrai. The offensive of the Russian armies in the summer of 1917 also ended in failure. The total number of losses on the Eastern Front during this operation exceeded 150 thousand people. On September 3, during the Riga defensive operation, Russian troops left Riga. The sailors of the Baltic Fleet put up stubborn resistance to the German fleet during the defense of the Moonsund Archipelago (see) in the autumn of 1917. Due to heavy losses, the German command refused to break into the Gulf of Finland.

The First World War served as a kind of catalyst for the revolutionary processes in Russia, which led to October revolution 1917. Events in Russia, as well as inconsistency in the actions of the allies, disrupted the strategic plan of the Entente. Germany managed to repel the blows of opponents on land. However, the unrestricted submarine warfare she announced on February 1 did not produce the desired result. After the October Revolution, Russia actually withdrew from the war: on December 2, it signed an armistice agreement with the German-Austrian bloc, and later began peace negotiations (see).

Campaign 1918

By the beginning of 1918 the military-political situation had seriously changed. The powers of the German-Austrian bloc sought to end the war. The German command launched an offensive on the Western Front in March. In the spring and summer, German troops carried out several offensive operations in Picardy, in Flanders, on the rivers Aisne and Marne, but due to a lack of reserves they suspended them. The strategic initiative finally passed into the hands of the Entente. In August-September, the Allied armies, using their superiority in manpower and equipment (in March 1918, troops from the United States began to arrive on the Western Front), went on the offensive and forced the German troops to begin a general withdrawal from French territory.

At the beginning of October, Germany's position became hopeless. In the fall of 1918, Germany's allies Bulgaria, Turkey, and Austria-Hungary concluded an armistice with the Entente powers. Defeats at the fronts, economic ruin accelerated the maturation of revolutionary events in Germany. On November 9, the monarchy in Germany was overthrown. On November 11, Germany capitulated: in the Compiegne forest, at the Retonde station (France), the German delegation signed an armistice. Germany declared itself defeated. Finally, the terms of the peace treaties with Germany and its allies were worked out on. June 28, 1919 was signed, officially ending the First World War.

The results of the war

The First World War lasted more than 4 years (from August 1, 1914 to November 11, 1918). 38 states participated in it, more than 74 million people fought on its fields, of which 10 million were killed and 20 million maimed. The First World War, in terms of its scale, human losses and socio-political consequences, was unparalleled in all previous history. It had a huge impact on the economy, politics, ideology, the entire system international relations. The war led to the collapse of the most powerful European states and the formation of a new geopolitical situation in the world.

Allies (Entente): France, Great Britain, Russia, Japan, Serbia, USA, Italy (participated in the war on the side of the Entente since 1915).

Friends of the Entente (supported the Entente in the war): Montenegro, Belgium, Greece, Brazil, China, Afghanistan, Cuba, Nicaragua, Siam, Haiti, Liberia, Panama, Honduras, Costa Rica.

Question about the causes of the First World War has been one of the most discussed in world historiography since the outbreak of the war in August 1914.

The beginning of the war was facilitated by the widespread strengthening of nationalist sentiments. France hatched plans for the return of the lost territories of Alsace and Lorraine. Italy, even being in alliance with Austria-Hungary, dreamed of returning her lands to Trentino, Trieste and Fiume. The Poles saw in the war an opportunity to recreate a state destroyed by the divisions of the 18th century. Many peoples who inhabited Austria-Hungary aspired to national independence. Russia was convinced that it could not develop without limiting German competition, protecting the Slavs from Austria-Hungary, and expanding influence in the Balkans. In Berlin, the future was associated with the defeat of France and Great Britain and the unification of the countries of Central Europe under the leadership of Germany. In London, it was believed that the people of Great Britain would live in peace only by crushing the main enemy - Germany.

In addition, international tensions were exacerbated by a series of diplomatic crises - the Franco-German clash in Morocco in 1905-1906; the Austrian annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908-1909; Balkan wars in 1912-1913.

The immediate cause for the war was the Sarajevo massacre. June 28, 1914 Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand, nineteen-year-old Serbian student Gavrilo Princip, who was a member of the secret organization "Young Bosnia", fighting to unite all South Slavic peoples in one state.

July 23, 1914 Austria-Hungary, enlisting the support of Germany, presented an ultimatum to Serbia and demanded that its military formations be allowed into the territory of Serbia in order to prevent hostile actions together with the Serbian forces.

Serbia's response to the ultimatum did not satisfy Austria-Hungary, and July 28, 1914 she declared war on Serbia. Russia, having received assurances of support from France, openly opposed Austria-Hungary and July 30, 1914 announced a general mobilization. Germany, taking advantage of this occasion, announced August 1, 1914 Russian war, and August 3, 1914- France. After the German invasion August 4, 1914 Britain declared war on Germany in Belgium.

The First World War consisted of five campaigns. During first campaign in 1914 Germany invaded Belgium and northern France, but was defeated at the Battle of the Marne. Russia captured part of East Prussia and Galicia (the East Prussian operation and the Battle of Galicia), but then was defeated as a result of the German and Austro-Hungarian counter-offensive.

Campaign of 1915 associated with the entry into the war of Italy, the disruption of the German plan to withdraw Russia from the war and the bloody inconclusive battles on the Western Front.

Campaign of 1916 associated with the entry into the war of Romania and the conduct of an exhausting positional war on all fronts.

Campaign of 1917 associated with the US entry into the war, Russia's revolutionary exit from the war, and a number of successive offensive operations on the Western Front (Operation Nivelle, operations in the Messines region, on Ypres, near Verdun, near Cambrai).

Campaign of 1918 characterized by a transition from positional defense to a general offensive of the Entente armed forces. From the second half of 1918, the Allies prepared and launched retaliatory offensive operations (Amiens, Saint-Miyel, Marne), during which they liquidated the results of the German offensive, and in September 1918 they switched to a general offensive. By November 1, 1918, the allies liberated the territory of Serbia, Albania, Montenegro, entered the territory of Bulgaria after the armistice and invaded the territory of Austria-Hungary. Bulgaria signed an armistice with the Allies on September 29, 1918, Turkey on October 30, 1918, Austria-Hungary on November 3, 1918, and Germany on November 11, 1918.

June 28, 1919 signed at the Paris Peace Conference Treaty of Versailles with Germany, officially ending the First World War of 1914-1918.

On September 10, 1919, the Treaty of Saint-Germain was signed with Austria; November 27, 1919 - Treaty of Neuilly with Bulgaria; June 4, 1920 - Treaty of Trianon with Hungary; August 20, 1920 - Treaty of Sevres with Turkey.

In total, the First World War lasted 1568 days. 38 states participated in it, in which 70% of the world's population lived. The armed struggle was carried out on the fronts with a total length of 2500-4000 km. The total losses of all warring countries amounted to about 9.5 million people killed and 20 million people wounded. At the same time, the losses of the Entente amounted to about 6 million people killed, the losses of the Central Powers were about 4 million people killed.

During the First World War, for the first time in history, tanks, aircraft, submarines, anti-aircraft and anti-tank guns, mortars, grenade launchers, bomb throwers, flamethrowers, super-heavy artillery, hand grenades, chemical and smoke shells, poisonous substances were used. New types of artillery appeared: anti-aircraft, anti-tank, infantry escorts. Aviation became an independent branch of the military, which began to be subdivided into reconnaissance, fighter and bomber. There were tank troops, chemical troops, air defense troops, naval aviation. The role of the engineering troops increased and the role of the cavalry decreased.

The results of the First World War were the liquidation of four empires: German, Russian, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman, the latter two being divided, and Germany and Russia were cut down territorially. As a result, new independent states: Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Yugoslavia, Finland.

The material was prepared on the basis of information from open sources

Berlin, London, Paris wanted to start a big war in Europe, Vienna was not against the defeat of Serbia, although they did not particularly want a pan-European war. The reason for the war was given by the Serbian conspirators, who also wanted a war that would destroy the "patchwork" Austro-Hungarian Empire and allow the plans to create a "Great Serbia" to be realized.

June 28, 1914 in Sarajevo (Bosnia) terrorists kill the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophia. Interestingly, the Russian Foreign Ministry and Serbian Prime Minister Pasic received a message through their channels about the possibility of such an assassination attempt and tried to warn Vienna. Pasic warned through the Serbian envoy in Vienna, and Russia through Romania.

In Berlin, they decided that this was an excellent reason to start a war. Kaiser Wilhelm II, who learned about the attack at the celebration of the "Week of the Fleet" in Kiel, wrote in the margins of the report: "Now or never" (the emperor was a lover of high-profile "historical" phrases). And now the hidden flywheel of war has begun to unwind. Although most Europeans believed that this event, like many before (like the two Moroccan crises, the two Balkan wars), would not become the detonator of a world war. In addition, the terrorists were Austrian subjects, not Serbian. It should be noted that the European society of the early 20th century was largely pacifist and did not believe in the possibility of a big war, it was believed that people were already “civilized” enough to resolve controversial issues by war, there are political and diplomatic tools for this, only local conflicts are possible.

In Vienna, they have long been looking for a reason to defeat Serbia, which was considered the main threat to the empire, "the engine of pan-Slavic politics." True, the situation depended on the support of Germany. If Berlin puts pressure on Russia and she retreats, then the Austro-Serbian war is inevitable. During the negotiations in Berlin on July 5-6, the German Kaiser assured the Austrian side of its full support. The Germans sounded the mood of the British - the German ambassador told British Foreign Minister Edward Gray that Germany, "taking advantage of Russia's weakness, considers it necessary not to restrain Austria-Hungary." Gray evaded a direct answer, and the Germans felt that the British would remain on the sidelines. Many researchers believe that in this way London pushed Germany to war, Britain's firm position would have stopped the Germans. Gray told Russia that "England will take a position favorable to Russia." On the 9th, the Germans hinted to the Italians that if Rome took a position favorable to the Central Powers, then Italy could get the Austrian Trieste and Trentino. But the Italians evaded a direct answer and, as a result, until 1915 they bargained and waited.

The Turks also began to fuss, began to look for the most profitable scenario for themselves. Naval Minister Ahmed Jemal Pasha visited Paris, he was a supporter of an alliance with the French. Minister of War Ismail Enver Pasha visited Berlin. And the Minister of the Interior, Mehmed Talaat Pasha, left for St. Petersburg. As a result, the pro-German course won.

In Vienna, at that time, they came up with an ultimatum to Serbia, and they tried to include such items that the Serbs could not accept. On July 14, the text was approved, and on the 23rd it was handed over to the Serbs. The answer had to be given within 48 hours. The ultimatum contained very harsh demands. Serbs were required to ban printed editions who promoted hatred of Austria-Hungary and the violation of its territorial unity; to ban the Narodna Odbrana society and all other similar unions and movements conducting anti-Austrian propaganda; remove anti-Austrian propaganda from the education system; dismiss from the military and civil service all officers and officials who were engaged in propaganda directed against Austria-Hungary; assist the Austrian authorities in suppressing the movement against the integrity of the empire; stop smuggling and explosives into Austrian territory, arrest border guards involved in such activities, etc.

Serbia was not ready for war, she had just gone through two Balkan wars, she was going through an internal political crisis. And there was no time to drag out the issue and diplomatic maneuvering. This was understood by other politicians, Russian Foreign Minister Sazonov, having learned about the Austrian ultimatum, said: "This is a war in Europe."

Serbia began to mobilize the army, and the Serbian Prince Regent Alexander "begged" Russia to help. Nicholas II said that all the efforts of Russia are aimed at avoiding bloodshed, and if the war starts, then Serbia will not be left alone. On the 25th, the Serbs responded to the Austrian ultimatum. Serbia agreed to almost all points except one. The Serbian side refused the participation of the Austrians in the investigation of the assassination of Franz Ferdinand on the territory of Serbia, since this affected the sovereignty of the state. Although they promised to conduct an investigation and announced the possibility of transferring the results of the investigation to the Austrians.

Vienna regarded this answer as negative. On July 25, the Austro-Hungarian Empire began a partial mobilization of troops. On the same day, the German Empire began a covert mobilization. Berlin demanded that Vienna begin military operations against the Serbs immediately.

Other powers tried to intervene with a view to a diplomatic settlement of the issue. London came up with a proposal to convene a conference of the great powers and peacefully resolve the issue. The British were supported by Paris and Rome, but Berlin refused. Russia and France tried to persuade the Austrians to accept a settlement plan based on the Serbian proposals - Serbia was ready to transfer the investigation to the international tribunal in The Hague.

But the Germans had already decided on the issue of war, in Berlin on the 26th they prepared an ultimatum to Belgium, which stated that the French army planned to strike Germany through this country. Therefore, the German army must prevent this attack and occupy Belgian territory. If the Belgian government agrees, the Belgians were promised compensation for the damage after the war, if not, then Belgium was declared an enemy of Germany.

In London, there was a struggle between various power groups. Supporters of the traditional policy of "non-intervention" had very strong positions, and public opinion also supported them. The British wanted to stay out of the European war. The London Rothschilds, associated with the Austrian Rothschilds, financed an active propaganda of a non-interference policy. It is likely that if Berlin and Vienna had directed the main blow against Serbia and Russia, the British would not intervene in the war. And the world saw strange war» 1914, when Austria-Hungary crushed Serbia, and the German army sent the main blow against the Russian Empire. In this situation, France could conduct a "positional war", limited to private operations, and Britain could not enter the war at all. London was forced to intervene in the war by the fact that it was impossible to allow the complete defeat of France and German hegemony in Europe. The First Lord of the Admiralty Churchill, at his own peril and risk, after the completion of the summer maneuvers of the fleet with the participation of reservists, did not let them go home and kept the ships in concentration, not sending them to their places of deployment.

Russia

Russia at this time behaved extremely cautiously. For several days, the emperor held lengthy meetings with the Minister of War Sukhomlinov, the Minister of the Navy, Grigorovich, and the Chief of the General Staff, Yanushkevich. Nicholas II did not want to provoke a war with the military preparations of the Russian armed forces.
Only preliminary measures were taken: on the 25th of the holidays, the officers were recalled, on the 26th the emperor agreed to preparatory measures for partial mobilization. And only in a few military districts (Kazan, Moscow, Kiev, Odessa). In the Warsaw Military District, mobilization was not carried out, because. it bordered simultaneously with Austria-Hungary and Germany. Nicholas II hoped that the war could be stopped, and sent telegrams to "cousin Willy" (the German Kaiser), asking him to stop Austria-Hungary.

These fluctuations in Russia became proof for Berlin that “Russia is now unfit for combat,” that Nikolai is afraid of war. Wrong conclusions were drawn: the German ambassador and military attaché wrote from St. Petersburg that Russia was planning not a decisive offensive, but a gradual retreat, following the example of 1812. The German press wrote about "complete decay" in the Russian Empire.

The beginning of the war

On July 28, Vienna declared war on Belgrade. It should be noted that the First World War began on a great patriotic upsurge. General rejoicing reigned in the capital of Austria-Hungary, crowds of people filled the streets, singing patriotic songs. The same mood reigned in Budapest (capital of Hungary). It was a real holiday, women filled up the military, who were supposed to smash the damned Serbs, with flowers and signs of attention. Then people believed that the war with Serbia would be a victory walk.

The Austro-Hungarian army was not yet ready for the offensive. But already on the 29th, the ships of the Danube Flotilla and the Zemlin fortress, located opposite the Serbian capital, began shelling Belgrade.

Reich Chancellor of the German Empire Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg sent threatening notes to Paris and Petersburg. The French were informed that the military preparations which France was about to begin "force Germany to declare a state of threat of war." Russia was warned that if the Russians continued military preparations, "then it would hardly be possible to avoid a European war."

London proposed another settlement plan: the Austrians could occupy part of Serbia as a "collateral" for a fair investigation, in which the great powers would take part. Churchill orders the ships to be moved north, away from a possible attack by German submarines and destroyers, and "preliminary martial law" is introduced in Britain. Although the British still refused to "have their say", although Paris asked for it.

In Paris, the government held regular meetings. The chief of the French General Staff, Joffre, carried out preparatory measures before the start of a full-scale mobilization and offered to bring the army to full combat readiness and take up positions on the border. The situation was aggravated by the fact that the French soldiers, according to the law, could go home during the harvest, half of the army went to the villages. Joffre reported that the German army would be able to occupy part of French territory without serious resistance. In general, the French government was confused. Theory is one thing, reality is quite another. The situation was aggravated by two factors: firstly, the British did not give a definite answer; secondly, apart from Germany, France could be attacked by Italy. As a result, Joffre was allowed to recall the soldiers from vacations and mobilize 5 frontier corps, but at the same time take them 10 kilometers from the border to show that Paris was not going to be the first to attack, and not to provoke a war with some random conflict between German and French soldiers.

There was also no certainty in St. Petersburg, there was still hope that a big war could be avoided. After Vienna declared war on Serbia, Russia announced a partial mobilization. But it turned out to be difficult to implement, because. in Russia there were no plans for partial mobilization against Austria-Hungary, such plans were only against the Ottoman Empire and Sweden. It was believed that separately, without Germany, the Austrians would not dare to fight with Russia. And Russia itself was not going to attack the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The emperor insisted on partial mobilization, the head of the General Staff, Yanushkevich, argued that without the mobilization of the Warsaw Military District, Russia risks missing a powerful blow, because. according to intelligence, it turned out that it was here that the Austrians would concentrate a strike force. In addition, if an unprepared partial mobilization is initiated, it will lead to a breakdown in rail transport schedules. Then Nikolai decided not to mobilize at all, to wait.

The information was the most contradictory. Berlin tried to buy time - the German Kaiser sent encouraging telegrams, reported that Germany was inciting Austria-Hungary to make concessions, and Vienna seemed to agree. And then there was a note from Bethmann-Hollweg, a message about the bombing of Belgrade. And Vienna, after a period of wagging, announced the refusal of negotiations with Russia.

Therefore, on July 30, the Russian emperor gave the order to mobilize. But immediately canceled, because. several peace-loving telegrams from "Cousin Willy" came from Berlin, who reported on his efforts to persuade Vienna to negotiate. Wilhelm asked not to start military preparations, because. this would interfere with Germany's negotiations with Austria. Nikolai in response suggested that the issue be submitted for consideration by the Hague Conference. Russian Foreign Minister Sazonov went to the German Ambassador Pourtales to work out the main points for resolving the conflict.

Petersburg then received other information. The Kaiser changed his tone to a harsher one. Vienna refused any negotiations, there was evidence that the Austrians would clearly coordinate their actions with Berlin. There were reports from Germany that military preparations were in full swing there. German ships from Kiel were transferred to Danzig in the Baltic. Cavalry units advanced to the border. And Russia needed 10-20 days more to mobilize its armed forces than Germany. It became clear that the Germans were simply fooling St. Petersburg in order to gain time.

On July 31, Russia announced mobilization. Moreover, it was reported that as soon as the Austrians cease hostilities and a conference was convened, Russian mobilization would be stopped. Vienna announced that a halt to hostilities was impossible and announced a full-scale mobilization directed against Russia. The Kaiser sent a new telegram to Nicholas, saying that his peace efforts had become "illusory" and that the war could still be stopped if Russia canceled military preparations. Berlin got a pretext for war. And an hour later, Wilhelm II in Berlin, to the enthusiastic roar of the crowd, announced that Germany was "forced to wage war." Martial law was introduced in the German Empire, which simply legalized the previous military preparations (they had been going on for a week).

France was sent an ultimatum about the need to maintain neutrality. The French had to answer within 18 hours whether France would be neutral in the event of a war between Germany and Russia. And as a pledge of "good intentions" they demanded to transfer the border fortresses of Tul and Verdun, which they promised to return after the end of the war. The French were simply stunned by such impudence, the French ambassador in Berlin was even ashamed to convey full text ultimatum, limiting itself to the requirement of neutrality. In addition, in Paris they were afraid of mass unrest and strikes that the left threatened to organize. A plan was prepared according to which they planned, according to pre-prepared lists, to arrest socialists, anarchists and all "suspicious".

The situation was very difficult. Petersburg learned about Germany's ultimatum to stop mobilization from the German press (!). The German Ambassador Pourtales was instructed to hand it over at midnight from July 31st to August 1st, the deadline was given at 12 o'clock in order to reduce the opportunities for diplomatic maneuver. The word "war" was not used. Interestingly, St. Petersburg was not even sure of French support, because. the union treaty was not ratified by the French parliament. Yes, and the British offered the French to wait " further development events”, because the conflict between Germany, Austria and Russia "does not affect the interests of England." But the French were forced to join the war, because. the Germans did not give any other choice - at 7 am on August 1, German troops (16th Infantry Division) crossed the border with Luxembourg and occupied the town of Trois Vierges ("Three Virgins"), where the borders and railway communications of Belgium, Germany and Luxembourg converged. In Germany, they later joked that the war began with the possession of three virgins.

Paris on the same day began a general mobilization and rejected the ultimatum. Moreover, they have not yet talked about the war, informing Berlin that "mobilization is not a war." Concerned Belgians (the treaties of 1839 and 1870 determined the neutral status of their country, Britain was the main guarantor of Belgium's neutrality) asked Germany for clarification about the invasion of Luxembourg. Berlin replied that there was no danger to Belgium.

The French continued to appeal to England, recalling that the English fleet, according to an earlier agreement, should protect the Atlantic coast of France and the French fleet should concentrate in the Mediterranean. During the meeting of the British government, 12 out of 18 of its members opposed the support of France. Gray informed the French ambassador that France must decide for itself, Britain was not currently in a position to provide assistance.

London was forced to reconsider its position because of Belgium, which was a possible springboard against England. The British Foreign Office asked Berlin and Paris to respect Belgium's neutrality. France confirmed the neutral status of Belgium, Germany remained silent. Therefore, the British declared that in an attack on Belgium, England could not remain neutral. Although London retained a loophole here, Lloyd George opined that if the Germans did not occupy the Belgian coast, then the violation could be considered "minor".

Russia offered Berlin to resume negotiations. Interestingly, the Germans were going to declare war anyway, even if Russia accepted an ultimatum to stop mobilization. When the German ambassador handed the note, he gave Sazonov two papers at once, in both Russia they declared war.

There was a dispute in Berlin - the military demanded to start a war without declaring it, they say, the opponents of Germany, having taken retaliatory actions, would declare war and become "instigators". And the Reich Chancellor demanded the preservation of the rules of international law, the Kaiser took his side, because. loved beautiful gestures - the declaration of war was historical event. On August 2, Germany officially declared general mobilization and war on Russia. It was the day the "Schlieffen plan" began to be implemented - 40 German corps were to be transferred to offensive positions. Interestingly, Germany officially declared war on Russia, and troops began to be transferred to the west. On the 2nd, Luxembourg was finally occupied. And Belgium was given an ultimatum to let the German troops through, the Belgians had to respond within 12 hours.

The Belgians were shocked. But in the end they decided to defend themselves - they did not believe in the assurances of the Germans to withdraw troops after the war, to destroy a good relationship with England and France were not going. King Albert called for defense. Although the Belgians had the hope that this was a provocation and that Berlin would not violate the neutral status of the country.

On the same day, England was determined. The French were informed that the British fleet would cover the Atlantic coast of France. And the reason for the war will be the German attack on Belgium. A number of ministers who were against this decision resigned. The Italians declared their neutrality.

On August 2, Germany and Turkey signed a secret agreement, the Turks pledged to take the side of the Germans. On the 3rd, Turkey declared neutrality, which was a bluff given the agreement with Berlin. On the same day, Istanbul began the mobilization of reservists aged 23-45, i.e. almost universal.

On August 3, Berlin declared war on France, the Germans accused the French of attacks, "aerial bombardments" and even violation of "Belgian neutrality." The Belgians rejected the German ultimatum, Germany declared war on Belgium. On the 4th the invasion of Belgium began. King Albert asked for help from the guarantor countries of neutrality. London issued an ultimatum: stop invading Belgium or Britain would declare war on Germany. The Germans were outraged and called this ultimatum a "racial betrayal". At the end of the ultimatum, Churchill ordered the fleet to begin hostilities. Thus began World War I...

Could Russia have prevented the war?

There is an opinion that if Petersburg had given Serbia to be torn to pieces by Austria-Hungary, the war could have been prevented. But this is an erroneous opinion. Thus, Russia could only win time - a few months, a year, two. The war was predetermined by the course of development of the great Western powers, the capitalist system. Germany, the British Empire, France, the USA needed it, and sooner or later they would have started it anyway. Find another reason.

Russia could only change its strategic choice - for whom to fight - at the turn of about 1904-1907. Then London and the United States frankly helped Japan, while France adhered to cold neutrality. During that period, Russia could join Germany against the "Atlantic" powers.

Secret intrigues and the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand

A film from a series of documentaries "Russia of the XX century". The director of the project is Smirnov Nikolai Mikhailovich, a military expert-journalist, author of the project "Our Strategy" and the series of programs "Our View. Russian Frontier". The film was made with the support of the Russian Orthodox Church. Its representative is Nikolai Kuzmich Simakov, a specialist in church history. Involved in the film: historians Nikolai Starikov and Pyotr Multatuli, Professor of St. Petersburg State University and Herzen State Pedagogical University and Doctor of Philosophy Andrey Leonidovich Vassoevich, editor-in-chief of the national-patriotic magazine "Imperial Renaissance" Boris Smolin, intelligence and counterintelligence officer Nikolai Volkov.

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In those distant times, when the First World War began (July 28, 1914), more than four hundred million people were drawn into hostilities from the very first days. During the four years that it lasted, thirty more states were involved in the war. There were more than 70 million people in the army of the belligerents.

In those years when there was the First World War, the territories of Africa, Europe, Asia, the waters of the seven seas and three oceans were engulfed in the fire of war, disasters and hardships.

The shots that the terrorists fired in Sarajevo turned out to be like a match thrown in a gunpowder store, they provoked consequences that are unparalleled in both social consequences, as well as globally.

When the First World War, which had lasted more than 1,560 days, ended, powerful revolutionary outbursts and the overthrow of governments took place in a number of countries, as the masses were driven to despair by their plight.

How did the war affect events in Russia

The next day, after war was declared on Serbia, Austria-Hungary began bombarding Belgrade. The reaction from the Russian government immediately followed: partial mobilization. Germany, which concentrated troops on its borders, put forward a demand to Russia to stop mobilization, and, having been refused, declared war on Russia. As expected, only four days later, Austria-Hungary joined in.

Then Germany made claims to France and Belgium, after which the United Kingdom acted. Thus, most of the large countries were involved in hostilities, and even when the First World War ended, the world did not return to its former state.

One of the main participants in the First World War is the Russian state. The Russian armed forces were deployed from Iran to the Baltic and the Black Sea. The Russian army, with its decisive actions, repeatedly saved its allies from inevitable defeat.

State of the Russian army and navy during the First World War

The Russian fleet and army during the battles during the First World War were characterized by:

• patriotism;
• high combat skill;
• mass heroism.

Having won a number of victories, the Russian army declared itself to be a serious adversary.

However, due to serious external and internal disagreements, the Russian army did not take a firm position in resolving military issues and reforms, as a result of which the country was on the path of destruction and split.

The First World War ended with the defeat of both Germany and its allies. The victorious powers concluded an armistice and proceeded to post-war settlement, which ended with the Washington Conference of 1921-1922, at which the Versailles-Washington Treaty was signed regarding the system of the world. This document was the result of deals and compromises that did not eliminate the contradictions between the strongest imperialist powers.