Social systems are the following set of interconnected and ordered elements among themselves:

man and various social groups;

material objects (means of labor, objects of labor, buildings, structures, means of communication, etc.);

processes (economic, political, social, spiritual);

values ​​(ideas, knowledge, cultural and moral values, customs, traditions, beliefs, etc.).

All social systems can be classified on the same basis as other types of systems.

I. According to the genetic basis, they are divided into:

Material systems:

Small social groups (family, professional groups, party cells, etc.);

Medium (rural community, municipality, etc.);

Large (state, confederation of trade unions, parties, etc.);

Complex systems (unions of states, military-political blocs, economic unions, etc.).

Ideal systems are associated with awareness and cognition of the surrounding world by a person. They can also be subdivided into:

Small (individual consciousness, spiritual world personality);

Medium (the system of views of a certain group of individuals, traditions and customs of an ethnic group, etc.);

Large (economic theory, sociological science, etc.);

Universal (worldview, mythology, religion, etc.).

II. According to the form, social systems are divided into:

Small social systems. These include separate social objects, the internal structure and functioning of which are relatively simple, and the interaction of their constituent elements is of a coordinating nature (individual, family, small group, etc.).

Middle social systems. They have in their structure two clearly distinguished groups of elements, between which the links are of a subordinate nature (for example, the structure of local government, the economic structure of the region, etc.).

Large social systems. They include a complex structure of interactions between their constituent elements (for example, the state, parties, economic system countries).

Complex social systems. These include those that have a multi-level system of existence with internal regulation of subsystems (Commonwealth independent states, International Monetary Fund, European Union, Civilizations).

III. According to the nature of interaction, social systems are divided into:

Open (soft) systems are influenced by external conditions and themselves have the opposite effect on them (for example, international sports, cultural, etc. associations).

Closed. There are no completely closed (rigid) systems, but there are limited interactions with other specific systems. For example, the system of correctional (penitentiary) institutions in the state.

IV According to the nature of their laws, social systems are:

Probabilistic. In them, their components can interact in an indefinite number of ways (for example, a society at war).

Deterministic. They have a precisely defined result of interaction (for example, legal, legislative).

V. By degree of generality:

Socio-economic formations are a combination of production forces and production relations;

Social communities united on any basis (nations, estates, ethnic groups, settlements);

Organizations operating in the real sector of the economy (production.);

Primary level of social systems. Here, each person has direct contact with everyone (teams, departments).

VI. On a territorial basis:

Federation;

Subject of the federation;

Municipal associations (city, town, etc.)

VII. By areas of public life:

Economic (industry, communications, agriculture, transport, construction);

political;

social;

Spiritual;

family - household.

VIII. According to the degree of homogeneity, social systems can be:

Homogeneous - homogeneous social systems, the elements of which have the same or similar properties. Such systems do not have profound differences in their structure. An example of a homogeneous social system is students as a social group.

Heterogeneous - heterogeneous social systems that consist of elements with different properties and structures. Any specific society (Russian, American) can serve as an example of a homogeneous social system.

IX Social systems may vary in degree of complexity. The degree of complexity does not depend on the scale of the system, not on its "size", but on the structure, organization, nature of the connection of elements and other factors. So, for example, a person is a more complex social system than other, much larger social systems.

Thus, the social system as a sociological phenomenon is a multidimensional and multidimensional formation with a complex composition, typology and functions.

social classification system

And the processes have a characteristic internal structure. The most complex social system is society, and people act as its elements. Them social activity dictated by individual qualities, occupied by the functions performed, social values and installed by this system.

The social system is presented in the following aspects:

A set of individuals whose joint interaction is dictated by common circumstances (village, city, family, etc.);

Social community;

Hierarchy of statuses and social functions,

social organization;

A set of values ​​and norms

Culture.

All aspects are closely intertwined. Therefore, we can say that the social system is an organic unity of three aspects: culture, social community and social organization.

In a social community, social processes take place precisely because of its base - the totality of people with the conditions of their life (interests, needs, education, etc.). The social community functions and develops on the basis of the interaction of individuals and social ties.

Social connection, in turn, is expressed by the compatibility of the functioning of elements or objects. There are 2 types of connections here: genetic (structural, causal) and formal (concerning only the plane of knowledge).

Social bonding is usually understood as a set of factors that determine joint activities individuals in separate, specific societies to achieve certain goals. Such relationships are usually long-term and do not depend on personal qualities. These are connections between individuals and the processes and phenomena occurring around them. Such connections lead to new social relationships. This is how a social system is formed, the concept of which is closely connected with the concept of "social structure". The social structure divides society into so-called layers (by position, by mode of production). The main elements in it are social communities, classes, ethnic, professional).

The social system carries the sum of all social processes and phenomena that are in connections and relationships with each other and create a common object. The elements of this system form separate processes and phenomena. The social structure is included in the field of phenomena of the social system, combining two components: social composition with social connection.

An important goal of state policy is to build a system of state support, the essence of which is to subsidize certain categories of society, by allocating budget funds or use

The social security system (SO) originated in the thirties of the last century. The first mention of it appeared in the United States, initiated by the "Act
on social security" in 1935.

The right to JI, enshrined in the Constitution of the Russian Federation, is reflected in the form of a set of legislative measures and related organizations. Protection of low-income and disabled persons is carried out in two directions:

Social help;

Social Security.

COs include pensions, allowances, vocational training for disabled people with their further employment, medical care and rehabilitation of disabled people, etc. The root of the effectiveness of the work lies in a well-thought-out funding mechanism. Insurance funds collected through taxes are the source of social insurance payments. In addition, appropriations and budgetary funds are used.

The task of social services is to provide people in need with all forms of social services.

Introduction

The study of any science begins with the clarification of its subject, structure, functions, place of role in the system of sciences and the life of society. Over the course of the century, the subject matter of sociology has continuously changed. There was both a refinement of it, this was expressed in the separation of sociology from philosophy, and an increase in the number of concepts of theoretical sociology. There are more than a hundred definitions of sociology. Fundamental, with all this diversity, remains the fact that sociology is the science of society.

social system

The concept of "social system" was used in their writings by ancient thinkers. But this concept has been more precisely formulated only at the present time. For a correct understanding and use of concepts, it is necessary to clearly understand what is meant by the categories "system" and "structure", as well as how they relate to each other.

AT scientific literature there are over fifty definitions of "system". Summarizing them, we can say that the system is a set of elements that are in mutual relations and form a whole. At the same time, the latter is already a new formation in relation to the distant elements of which it consists, and its properties are not reducible to the properties of the elements.

Thus, the system, on the one hand, is something independent and different from its elements, and on the other hand, it is at the same time dependent on them. And the elements included in the system, in turn, acquire its inherent properties and behavioral traits. The study of objects and processes with the help of system analysis, there is a clarification of the nature of system connections as a whole and its interaction with environment; the study of the property of the whole of interest through its structure, as well as a detailed consideration of the role played by one or another element in this structure. Systemic connections existing in practice have a multilevel character. For example, it is possible to single out connections both between the elements of the system and between the system as a whole and its constituent elements. And since each system can include subsystems, the number of connections increases. Subsystems within the framework of the main system have a certain subordination, therefore, the selection of the defining subsystem allows the researcher to reveal the patterns of development and functioning of the entire system.

social structure

Structure is of great importance in system analysis. The concept of "structure" (from the Latin word "structura" - structure, arrangement, order) means a set of mutual arrangement and stable relationships constituent parts objects, thanks to which its integrity and identity to itself are ensured.

The social structure is "a certain way of communication and interaction of elements, that is, individuals occupying certain positions (status) and performing certain social functions (role) in accordance with the set of norms and values ​​​​accepted in a given social system."

If we try to concretize this concept, then it can be represented as follows:

The social structure involves:

1) stable ties between any elements of society, stable relationships.

2) regularity, stability, repeatability of these interactions;

3) the presence of levels, "floors", according to the significance of the elements included in the structure;

4) regulating, initiating, dynamic control over the behavior of elements.

These factors are of decisive importance in the creation and maintenance of the whole society and its constituent parts.

Thus, social structure is understood as a set of stable connections and relationships between the elements that make up the system, which determine its qualitative originality and structure.

Any society appears not as something homogeneous and monolithic, but as internally divided into various groups, layers and national communities. All of them are in a state of objectively conditioned connections and relations - socio-economic, political, spiritual. Moreover, only within the framework of these connections and relations can they exist and manifest themselves in society. This determines the integrity of society, its functioning as a single social organism, the essence of which was revealed in their theories by O. Comte, G. Spencer, K. Marx, M. Weber, T. Parson and others.

It can be said that

The social structure of society is a set of those connections and relations that social groups and communities of people enter into among themselves regarding the economic, social, political and spiritual conditions of their life.

The development of the social structure of society is based on the social division of labor and ownership of the means of production and its products.

The social division of labor determines the emergence and continued existence of such social groups as classes, professional groups, as well as large groups consisting of people from the city and the countryside, representatives of mental and physical labor.

The relations of ownership of the means of production economically fix the internal dismemberment of society and the social structure that develops within it. Both the social division of labor and property relations are objective socio-economic preconditions.

On the great role of the division of labor in the life of society, in the emergence of various types of human activities, the development material production and spiritual culture reasonably indicated at the time O. Comte, M.I. Tugan-Baranovsky, M.M. Kavalevsky and others. A detailed doctrine of the role of the social division of labor in historical process, including the development of the social structure of society, is contained in the socio-economic theory of Marxism, which also reveals the role of property relations in this process.

The main elements of the social structure of society include:

classes that occupy a different place in the systems of social division of labor, ownership of the means of production and distribution of the social product;

residents of the city and village;

representatives of mental and physical labor;

estates;

socio-demographic groups (youth, women and men, the older generation);

national communities (nations, nationalities, ethnic groups).

Almost all elements of the social structure are heterogeneous in composition and, in turn, are divided into separate layers and groups, which appear as independent elements of the social structure with its inherent interests, which they realize in interaction with other subjects.

So the social structure in any society is quite complex and is the subject of attention not only of sociologists, but also representatives of such a science as social management, as well as politicians and politicians. statesmen. It is important to understand that without understanding the social structure of society, without a clear idea of ​​what social groups exist within it and what their interests are, i.e. in which direction they will act, it is impossible for them to take a step forward in the management of society, including in the field of economics, social, political and spiritual life.

Based on the foregoing, the question arises of how the system and structure are related. Since structural connections depend on the place occupied by one or another element, the development of the structure itself finds its expression in the interaction of leading elements with secondary ones (the role of the leader in the team). The interaction and development of elements leads to the fact that they become more diverse. This means that any significant change in structure affects the system. The system also influences the structure, but, of course, not directly, but through the elements of the system, promotes or hinders their development in any direction.

Thanks to this dialectical interaction, it is possible to find out the main patterns of the development of the system. To do this, first determine the value of the elements, their place in the structure, and then the most significant links in the system. The selected connections are considered in the context of subordination of systems. As a result, the boundaries of the system as an object of study are determined, and its primary element is singled out.

Then the main subsystems and the hierarchical relationship that exists between them are identified. Determining the structure of the system already makes it possible to proceed to the clarification of the main system connections, which are directly dependent on changes in the structure.

In order to understand how all this happens in the study social sphere, it is necessary to analyze society as such, that is, as a whole.

In the scientific literature, they mean an extremely wide community of people, which unites individuals, groups into a certain integrity based on general activities and culture, and a rationally organized form of joint activity of people.

In "Sociological encyclopedic dictionary"one of the above definitions of society is as follows: "Society is, formed in the process historical development a relatively stable system of social ties and relations between people based on joint activities aimed at reproducing the material conditions of existence and meeting needs. "Thus, in the broad sense of the word, society is a historically specific set of people that is the product of their interaction in the process of activity. This is very a complex system that has its own internal social structure... For example, the social structure of labor collectives is a certain set of socio-demographic (youth, pensioners), social (group, stratum, class), vocational, territorial (city, village) and ethnic communities that are interconnected by relatively stable mutual relations.The main attention of sociology is directed to the study of social structure and ways to improve it.

A characteristic feature of social systems is their human essence and nature. Social systems are both a product and a sphere of human activity. This must be taken into account when considering the structure of society. In all subsystems and spheres of public life, a person, a person, acts as a universal element. Mutual influence occurs, society produces man, at the same time man produces society.

The interaction of specific people, ultimately, forms a social structure. Therefore, the social structure is a set of human relations, personal relationships between people, and social functions are the result of human activity.

Thus, personality is a universal, initial element of the social system. A person carries out his activities in the process of interaction with other people who are united in various social communities, and not isolated from them. This interaction of individuals turns their sum into a social system. In this case, both the impact of the social environment on the given individual and the reverse impact of the individual on other individuals and social environment.

The social environment (not in the biological sense of the word) is a number of individuals, circles, groups and other communities that a person has to deal with during his life and that influence his behavior. It must be emphasized that the concept of environment is always relative, since even identical environments for two different organisms can be different environments. Ultimately, the impact noted above leads to the formation of a systemic integrity, which has such qualities that none of the elements included in it separately have.

In a broad sense, social structure is understood as the structure of society as a whole, a set of stable links between its main functional areas (economy, politics, culture, and others), acting as a set of forms of social organization and activity. In this case, its elements are separate spheres of public life and the corresponding social institutions.

In a narrow sense, the social structure of society refers to the division of society into various social groups, systems of stable ties between them, as well as the internal structure of various social communities.

Depending on the type of social community, scientists distinguish two main levels of structural organization: macrostructure and microstructure.

The macrostructure shows the composition of classes, strata, ethnic groups and social categories characteristic of a particular society, as well as the totality of stable relations between them and the features of their internal structural organization.

The microstructure shows stable connections in small groups (student group, school class, etc.). As elements of structural analysis in this case there are separate individuals who occupy certain positions (status) and perform certain social functions (ros). The study of the microstructure is very important, since it has a significant impact on many processes of social life (socialization, the formation of public opinion, and others).

Each of the main functions of the societal system is differentiated into big row subfunctions (less than common functions), which are implemented by people included in a particular normative and organizational social structure that more or less meets (or, conversely, contradicts) the functional requirements of society. The interaction of micro- and macro-subjective and objective elements included in a given organizational structure for the implementation of the functions (economic, political, etc.) of a social organism gives it the character of a social system.

Functioning within the framework of one or more basic structures of the societal system, social systems act as structural elements of social reality, and, consequently, as the initial elements of the sociological knowledge of its structures.

Social system and its structure. A system is an object, phenomenon or process consisting of a qualitatively defined set of elements that are in mutual connections and relationships, form a single whole and are capable of interacting with external conditions its existence to change its structure. The essential features of any system are integrity and integration.

The first concept (integrity) captures the objective form of the existence of a phenomenon, i.e., its existence as a whole, and the second (integration) - the process and mechanism of combining its parts. The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

This means that each whole has new qualities that are not mechanically reducible to the sum of its elements, reveals a certain "integral effect". These new qualities inherent in the phenomenon as a whole are usually referred to as systemic or integral qualities.

The specificity of a social system lies in the fact that it is formed on the basis of a particular community of people (a social group, social organization etc.), and its elements are people whose behavior is determined by certain social positions (statuses) that they occupy, and specific social functions (roles) that they perform; social norms and values ​​accepted in a given social system, as well as their various individual qualities. The elements of a social system may include various ideal (beliefs, ideas, etc.) and random elements.

The individual does not carry out his activities in isolation, but in the process of interaction with other people united in various communities under the action of a combination of factors that influence the formation and behavior of the individual.

In the process of this interaction, people, the social environment have a systematic impact on this individual, as well as he has the opposite effect on other individuals and the environment. As a result, this community of people becomes a social system, an integrity that has systemic qualities, that is, qualities that none of the elements included in it separately have.

A certain way of connecting the interaction of elements, i.e. individuals occupying certain social positions (statuses) and performing certain social functions (roles) in accordance with the set of norms and values ​​accepted in a given social system, form the structure of the social system. In sociology, there is no generally accepted definition of the concept of "social structure". In different scientific papers this concept is defined as "organization of relations", "certain articulation, order of arrangement of parts"; "successive, more or less constant regularities"; “a pattern of behavior, i.e., an observed informal action or sequence of actions”; “essential, profound, defining conditions”, “characteristics more fundamental than others, superficial”, “the arrangement of parts that controls the entire diversity of the phenomenon”, “relationships between groups and individuals that are manifested in their behavior”, etc. All these definitions , in our opinion, do not oppose, but complement each other, allow you to create an integral idea of ​​the elements and properties of the social structure.

The types of social structure are: an ideal structure that links together beliefs, convictions, and imaginations; normative structure, including values, norms, prescribed social roles; organizational structure that determines the way positions or statuses are interconnected and determines the nature of the repetition of systems; random structure, consisting of elements included in its functioning, available in this moment available (a specific interest of the individual, randomly received resources, etc.).

The first two types of social structure are associated with the concept of cultural structure, and the other two are associated with the concept of societal structure. Regulatory and organizational structures considered as a whole, and the elements included in their functioning - as strategic. The ideal and random structures and their elements, being included in the functioning of the social structure as a whole, can cause both positive and negative deviations in its behavior.

This, in turn, results in a mismatch in the interaction various structures, serving as elements of a more general social system, dysfunctional disorders of this system.

The structure of a social system, as a functional unity of a set of elements, is pei- lated by its inherent laws and regularities, and has its own determinism. As a result, the existence, functioning and change of the structure is not determined by a law, which is, as it were, “outside of everything”, but has the character of self-regulation, maintaining - under certain conditions - the balance of elements within the system, restoring it in case of known violations and directing the change of these elements and the structure itself.

The patterns of development and functioning of a given social system may or may not coincide with the corresponding patterns of the societal system, have positive or negative socially significant consequences for a given society.

Hierarchy of social systems. There is a complex hierarchy of social systems that qualitatively differ from each other.

The supersystem, or, according to our terminology, the societal system, is society. Essential elements The societal system is represented by its economic, social, political and ideological structures, the interaction of whose elements (systems of a less general order) institutionalizes them into social systems (economic, social, political, ideological, etc.). Each of these most general social systems occupies a specific place in the societal system and performs (well, poorly, or not at all) strictly defined functions. In turn, each of the most common systems includes in its structure as elements an infinite number of social systems of a less general order (family, labor collective etc).

With the development of society as a societal system, other social systems and organs of social influence on the socialization of the individual (upbringing, education), on his aesthetic (aesthetic education), moral (moral education and suppression of various forms deviant behavior), physical (health care, physical education) development. “This organic system itself as an aggregate whole has its prerequisites, and its development in the direction of integrity consists precisely in subordinating all the elements of society to itself or creating from it the organs that it still lacks. In this way, the system, in the course of historical development, turns into integrity”1.

Social connections and types of social systems. The classification of social systems can be based on the types of connections and the corresponding types of social objects.

A relationship is defined as a relationship between objects (or elements within them) where a change in one object or element corresponds to a change in other objects (or elements) that make up the object.

The specificity of sociology is characterized by the fact that the connections that it studies are social connections. The term "social connection" denotes the totality of factors that determine the joint activity of people in specific conditions of place and time in order to achieve specific goals. Communication is established for a very long period of time, regardless of social and individual qualities individual personalities. These are the connections of individuals with each other, as well as their connections with the phenomena and processes of the surrounding world, which are formed in the course of their practical activities.

The essence of social ties is manifested in the content and nature of the social actions of individuals, or, in other words, in social facts.

The micro- and macro-continuum includes personal, social-group, organizational, institutional and societal connections. The social objects corresponding to these types of connections are the individual (his consciousness and actions), social interaction, social group, social organization, social institution and society. Within the subjective-objective continuum, there are subjective, objective and mixed connections and, accordingly, objective ones (acting personality, social action, law, management system, etc.); subjective (personal norms and values, assessment of social reality, etc.); subjective-objective (family, religion, etc.) objects.

The social system can be represented in five aspects:

1) as an interaction of individuals, each of which is a carrier of individual qualities;

2) as a social interaction, resulting in the formation social relations and the formation of a social group;

3) as a group interaction, which is based on the vehicle or other general circumstances (city, village, labor collective, etc.);

4) as a hierarchy of social positions (statuses) occupied by individuals included in the activities of a given social system, and social functions (roles) that they perform on the basis of these social positions;

5) as a set of norms and values ​​that determine the nature and content of the activity (behavior) of the elements of this system.

The first aspect that characterizes the social system is associated with the concept of individuality, the second - the social group, the third - the social community, the fourth - the social organization, the fifth - the social institution and culture.

Thus, the social system acts as the interaction of its main structural elements.

Societal connections and the societal system. The distinction between the types of social systems is very conditional. Their selection according to one or another criterion is determined by the task sociological research. One and the same social system (for example, a family) can equally be considered both as a social group and as an element social control both as a social institution and as a social organization. social facilities, located on macro-, micro- and objective-subjective continuums, form a complex system of connections that governs the needs, interests and values ​​of people. It can be described as a system of societal connections. It is ordered in each specific social system in such a way that when plexuses and knots appear on it, society, in turn, provides a system of means in order to be able to unravel these plexuses and untie the knots. If it is unable to do this, then the existing and used in this society the system of funds has become inadequate to the prevailing social situation. And depending on the practical attitude of society to a given situation, it may be in a state of decline, stagnation or radical reforms.

The system of societal ties acts as an organized set of various forms of social ties that unite individuals and groups of individuals into a single functional whole, i.e., into a social system. Whatever form of social connection between phenomena we take, they always exist in the system and cannot exist outside of it. The variety of types of societal connections also corresponds to the variety of types of social systems that these connections determine.

Consider such types of social groups as primary and secondary:

primary groups. Consists of a small number of people between whom relationships are established based on their individual characteristics. Primary groups are not large, otherwise it is difficult to establish direct, personal relationships between all members. Charles Cooley (1909) first introduced the concept of the primary group in relation to the family, between the members of which there are stable emotional relationships. Subsequently, sociologists began to use this term in the study of any group in which close personal relationships have formed that determine the essence of this group. They are formed on the basis of the emergence of more or less constant and close contacts between several people, or as a result of the disintegration of some secondary social group. Often, both of these processes occur simultaneously. It happens that a number of primary groups appear and operate within the framework of some secondary social group. The number of people in small groups ranges from two to ten, rarely more. In such a group, the socio-psychological contacts of the people included in it are better preserved, often relating to significant moments in their life and work. The primary group may be a group of friends, acquaintances, or a group of people connected by professional interests working in a factory, in scientific institution, in the theater, etc. Performing production functions, they at the same time establish interpersonal contacts with each other, which are distinguished by psychological harmony and a common interest in something. These groups can play a big role in shaping value orientations, in determining the direction of behavior and activities of their representatives. Their role in this may be more significant than the role of secondary social groups and means mass media. Thus, they constitute a specific social environment that affects the individual.

secondary group. It is formed from people between whom there are almost no emotional relationships, their interaction is due to the desire to achieve certain goals. In these groups, the main importance is given not to personal qualities, but to the ability to perform certain functions. An example of a secondary group is an industrial enterprise. In the secondary group, roles are clearly defined, its members often know very little about each other. As a rule, they do not hug when they meet. Emotional relationships that are characteristic of friends and family members are not established between them. In an organization associated labor activity, the main are relations of production. Among these social groups, formal and informal organizations can be distinguished. Formal ones act more often on the basis of the statutes and programs adopted by them, and have their own permanent coordinating and governing bodies. All this is absent in informal organizations. They are created to achieve well-defined goals - current and long-term. In Western sociology, functional groups are especially singled out, uniting depending on the functions they perform and social roles. We are talking about professional groups engaged in the sphere of political, economic and spiritual activities, about groups of people with different qualifications, about groups occupying different social status - entrepreneurs, workers, employees, etc. Beginning of serious sociological study functional activities different social groups put in his time E. Durkheim.

Analyzing all of the above, it is impossible not to note the importance of studying the diversity of social groups that exist in society. Firstly, because the very social structure of society is a set of connections and relationships that social groups and communities of people enter into among themselves. Secondly, the whole life of a person living in a society of people takes place in social groups and under their direct influence: at school, at work, etc., because only in group life is he formed as a person, finds self-expression and support.

In the modern world there are Various types societies that differ from each other in many ways, both explicit (language of communication, culture, geographical position, size, etc.), and hidden (the degree of social integration, the level of stability, etc.). Scientific classification involves the selection of the most significant, typical features that distinguish some features from others and unite societies of the same group. The complexity of social systems called societies determines both the diversity of their specific manifestations and the absence of a single universal criterion on the basis of which they could be classified.

In the middle of the 19th century, K. Marx proposed a typology of societies based on the method of production of material goods and production relations - primarily property relations. He divided all societies into 5 main types (according to the type of socio-economic formations): primitive communal, slave-owning, feudal, capitalist and communist (the initial phase is a socialist society).

Another typology divides all societies into simple and complex. The criterion is the number of management levels and the degree of social differentiation (stratification). A simple society is a society in which the components are homogeneous, there are no rich and poor, leaders and subordinates, the structure and functions here are poorly differentiated and can be easily interchanged. Such are the primitive tribes, in some places preserved to this day.

A complex society is a society with highly differentiated structures and functions that are interconnected and interdependent on each other, which necessitates their coordination.

K. Popper distinguishes between two types of societies: closed and open. The differences between them are based on a number of factors, and, above all, the relationship of social control and freedom of the individual. A closed society is characterized by a static social structure, limited mobility, resistance to innovation, traditionalism, dogmatic authoritarian ideology, and collectivism. To this type of society, K. Popper attributed Sparta, Prussia, tsarist Russia, Nazi Germany, Soviet Union Stalin era. An open society is characterized by a dynamic social structure, high mobility, ability to innovate, criticism, individualism and democratic pluralistic ideology. K. Popper considered ancient Athens and modern Western democracies to be examples of open societies.

The division of societies into traditional, industrial and post-industrial, proposed by the American sociologist D. Bell on the basis of a change in the technological basis - the improvement of the means of production and knowledge, is stable and widespread.

Traditional (pre-industrial) society - a society with an agrarian way of life, with a predominance of subsistence farming, a class hierarchy, sedentary structures and a method of socio-cultural regulation based on tradition. It is characterized manual labor, extremely low rates of development of production, which can satisfy the needs of people only at a minimal level. It is extremely inertial, therefore it is not very susceptible to innovations. The behavior of individuals in such a society is regulated by customs, norms, and social institutions. Customs, norms, institutions, consecrated by traditions, are considered unshakable, not allowing even the thought of changing them. Performing their integrative function, culture and social institutions suppress any manifestation of individual freedom, which is necessary condition gradual renewal of society.

The term industrial society was introduced by A. Saint-Simon, emphasizing its new technical basis. Industrial society - (in modern sounding) it is complex society, with an industry-based way of managing, with flexible, dynamic and modifiable structures, a way of socio-cultural regulation based on a combination of individual freedom and the interests of society. These societies are characterized by a developed division of labor, the development of mass media, urbanization, etc.

Post-industrial society (sometimes called information society) - a society developed on an information basis: extraction (in traditional societies) and processing (in industrial societies) of natural products are replaced by the acquisition and processing of information, as well as predominant development (instead of Agriculture in traditional societies and industry in industrial) service sectors. As a result, the structure of employment and the ratio of various professional and qualification groups are also changing. According to forecasts, already at the beginning of the 21st century in advanced countries, half work force will be employed in the field of information, a quarter - in the field of material production and a quarter - in the production of services, including information.

The change in the technological basis also affects the organization of the entire system of social ties and relations. If in an industrial society the mass class was made up of workers, then in a post-industrial society it was employees and managers. At the same time, the significance of class differentiation is weakening, instead of a status (“granular”) social structure, a functional (“ready-made”) social structure is being formed. Instead of leading the principle of governance, coordination is becoming, and representative democracy is being replaced by direct democracy and self-government. As a result, instead of a hierarchy of structures, a new type a network organization focused on rapid change depending on the situation.

True, at the same time, some sociologists pay attention to contradictory possibilities, on the one hand, providing in the information society more high level freedom of the individual, and on the other hand, the emergence of new, more hidden and therefore more dangerous forms of social control over it.

Understanding society as an association of subjects social action, within which there is a more or less constant and stable mutual influence and interaction, society appears to us as a system. A system is understood as a set of interacting elements, within which a change in one element entails a change in others, and the system as a whole acquires a new (systemic) quality that is irreducible to the sum of the properties of its elements. Mechanical, physical, chemical, biological and social systems are known. The main features of any system are: integrity, structure, hierarchy, interdependence of elements.

Society is a highly complex system. At the level of society, individual actions, connections and relationships acquire a new quality - a systemic one, which no longer allows us to consider society as a simple sum of elements. This system quality none of the elements included in the society separately.

The social system is totality social phenomena and processes that are in relationship and connection with each other and form a certain social object.

Society (society) as a social system has the following characteristics:

1) society - open system

2) it is a self-organizing system

3) it is a cumulative system (i.e. a system “with memory”, which is played by culture)

4) it Information system

Systems approach to the analysis of society is supplemented deterministic: society as an integral system consists of subsystems - demographic, environmental, economic, political, etc. Each of these subsystems can be considered separately as an independent system. The relationship of these subsystems is determined by cause-and-effect relationships. These subsystems form a hierarchical structure, i.e. are in relation to subordination (we can talk about environmental, technological, demographic, economic, etc. determinism).

A deterministic approach to society is complemented functional. The main principles of the functional approach formulated by G. Spencer:

Ø society is a holistic, single organism, consisting of many parts (economic, political, religious, military);

Ø each part can exist only within the framework of integrity, where it performs strictly defined functions;

Ø functions mean the satisfaction of any social need, all together they are aimed at maintaining the stability of society;

Ø the more functions differ, the more difficult it is for other parts to make up for the violation of the function of any one part;

Ø The social system maintains stability largely due to the elements of social control: management, law enforcement agencies, religious institutions and moral norms and values. The main condition for maintaining integrity is the agreement of the majority of society with the accepted system of values.

R. Merton formulated a number of additional principles of functionalism:

Ø as one element can have different functions, so the same function can be performed by different elements;

Ø the same elements can be functional in relation to one system and dysfunctional in relation to others;

Ø There are explicit and latent (hidden) functions. An explicit function is one that is caused intentionally and recognized as such. A latent function is that effect, which was not intended to be caused by the actor.

An addition to the understanding of the functional approach was made by T. Parsons: any social system performs 4 main functions (which are provided by the main subsystems): the function of adaptation (economic subsystem), goal achievement (political), integration (legal institutions and customs), reproduction of the structure (belief system, morality, socialization agents).

As already noted, society, as a system, has its own structure (consists of interconnected subsystems), thanks to which it differs from a chaotic crowd of people. The constituent elements of society (as a social system) are people, social ties, interactions and relationships, social groups and communities, social institutions and organizations, social norms and values. Each of these constituent elements, in turn, can be considered as an independent system. The totality of connections and relations between these social systems is referred to as a system of systems (or societal system). A systematic approach to society involves studying it from three interrelated and at the same time relatively independent perspectives - structural, functional and dynamic, which makes it possible to explain: how society works (what is its structure); how it functions as a whole and how its subsystems function (what functions perform); how society develops.