Alexander III counterformations (briefly).

Reforms Alexander III.

On April 29, 1881, Alexander III made a manifesto on the approval of the autocracy, which meant the transition to the reaction rate in domestic policy. However, in the first half of the 1880s, under the influence of economic development and the current political situation, the Government of Alexander III was forced to conduct a number of reforms. In 1882, a peasant bank was established, with which the peasants could acquire land ownership. This decision was made yet by Speransky, but did not receive the support of Alexander I. The solution was a natural step before the canceled Podachi and the resolution of the ransom (the ransom was resolved earlier) of the Earth. In 1890, a new position was introduced - the Zemsky Chief, who in his hands focused administrative and judicial power. It was a step back to autocracy, but he was needed, since the current Russia was not ready (and, perhaps, will never be ready for democracy). 1884 was marked by the introduction of a new university charter - military gymnasiums were transformed into Cadet Corps. With the resignation of the Minister of Internal Affairs of Count N. I. Ignatiev (1882) and the appointment to this post Count D. A. Tolstoy began the period of an open reaction. During the reign of Alexander III, administrative arbitrariness significantly increased. Administrative arbitrariness was strengthened by a number of decrees in 1890. Basically, these decrees have appointed new positions that limited the democratic principle of the previous indication - in particular, the new position of the Zemstvo chief was introduced, which had a judicial and administrative authority, which could not have a positive impact on Russian democracy. In order to master the new lands under Alexander III, the resettlement of peasant families in Siberia was a quick pace. In total, in the reign of Alexander III, to Siberia, up to 400 thousand peasants were resettled, and in Central Asia - 60 thousand. The government took care of improving the life of the workers - the rules for hiring to rural and factory work were introduced, the supervision of which was Impeded factory inspectors (1882), the work of young and women was limited. In the foreign policy, during these years, the worsening of Russian-German relations was observed and the gradual rapprochement of Russia and France took place, which ended with the conclusion of the Franco-Russian Union (1891-1893).

From the mid-70s. XIX century The peasant movement increases again. On March 1, 1881, the immoral Emperor Alexander II was killed. The royal government has passed to reaction policies. Counter does 1880.- 1890. In Russia, this is a change in domestic policy, the revision of a number of significant provisions established during the bourgeois reforms of the 60-70-Gg. XIX century Councils begin with adoption in 1881 Provisions on measures to oversee state order and public peace. This document provided for introducing in a separate area or throughout the country of reinforced or emergency protection. In 1889 it was accepted Regulations on the Zemsky district supervisors, Which canceled the principle of the department of the court from the administration. According to the position in the counties, instead of the world judges was introduced institute of Zemsky Plot Chiefs. They had police and administrative functions: the implementation of control over the rural and volost authorities of self-government, the leadership of the police, supervision of the activities of the volost courts and others. The situation caused a serious blow to the system of global vessels, their number began to decline, and by 1913 they completely disappeared. In 1890, it was revised Regulations on the provincial and county diseases institutions.According to the new position, a chicial election system has remained. However, in the first curia, instead of a centered formation principle, a class was established: it included only hereditary and personal nobles. In the second, urban, curia, the property values \u200b\u200bwas significantly elevated. In relation to the peasant curia, the control of the administration increased - the governor himself appointed vowels from among the peasants of the electorals. In 1892 It was adopted new City position. In accordance with this document, the property values \u200b\u200bincreased, which led to removal from elections to the urban Duma small and part of the middle bourgeoisie. Political rights had only those townspeople who owned real estate, as well as owners of trade and industrial enterprises that had guild evidence. Thus, the urban thought has increased the representation of the nobility and a large bourgeoisie. For small cities, the provision was established "Simplified Management": the gathering of the city of the city elected the assembly of the Commissioners, and it chose an urban headman. With increasing reaction in the country began to develop system of administrative repression.A certain role played a note to Art. 1 of the charter of criminal proceedings, allowing cases in which administrative power takes measures in accordance with the procedure established by law to prevent and prevent crimes and misconduct.

Core punishments, although they were canceled by Decree 1863, in practice continued to be applied to the decision of the Committee of Ministers.

In 1871, gendarmerie rights were expanded in the field of inquiries and investigations on state crimes. Inquiry in such cases was carried out the casing of gendarmes.

Since 1872, all the most important affairs on political crimes began to be considered. Special presence of Senata with the participation of class representatives.

In 1866, cases of jury were made of the competence of the jury, in 1874, out of the conduct of common courts - cases of illegal communities and participation in them, in 1878 - cases of counteraction or resistance to the authorities. All these and many other things were transferred to the Military District Courts. In 1887, the court was granted the right to consider "delicate" and "secret" cases with closed doors.

After the sudden death of Alexander II in 1881, Alexander III took place on the throne. His policy was far to ideal, and the reforms were caused by the crisis of the monarch, with whom the country collided in the XX century. Many close emperors believed that he had no money to translate money into illogical and often contradictory reforms, but the ruler himself preferred not to hear the rapidations. For such a relationship between the monarchs, he will have to pay hard to pay Nicholas II. Despite the fact that Alexander III reforms caused many questions, the monarch had a clear algorithm for which he preferred to follow. The emperor transformation was often directly contrary to Alexander II measures, which clearly demonstrated the conflict between the Father and Son.

The desire to stop the terror of the "People's Will" to put in the country the procedure explain the transition of Alexander III in 1881 to the policy of counter-reviews.

"New course" was aimed to strengthen the power of the nobility in the field. Reforms of the 1860-70s. did not develop, but preserved and even fell off. Refusal of liberal transformations, the national-chauvinistic course of the government slowed down the process of economic and social development of the country (B.V. Ananich, V.G. Chernuha).

M.N. Katkov is a famous conservative publicist, one of the ideologues of the counter-reviews of the 80s. XIX., Chief editor of the newspaper "Moscow Vedomosti".

Foreign policy

Bulgarian business occupied important place. The struggle for strengthening Bulgarian statehood ended in the failure of 1887. - Neutrality of Russia and Germany (the purpose of Bismarck is to prevent Russian-French rapprochement).

Conclusions on the reforms of Alexander III

During the reign of Alexander III, the country developed one-sided. Despite the fact that heavy industries and railway construction made a big step forward, the social reforms of Alexander III cannot be called logical. The emperor continued to work on the peasant reform, trying to rebuild the state to a new model of social perception of classes. However, many actions of Alexander III in this direction were illogical and unfinished. The economic transformations of the monarch can also be called the economic transformations. The receiver Nicholas II had to reap the fruits of restless counterposses, along the way, fighting the growing wave of popular discontent.

1. After the tragic killing Alexander II, the new Russian emperor in 1881 became Alexander III - Alexander II Son. The short-term 13-year-old Board of Alexander III (the emperor died in 1894 at the age of 49 as a result of chronic alcohol abuse) was characterized by the conservation of the socio-political life of Russia and the conduct of counter-reviews.

2. A month after the murder of Alexander II, Alexander III in April 1881 was published a manifesto "On the invisibility of autocracy". This manifest was the first step in the intensive care of the orders of Nicholas I and the strengthening of the police state:

- In 1881, M. Loris Melikov resigns, which symbolized the end of reforms;

- In August 1881, the "Regulations on measures to preserve state security and public peace" was published, according to which the governors received the right to introduce a state of emergency on entrusted territory;

- At the end of 1881, security departments under gendarmeria are created throughout the country, the purpose of which was the struggle with any revolutionaries, the introduction of agents and provocateurs in the revolutionary environment;

- 1882 - 1884. - toughened censorship, all the leading liberal editions are closed;

- In 1884, a new university charter is introduced, according to which all positions in universities became appointed, severe discipline was introduced, an open access of employees III of the III branch to the supervision of students' views was allowed, and the obligatory condition for the university and its end was the provision of recommendations on political trustiness ;

- In 1887, a decree "On the kitchen kits" was published, according to which it was forbidden to take in the gymnasium "Children of Kucher, Laceyev, Prachki, Minor Lovers and the like people."

In 1880 - 1890s. There were times of counterposses - attempts to reverse some reforms Alexander II. The largest of them were:

- legal counterformation;

- socio-economic counterformation;

- Zemskaya counterformation;

- City counterformation.

In the course of legal countertility, all the work on the preparation of the Constitution and other fundamental laws were minimized. Subsequently, the government refused the very idea of \u200b\u200bthe Constitution and the introduction of Parliament.

In the socio-economic sphere, the Government of Alexander III tightened a policy towards the peasantry - the size of the peasant navel was limited, the benefits for the redemption of the Earth were canceled - thereby the government contributed to the emergence of an increase in the number of urban and rural proletariat. Zemskaya and urban counter does were a sharp reduction (4 times) the number of people who have the right to vote on the Zemsky and city elections. As a result, Zemstvo and city bodies moved under the complete control of landowners and major urban bourgeoisie. The ideological situation in the country has changed.

- Slavic film cultivated, the ideas of the "identity" of Russia, the "special Russian path";

- the worship before the West was pretended;

- the term "king" was returned to use, which began to be used along with the word "emperor";

- the cult of the monarchy and the monarch was embarrassed - symbols of the monarchy were extended everywhere;

- In 1882, the celebration of the new holiday was held with a big pump - the 1000th anniversary of Russia (1000th anniversary of the association of Kiev and Novgorod Prince Oleg);

- Wearing a beard and traditional Russian clothes - Kaftanov, Nooda, High Caps.

3. The foreign policy of Russia under Alexander III was characterized by:

- search for Russia in Europe;

- Further expansion of the territory of Russia.

The problem of searching for its place in Europe was caused by the emerging split from Europe into two major military-political bloc:

- Anglo-French, "Sea", whose rod was England and France - two great sea colonial empires, which actually rule the world;

- German, "Continental", the basis of which was Germany and Austria-Hungary - two major continental powers that did not have large colonies, but who were passionately to fulfill the redistribution of peace in their favor and undermine the Anglo-French world hegemony.

Two camps acutely competed with politically and economically and gradually prepared for world war. Initially, Russia joined the German, "continental" block. In 1873, almost immediately after the formation of Germany, Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary concluded a military union. All three states were one in the desire to deprive the UK role of hegemon in the world. The Russian-German Military Union was subsequently confirmed twice - in 1881 and in 1884

However, in the 1890s. The union gave the crack - the Germany's rapidly gaining power began to seek the Union to its interests that Russia was not satisfied. At the same time, the Angloofranzesk block strongly sought to attract Russia to his side and weaken the German block.

In 1892, the Russian-French Defensive Union was concluded, which actually excluded Russia from the German bloc. At the same time, Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy created an aggressive tripal union without the participation of Russia, the main objectives of which were preparing for a new war and "uniform" redistribution of colonies from England and France to all leading countries.

In 1904, Russia made his final choice and joined the Anglo-French block - Antante, the main goals of which were the preservation of existing orders and prevent the growth of the role of Germany. This choice predetermined the allies of Russia in the next two world wars. At the same time, Russia continued to actively increase its territory. The main direction of the colonial expansion of Russia in the second half of the XIX century. Middle Asia has become:

- In 1865, after a short war, Tashkent was captured by the armed method and the Turkestan Governor General was formed;

- In 1868 - 1873. Russia's vassal dependence on Russia voluntarily recognized the Bukhara Emirate and the Khiva Khanate, which became part of Russia as semi-independent state entities with internal self-government and were as followed up to the 1920s;

- The final conquest of Central Asia occurred in 1881-1884, when the Turkmen tribes were conquered by the military.

Lecture XL.

Decisive turn to the reaction. - The role of victoryossev. - gr. D. A. Tolstoy, - Reaction in the Ministry of Folk Enlightenment. - Noble reaction policy in domestic affairs. - Anniversary of the humble noble diploma in 1885 and the associated noble reaction movement. - Program of Pazukhin. - elimination of the issue of transforming peasant institutions after the closure of the Kohanov Commission. - Law on July 12, 1889 about the Zemstvo chiefs. - Regulations on Zemstvo institutions on June 12, 1890 - forensic novels. - New Print Law 1882 and its position. - The persecution of innerians and foreigners. - Jewish question. - New orders in the army and military schools.

if you need Brief Information about counterformations, read the chapter "Emperor Alexander III" from the textbook of the Russian history of Academician S. F. Platonova

"Turn to the reaction"

In the two past lectures, I described you two first, very short-term, but at the same time very significant, the period of the reign of Alexander III, which had, in essence, both introductory, transitional, and depending on this very oscillatory.

With the crash of the Ministry of Ignatiev and the transition of power in the hands of Graph Tolstoy in May 1882, the final sharp turn to the reaction begins to the reaction - the turn, based on the already determined by that time, is quite a reaction in the part of Russian society. Since this turn, you can say, the true era of Emperor Alexander III began, painted into his real color. Along with the abolition of the Slavophil Ministries of Ignatiev, very soon after the court secret organizations "Sacred Druzhina" and "Voluntary Guard" were abolished, in the depths of which there were also peculiar constitutional flows and attempts organized by the young Graph Shuvalov with some participation of the then Minister of the Yard GR . Vorontsova-Dashkov. Regarding these attempts now gives a lot of new book by V. Ya. Bogucharsky, which caused significant controversy, mainly by the part of her B. A. Kistyakovsky, the controversy is very fruitful, and all this epoch has been largely revealed .

After the coronation, which was safely celebrated in May 1883, the government managed to seize the remnants of the revolutionary organization "People's Volia" with the assistance of the traitor for the Debaeva revolutionary and with the help of that internal discharge, which at that time came in the revolutionary environment, and then the Tolstoy was given in the hands " All completeness of power ", expressing modern language to us.

However, the Tolstoy had to spend a lot of effort and time on the final elimination of the heritage of the "heart dictatorship": under it, for three years, as you could see, N. Khungu continued; With it, for two years, the Kikhanov Commission worked for two years, and for the work of this commission the government had to finally prepare special funerals in the first category, inviting her pre-assistance to himself for a complete cancellation of its convenience of special experts from the Society, which were chosen from The numbers of the most reactive nobility, loudly stated at the time in different areas of Russia, and from local administrators "Strong Hand", like the Chernihiv Governor Anastasyev. I repeat on all this, I had to spend thick enough to spend at least two or three years.

Council Education Council

Previously, all the Tolstoy managed to restore the reactionary current of affairs in the old department, in the Ministry of Folk Education, with which he headed for 16 years in the reign of Alexander II and where at this time, in May 1882, the Liberal Minister of Baron Nicholas also replaced Liberal But now Slaska Pokorny Tolstoy and Victorious I. D. Delianov. Here already in 1884 it turned out to be possible to hold a new university charter, made according to the ideas of Katkova, Leontyev and Lyubimov, so that the rollers could finally learn, proclaim his famous triumphant shock: "Stand up, gentlemen, the government goes, the government is returning."

According to the new charter, university councils were deprived of all residues of autonomy, and the ministry got the opportunity to draw up a program of legal and philological faculties in its own way, so universities had to recall the times of Shirinsky-Shikhmatov. Students decided to take, so to speak, in his mittens, destroying all sorts of primitives of corporate organizations in their environment, and at the slightest attempts to protest them in soldiers. And several cases of applying this harsh measure was indeed in the reign of Emperor Alexander III.

Such was the new regime in the highest school; A secondary school can be said that relatively it was the desire to return it to the position of the Nikolaevsky estate gymnasium, while maintaining all the features of the Tolstovsky classical system. The characteristic document of the Dellean system is precisely in relation to high school, a well-known circular about "cuiskens", as he was called abbreviated in the public, belonged at all to children of the lower estates that were able to certainly be eliminated from the gymnasiums, and to relieve it, it was assumed To destroy the preparation classes in order to make it difficult to prepare children in the first grade for people. The idea proclaimed by the emperor was resurrected by the emperor back in 1827 in his famous Sishkov rescripter.

The lower schools were supposed to finally convey to the spiritual department, according to the harassment of victoryossev, and if De Facto did not happen in the 90s, he could largely be due to the noble opposition, which, even being reaction, did not want, however , release the case of primary education from their hands; The main thing that was not possible because the government did not have the necessary funds. After all, the zemstvo in the vast majority did not agree to transfer their criticism to the spiritual department; These schools could, of course, take away from the scum, but then it would be necessary to allocate official funds on them, namely, there was not enough money; And, thus, thanks to this, and due to the fact that the vast majority of the scum agreed to the proposal of the Graph of Tolstoy to transfer voluntarily school to the spiritual department, the schools remained further in the hands of the Zem.

But it must be said that the lowest type of national schools, namely the so-called schools of diplomas, schools that were satisfied with the peasants themselves and for which even teachers who received special teacher rights were required - these schools, according to law on June 13, 1884, Conducted victorious with the support of Delianov, were transferred entirely to the authority of the Holy Synod. This is the last circumstance, however, it turned out to be not particularly harmful in the development of the initial public education, since this type of schools are extremely bad in itself, and the zemstvo was inclined to him only in cases where they had no money for Self-based schools, and the fact that the schools of the diplomas were transferred to the spiritual department, pushed the scope from them and thus forced them to sometimes give large appointments to popular education and base new high-type schools. Such was the position of popular education in this reaction era.

Cast drafts - support nobility

The new noble reaction direction, which was conducted by the government at the column in the internal affairs, was clearly reflected on the fate of the peasant question and on the reform of the ZemSOVA. Both had the nearest connection with the works of the Kohanov Commission. The first manifestations of noble reaction campaigning, as you have already seen last time, discovered in 1881, when discussing issues of compulsory redemption and decline in redemption payments. As soon as there were seriously the material interests of the nobility, the immediate noble reaction campaign was the rumors of rumors about the very disturbing mood of the peasants and on the penetration of the Kramol ideas in the peasant medium, which were developed there in the form of sense about the close full or so-called "black" frontier Earth, and these rumors that had, may be some reason, but, undoubtedly, extremely bloated, made a very strong impression on the emperor Alexander III. Already in the speech of the sovereign, which he said in 1883 on the coronation by the volost elders, sounded the first sharp caution of peasants - not to listen to the cramoles and obey and to obey themselves, as the sovereign, "his" leaders of the nobility expressed. At first glance, it seems like a simplicity - it would seem, the leaders of the nobility and were leaders only nobilitybut Emperor Alexander presented that the leader of the nobility is the head of all power and society in the county.

Reception of volute foreman Alexander III. Painting I. Repin, 1885-1886

Further rapprochement of the government with the reactionary species of the nobility was manifested in the method of eliminating the work of the deposits, which was entrusted to discuss the peasant question still Loris-Melikov, and the works of the Kikhanov Commission, as well as in a number of highly significant acts related to the council of the jubilee of the noble pledged diploma in 1885

According to this, in 1885, a special noble bank was opened, whose special task was to maintain loans on preferential conditions of the noble land tenure. In the manifesto, published on this occasion, the wish was expressed, in order to continue the "noblemen of Russian preserved a charter in the leadership of the roller, in the affairs of local department and the court, in distributing the example of their rules of faith and loyalty and common public education."

In the Thanksgiving addresses of the nobles, which followed this manifest, it was from the most reactive nobility of some provinces, especially in the address of the nobility of the Symbirian province, where the Alatyarsky leader of the nobility of Pazukhin became the head of this flow, it was stated that the nobility places his hopes for The government, precisely for strong governmental power, the strengthening of which would allow the nobility to live in the villages in the villages. For these statements of the nobility, the government answered that legislative work will be sent in this spirit. It was extremely significant and completely ended with all the democratic and liberal ideas that have already found some support in the Ministry of Ignatiev and Bunge; The cross was finally supplied over all of this. And we see that, indeed, the elimination of those and projects that were prepared by the Kohanov Commission were entrusted to Pazukhin, which was the most bright and consistent representative of this noble reaction flow. Pazukhin outlined his ideas rather brightly in 1885 in the article printed by him in the "Russian Herald", and then appeared in the form of a separate brochure under the title "The current state of Russia and thesis". Here, Pzuhin openly declared the cause of all the ulcers of modern Russia, that unspecified system, which was created by the reforms of the 60s, of which he was particularly hated by the reform of Zemstvo and judicial.

"Social leveling, which began, - according to Pazukhina, is not from the peasant, but from the Zemstvo reform, deprived the nobility of all the serving rights both on the local and state administration. The loss of official privileges had consequences to the weakening of the connection of the nobility with the government, the disintegration of the nobility as a corporation and the gradual fall of his authority among the population. This abnormal political situation responded unfavorable on noble ownership. "

The same conditions loosened, according to Pazukhin, and other estates. Simultaneously with the gradual destruction of the estates, the "non-syllable society, which recently received the name of the intelligentsia," the concept of the intelligentsia, "in this concept, is incorporated," everything is coming out of the class life. This is that a shapeless society that fills all the cracks formed in the folk organism in the reform era, and which now lies with a rather thick layer at the top of Russia. "

The antipathy of Pazukhin to this layer is limitless. A distinctive feature of it is groundlessness, alienation from the people.

"Losing all the consideral features, the Russian man loses all national traits."

Pazukhin reaches the whole intelligentsia in a self-effort to shock the basics. Having established, thus, the diagnosis of the disease caused by Russia by the reforms of Alexander II, Pazukhin pointed out in his article and the path to healing.

"If, he wrote," in the reforms of the past reign, we see the great evil in the fact that they destroyed the current organization, the task of this should consist in restoring the violated. "

It is no wonder that with such a mood of the nobility, rather sharply manifested in the province, while rumors about the closest recovery of serfdom were distributed between the peasants.

Regulations on the Zemsky Chiefs and Zemstvo institutions (1890-1891)

Dmitry Andreevich Tolstoy. Portrait of work I. Kramsky, 1884

These ideas of Pazukhina came to taste to the Minister of Internal Affairs GR. Tolstoy, and he, inviting Pazukhin to the rulers of his office, instructed him to develop a draft possible restoration of lost. The result of this work was subsequently, however, in a significantly modified form, the provision on the Zemsky bosses on July 12, 1889 and the Regulation on Zemstvo institutions on June 12, 1890 was the leading thought in both of these provisions, on the one hand, the desire to create on the ground "strong and a close to the people of the government, "as they were definitely expressed in government circles, - the power that would be able to exercise all-in-law administrative custody, and on the other hand, recognition of the need to ensure and noble owners can not only be favorably to lead their farm, but And borrow an honorable and influential position in the local life. And this, indeed, corresponded to the Regulations on the Zemstvo chiefs who were extended by the strong authority and had the right of guardianship over individual peasants and on the organs of the peasant self-government and the court. This government focused, indeed, in the hands of the local nobility, as these Zemstvo chiefs should have been appointed from its environment; At the same time, they were agents subordinate to the provincial administration. Soon, the degree of independence and independence was also destroyed from the governmental government, which was provided to them under the provision of 1864 under the provision of 1890, the Zemstvo administration was introduced into the system of native institutions. In this case, Tolstoy, very deftly took advantage of the theory dominant in the state law, according to which the bodies of the Zemsky self-government should be recognized by state authorities and Zemstvo local government carries out of some purely social rights and obligations, but part of state power; And so, putting this idea for the basis of his project and giving it, of course, the color of its mood, the government of Tolstoy from this provision made such a conclusion that the exploitation of the state authorities, then, therefore, first of all, they should be put in the Mind Mundar internal affairs and subjugate to the superior authorities of this department. Therefore, the councils had to be subordinated to the Governor's authorities, the Chairmen of the Council should have been to the appointment of the government and all the decisions of the Zemskiy meetings were supposed to be delivered not only to the control of the governor's authority, but also had to receive power only after approval by their governor. This side of the case satisfied Tolstoy. According to the ideas of Pazukhin, who was the chief Creator of these projects, made, with some changes, provisions in 1889 and 1890, the main task was to destroy the nonsense or all-known building introduced by the Criminal Regulation of 1864, and the replacement of its purely class system with So that at the same time this is a full advantage of nobility. Accordingly, the electoral system was changed in the deposits and changed was the distribution of the number of Zemsky vocabulary, those who were now rebuilt on the class. Most of all the electoral system was changed in relation to the peasantry. The peasants amounted to a special smoke, as in the position of 1864, but, first, they were deprived of the right to elect persons who do not belong to their curia, which was strengthened by the Quality of Kurry; Then, since the number of vowels from the peasants was extremely reduced and everywhere was significantly less than the number of volosts in each county, and the choice of vowels was provided to equally, that is why the parish should be elected only candidatesin vowels, and of them, the governor will have to determine who should be vowels. Thus, in the end, the vowels of the peasants were vowels to appoint the governor and, of course, on the recommendation of the Zemsky Chief.

The number of vowels from the nobles was extremely increased in all counties with an absolute reduction in the total number of vowels, and thus, under the position of 1890, the Zemskiy county meetings were made, in essence, speaking, almost noble meetings, because the representatives of the nobility were almost in all counties in the overwhelming majority. It must be said, however, that the project itself the Tolstoy Ministry of the Interior could not be carried out well. Count Tolstoy died before bringing this case to the end before, and although I. N. Dunovo was appointed to his place, who was a comrade Minister and who was considered inspired by the same principles, but, not possessing him with his talents, nor his character, or his influence In particular, he could not defend in the State Council of the designed fat position in full. In this way, part of this provision concerned by the appeal of the bodies of the Zemsky self-government in completely subordinate to the governors of the present places was not fully carried out. The State Council largely changed the project, and the situation that came out of the State Council was not to be exhausted by any self-government, as it would be expected, judging by the original project of Tolstoy.

Nevertheless, it was a perfect distortion of the position of 1864, especially in relation to the peasantry. The restriction of the peasants, which was expressed in the fact that in the end, the vowels from the peasants were appointed by the governor, canceled only in 1906 by law on October 5, which you know from the course of peasant law. I will not describe in detail for the same reason and the situation on July 12, 1889 on the Zemstvo chiefs; I will only say that the introduction of this provision was also preceded by the development of some other laws, absolutely as striving for the establishment of administrative care over peasants in the interests of the local nobility and to regulate this way of the position of the peasantry. Two laws developed with the assistance of the same Pazukhina, it was the law on hiring the peasants on agricultural work, which was edited by the interests of the landowners, and then the law on peasant family sections, which was one of the typical samples of the application of the guardianship idea to peasant law .

Counterames in the forensic sphere

Of course, this reaction time continued in reinforced form and those distortion of the judicial charters that began, as you saw, in the previous reign. These distortion concerned, of course, above all, more and more narrowing the role of the jury. But in addition, it was the law on July 12, 1889, one of the fundamental principles of judicial charters was strongly disturbed: it was the principle of division of judicial and administrative authorities. It was violated in relation to cases, however, a secondary meaning - in relation to less important crimes and less valuable civil claims, but but more often occurring in life. I'm talking about the destruction of the world justice. At the very moment, the Emperor Alexander, the State Council of the State Heads of Zemstvo, the State Council, was expressed in the State Council, the former Minister of Finance A. A. Abazoy thought to replace the rules of the global judges into the English sample, - decided that the parallel existence of these the authorities will indeed require too much expenses and maybe it will be a measure that contradicts the idea of \u200b\u200bstrong and close to the people of power, and therefore indicated that the magistrates should be completely destroyed, and the judicial authority, which by law entrusted, It must be divided: part - according to some more important cases - it must be transferred to the district courts, and on more unavailable misconduct - the Zemsky Chiefs in rural areas, special urban courts should be established for cities with more simplified forms of staging and less standing, and The second instance and in relation to them should be the congress of the Zemstvo Chiefs. It is a mixture of administrative and judicial authorities and was held in the Regulations on the Zemstvo Chiefs.

Print under Alexandra III

Then, of course, in this reaction time and even earlier than all these changes in reform 60s followed, extremely, of course, deteriorated by the already severe position of printing. In this regard, as soon as Tolstoy joined the position, already in 1882, he was concerned about the publication of new additional temporary rules on August 27, 1882, which added a whole range of highly decisive to print measures to those measures that were established by temporary Rules of 1865 and Timashevskiy addresses. According to this new rules, firstly, this provision was introduced that those provincial bodies that were temporarily suspended after three cautions could again begin to go out only under a special kind of preliminary censorship, it was: for the newspapers it was established that each newspaper subjected to this kara It can again go out only with such a condition so that each room is on the eve of entering light, no later than 11 o'clock in the evening, it appeared in censorship. This, of course, was almost completely impracticable for daily newspapers, because, as you know, newspapers, the duties of which lies exactly to report the latest news, are printed at night, up to the very moment the mailing list, and thus can not be prepared for 11 o'clock in the evening on the eve or must notice the novelty information. Therefore, as soon as this rule was applied to the "voice" of the Kraevsky and the "country" Polonsky, who were published in St. Petersburg and then the most sharp liberal newspapers, then these newspapers had to stop existence. The second rule that was re-introduced was the establishment of a special areaopaga of four ministers: Minister of Folk Enlightenment, Minister of Internal, Affairs, Minister of Justice and Ober-Prosecutor of the Holy Synod, who was given the right in the event of the destruction of the harmful direction of some magazine or newspaper forever to stop This is a publication, and they could, at the same time, and completely deprive the right also forever editor of this newspaper or magazine to publish any press organs.

With special severity applied to journals and newspapers, especially in the first years of the Tolstov regime, all those draconian measures that were established by new and former legislation on the press. So, such karas were filmed on the printing authorities as deprivation of the right to print ads as numerous warnings, which were in the end to suspension and then, according to a new law, to the return to preliminary censorship, as depriving the right of retail sales, which hurts newspapers in Economic terms. A new way was also applied to the final termination of the magazine by decision of the Four Ministers: it was in this way "domestic notes" from January 1884 were discontinued and some other liberal print bodies of the time.

At the end of the Tolstsky regime, it was in the 1980s, in the last two or three years of life a thickness of such companies decreased significantly, and it was possible, as K. K. Arsenyev notes, even think that this was a symptom of mitigation; But such a decrease in the car in fact, as explains the same historian censorship, depended on the fact that it was not for anyone and nothing to impose them, since a significant number of liberal independent press bodies was or completely discontinued, or put in such a position, That they did not dare to touch, and in cases of doubt themselves editors themselves explained to the censors and launched that the small region of freedom, which he presented itself to censorship. In such circumstances, only a few of the liberal printing bodies, such as "Journal of Europe", "Russian thought" and "Russian statements", who, however, constantly felt the sword were constantly on them, and their existence was always hanging on them All this time on thread.

Religious and national policy of Alexander III

Especially hard in this gloomy era of Russian life, as you will see now, there was a position of various innerians, foreigners and in general the population of Russia.

True, with regard to issues of violence, then at the beginning of the reign of Emperor Alexander III, on May 3, 1883, the law was published, as if providing some kindness, at least with respect to the splitters and sectarians. But already in the next time, hopes initiated by this law should be completely left; It is in relation to the sectarians that the Government led in this case showed a special severity, and sometimes even, it can be said, and ferocity, pursuing sects of the most pure and moral in nature, such as, for example, Pashkovtsy, Tolstov, Dukhoboretsev, Studdists.

These sects were persecuted not because in them, as in the sections of Skobsts or whips, there were any harmful and in moral terms of intolerable teachings, but simply because these sects were recognized as the most dangerous for the dominant religion. They were pursued in particular standers and the Dukhobors, and the government came out sometimes even before children from their parents, so there was nowhere to go further. In 1894, at the very end of the reign of Emperor Alexander III, prayer meetings were even forbidden to the standists.

This was completely harmonized and measures against uniats in the Western Territory and the Kingdom of Polish, and in some cases against Lutheran in the Ostzay region. At this time, in general, militant nationalism in Russia flourished, and he reached his apogee on the outskirts. Jews and Poles Catholics, the last in the Western Territory, were simply pursued at this time, and even in the very kingdom of Polish. Persecuted and Lamaita, Kalmyki and Buryats - they were forbidden to build temples, send worship, and other of them experienced special persecutions in cases where they were officially listed in Orthodoxy, and then in reality it turned out that they continue to confess the previous religion.

Jews especially underwent various restrictions. So, by the time rules on May 3, 1882, the Jews had the right to settle within the limits of even the very feature of settlingoutside the cities and towns; They were forbidden to acquire immovable property in rural areas. In 1887, Rostov-on-Don and Taganrog with county were seized from a set of settling; Thus, the trait of somewar, in which the Jews have long had the right to live, was reduced. In 1891 it was forbidden to settle in Moscow to artisans, who had this right under the law of 1865, the permanent settlement of the sideways of the Jews who received higher education, and artisans. And as a result of the reverities of artisans, settle in Moscow and in the Moscow province in 1891. A number of evictions were made, and these evictions were often produced in the most outrageous forms: about 17 thousand Jews were evicted, and they were evicted where they fell, with a complete ruin, Since these were the least secured layers of the Jewish population.

In 1887, a percentage rate in educational institutions was introduced for Jewish children, the consequences of which everyone is well known. In 1889, he actually suspended the admission of Jews in jury attorneys, and without any legal foundation, they began to be left by the assistants of jury attacked until the end of their lives. In this regard, a certain change has come only in recent years.

Poles were strongly limited in the rights of public service in the kingdom of Polish and the West Territory, but in the rest of Russia, they did not experience special constraints.

Councils in the Military Ministry

The reaction spirit that everywhere and divert himself at this time to feel, reflected in orders in the army. Here are those humane principles that sought to introduce and strengthen D. A. Milyutin during its twenty-year-billive management of the military ministry, there is little little to be disappeared. The government, which in many ways tried to improve the material life of the officers, which established for officers preferential conditions for receiving tickets to theaters, etc., at the same time, it was sought to raise the officer in spirit definitely to the caste, so that it felt completely separated from the rest population. In order to stronger to develop this spirit in the officers, even special legislative norms were published for him. So, especially for officers was canceled for the entire population banning the criminal law of duel. In general, participation in duels are punished rather significant carray; Meanwhile, the duel officers in a certain order were not only allowed among themselves, but according to the new law they were allowed to resort to duels even in their clashes with civilian people; In certain cases, the Code of Honor, established at this time for officers, even requires a call to a duel.

In an effort to bring up in the caste spirit of people intended by their parents to officer career with youngsters, the Military Ministry rebuilt again and the military schools that were transformed with milyutin in the spirit of humanity and reasonable pedagogical techniques: with Bathnovsky, new military minister, they were again Transformed from military gymnasiums to Cadet Corps and the authorities tried to restore in them the regime of closed military-educational institutions, who reigned in them under the emperor Nicolae I.

The literature of this issue is listed below in the reign bibliography of Emperor Alexander III.

On the "May rules" 1882 was forbidden only to come there new Jewish settlers, already living In the villages, the sideways of the Jews were not expelled from there. (Approx. Compiler site)

Federal Railway Agency

Ural State University of Communications

Department: History and Political Science

Discipline: "History of Russia"

"Alexander III counter doors"

Yekaterinburg

1. Introduction

2. Personality of Alexander III

3. New Emperor Politics Alexander III

4. Controlrforms Alexander III

4.1 Education

4.2 Printing

4.4 Peasantry

4.5 Zemskaya and City Council

Conclusion

Bibliography

1. Introduction

Considering the Government course of Alexander III (1881 - 1894), it should be borne in mind that he entered the story as a period of "counterreform". Traditionally, its internal political course is approved as conservative.

The concept of counter-processing has a broad meaning and includes not only reactionary laws, but also the entire political course of Russian autocracy.

In the abstract, I intend to reveal the identity of the emperor, to designate its political course, the tasks, as well as the practical implementation of the goals set.

After reading the abstract, you will understand what contradictory it was his reign, and will be presenting the overall picture of the life of that time.

2. Personality of Alexander III

In 1845 on February 26, in Anichkov Palace in St. Petersburg, Zesarevich Alexander Nikolayevich, the future of Emperor Alexander II, was born a third child and the second son. The boy was named after Father Alexander and him, like her grandfather, to Emperor Nicholas I, - the will of fate had to become the All-Russian self-container.

The identity of Alexander III personified and power, and the poverty of his reign. Hasive and clumsy, with rude manners, Gulliver in physical terms, Alexander III was a Liliput regarding mental. He became the heir to the throne unexpectedly, in a mature age (20 years old), after the death of the eldest brother Nicholas. Therefore, he was not prepared for the royal proportion, and he himself did not like to learn and remained for the whole life.

The lack of intelligence and education has harmonized Alexander III with rudeness. Here are the characteristic of his resolutions and replicas, witnessed documented: "I hope that this cattle will be forced to speak," on the arrested persuaded, P. Isaev; "Cattle or Persistent," - about the artist V. V. Vereshchagin, etc.

Overweight from the Swedish nobles officer from Swedish nobles. He demanded an apology, declaring that if he did not get it, shot. The officer committed suicide. "Alexander II became very angry with his son and ordered him to follow the coffin of the officer up to the grave," but even this did not go to Tsarevich. Becoming king, he demonstrated his temper constantly. What is worth, for example, its decree appoint the manager of the Tsarist Stables in the Senate V. D. Martynov! Senators were rebounded, they decided to rap it, but the king of the barsky presets of their ropot. "Well, E. M. Feoktists consoled himself melancholically, it could be worse. Caligula put his horse in the Senate, and now only a groom is sent to the Senate. Still progress! "

The facts captured in the diaries of the king itself were found: "Boiled until 5 o'clock in the morning" - repeatedly. The superior guardian guard officer V. P. Obninsky and, the main thing, the Ober-Sobutnik Alexander III, General P. A. Cherevin, was testified about the same, the Tsar and the general of the tsar and the general, which is called, "from the throat" in Palace The rest, after which the autocrat of all Rus, laying on the floor, "squeal from pleasure" and "Noroville to catch the legs" of his households. Probably, he knew about this weakness and V. O. Klyuchevsky, who in 1893-1894 he taught the history of the Tsarsky Son Georgia. In the notebook, the historian says: "There can be no dealer of the monarch who cannot hold on his feet." Attempts by today's admirers of Alexander III to portray him with a sober-minded are based exclusively on loyal conviction that his imperial majesty could not be drunk. "He, - with the categorical of an eyewitness (which can only steal the reader) writes A. N. Bhakhanov," sometimes he drank a glass-other vodka, tincture or emphasis, but never in life was drunk. "

Of course, Alexander III - with all the odiousness, such many and important qualities - cannot be refused in certain advantages. In contrast to its autocratic predecessors, he was an exemplary family man; did not have (in contrast to the father, grandfather, uncle and brothers) of inclinations to amure adventures; and did not like intrigans and podhalimov; So much worked with the documents that his daughter Olga in the rustling of love called the Father "the most diligent person throughout the Earth." "The first billionaire of the Universe", according to the expression of M. N. Pokrovsky, Alexander III was modest to everyday life, surprising his ministers, for example, by the fact that he had salary pants wore. Purely everyday, judging by the memoirs of S. Yu. Witte, as well as royal relatives, drugs and priests, Alexander III and in mental relationship meant something, holding the average level of common sense, although it was deprived of state wisdom. This omission of nature replenished the political mentor of the king, the Ober Prosecutor of the Holy Synod ("Russian Pope", as he called him in Europe) Konstantin Petrovich Victoronians.

Alexander III was an exemplary family man. It so happened that he received a "inheritance" from Nicholas, not only Titula Zesarevich, but also the bride. Back in September 1864, Nikolai made a proposal of the daughter of the Danish king Christian of the IX princess Louise Sophia Frederic Dagmar. When in early April 1865 in Nice Nikolai sick seriously and became clear that he was dying, not only relatives from Russia came to her older brother, but also the Bride of Dagmara. Both the reign dynasties were interested in strengthening related ties. However, in the plans of the heir of the Russian throne, the feeling unexpectedly intervened: he fell in love with the Freilline of his mother Princess Maria Meshcherskaya. It was romantic love at a distance, with fleeting meetings and notes that lovers exchanged through the other Freillan - Princess Alexander Zhukovskaya (daughter of the poet V. A. Zhukovsky).

Understanding your duty to the family and family Dagmara, shortly before the new, 1866, Alexander gave the mother promise to marry a Danish princess. But there were also serious fluctuations: in May 1866, Zesarevich even wanted to abandon the throne, just to keep Masha Mashcherskaya, which he had an extremely difficult conversation with his father. The emperor hard ordered his son to marry and forget about his love. In June 1866, the engagement of Alexander and Dagmary in Copenhagen took place, and on October 28, they became her husband and his wife. Crossing in Orthodoxy, Dagmara took the name of Mary Fedorovna. About his "cute dusken" (so called Masha Mashcherskaya in his diary) Alexander will hear twice: in 1867, when she married, and a year later, when Masha dies during childbirth. Then she turned only 24 years old ...

Alexander Alexandrovich never forgot his first love, but to his wife, "dear mini", he also experienced the warmest feelings, and she answered him sincere devotion. Young lived away from a noisy yard, in Anichkov Palace, everywhere appeared together, even in military parades. At the same time, the Great Princess Maria Fedorovna never sought to stand out, influence the course of public affairs or impose her will his will. She was an ideal wife, and he is an ideal husband and father. They were born six children: sons - the future emperor Nicholas II (1868), Alexander (1869 - 1902), George (1871 - 1902), Mikhail (1878, killed, like Nikolai, in 1918), Ksenia's daughter (1875 - 1960) and Olga (1882 - 1960). Alexander Alexandrovich very quickly entered the role of the father of the family, and he liked this role. He wrote a victorious: "The birth of children is the most joyful minute of life, and it is impossible to describe it, because it is a completely special feeling."

In everyday use, he was unpretentious, distinguished by common sense, was hard and appreciated the hardness in others.

3. New emperor policy - Alexander III

The new course in the Liberal historians of the end of the XIX - early XX century. Received the name "counter-reviews", i.e. Transformations against great reforms of 1860 - 1870s, designed to return the pre-reform orders. Alexander III against Alexander II? No, everything was more difficult. The government course was adjusted, he acquired a feature that did not have the 2nd quarter of the XIX century in the 2nd quarter of the XIX century. Nor the era of Alexander II. The liberal public figure V. A. Maklanov noted: "I can't imagine anyone in these 80 - 90s. He could seriously wish not only the restoration of serfdom, but also return to the previous ships, to the first places of the time of the "auditor" and "dead souls", etc. It was rushed into eternity. "

If you try to briefly describe the internal medicine events of Emperor Alexander III, then it follows, of course, to start with the priority of the government - the fight against the revolution. Already on August 14, 1881, the "Regulations on measures to protect state peace and public security" was adopted, which allowed in any province and regions of Russia temporarily (for a period of 3 years) to introduce an enhanced or state of emergency, which gave the local administration to the broadest powers, including rights For the prohibition of periodicals and an administrative reference "suspicious" and "harmful" persons, the opportunity to remove representatives of elected self-government bodies from the fulfillment of their powers. For this provision, as well as the "Regulations on the localities announced in the military" (dated June 8, 1892, even civilians could fall under the jurisdiction of military courts. For enhanced security, emergency and martial law, the government translated the terrain who were either, more often, could become the foci of "troubled" or revolution.

A repressive apparatus has been strengthened. Within the framework of the Department of the Interior, the Department of Police, which, in addition to actually: issues of law enforcement, has been issued by political search, internal and overseas agents, open and cheerful supervision of citizens and controlled political inquiries. The importance of this body emphasizes the fact that his director V.K. Plight and P.N.Durnovo later headed by the Ministry of the Interior (the beginning of the 1900s). The police began to work as ahead, without waiting for "unrealized" citizens to begin throwing bombs. Even more promptly worked on places secret-search (later "security") branches. They tracked the activities of suspicious individuals and organizations, percussioned mail, introduced their agents into a social movement. There was no virtually a single public organization in Russia, including the right and monarchist sense, in which the guard would not have their agents.