System approach to management. Stages and principles of a systematic approach to management

The systems approach is often mentioned in connection with the tasks of organizational development: a systematic approach to solving company problems, a systematic approach to making changes, a systematic approach to building a business, etc. What is the meaning of such statements? What is a systems approach? How does it differ from a "non-systemic" approach? Let's try to figure it out.

Let's start with the definition of "system". Russell Ackoff (in Planning the Future of the Corporation) defines it as follows: "A system is a combination of two or more elements that meets the following conditions: (1) the behavior of each element affects the behavior of the whole, (2) the behavior of the elements and their effect on the whole are interdependent, (3) if there are subgroups of elements, each of them affects the behavior of the whole and none of them independently has such an effect. Thus, the system is such a whole that cannot be divided into non-independent parts. Any part of the system, being separated from it, loses its properties. So a person's hand, separated from his body, cannot draw. The system has essential qualities that its parts lack. For example, a person can compose music and solve mathematical problems, but no part of his body is capable of this.

With a systematic approach to solving practical problems, any object or phenomenon is considered as a system and at the same time as part of some larger system. Ackoff defines a systematic approach in cognitive activity as follows: (1) identification of the system of which the object of interest is a part, (2) explanation of the behavior or properties of the whole, (3) explanation of the behavior or properties of the object of interest to us in terms of its role or functions as a whole, of which it is a part.

In other words, when faced with a problem, a manager who thinks systematically does not rush to look for the culprit, but first of all finds out what conditions external to the situation under consideration caused this problem. For example, if an angry customer calls about missed delivery dates for equipment, the most obvious response would be to punish the production staff for not completing the order on time. However, if you look closely, the roots of the problem can be found far beyond the production processes, when the requirements for the ordered equipment were not clearly defined in the specifications, changed several times in the course of work, and at the conclusion of the contract, the sellers set unrealistic deadlines, without taking into account the specifics of the order. Who is to be punished here? Most likely, you need to change the system of sales and order management!

This topic is rich in meaning. Much can be said here ... I will leave it as a reserve for a future article.

System approach - direction of philosophy and methodology scientific knowledge, which is based on the study of objects as systems.

The peculiarity of the system approach is that it is focused on revealing the integrity of the object and the mechanisms that ensure it, on identifying the diversity different types connections of a complex object and their reduction into a single theoretical picture.

The concept of "system approach" (from English - systems approach) began to be widely used in 1960 - 1970, although the very desire to consider the object of study as an integral system arose back in ancient philosophy and science (Plato, Aristotle). The idea of ​​a systemic organization of knowledge, which arose in ancient times, was formed in the Middle Ages and was most developed in German classical philosophy (Kant, Schelling). A classic example of a systematic study is "Capital" by K. Marx. The principles of studying the organic whole embodied in it (ascent from the abstract to the concrete, the unity of analysis and synthesis, logical and historical, the identification of different-quality relationships and their interaction in the object, the synthesis of structural-functional and genetic ideas about the object, etc.) were the most important component dialectical-materialistic methodology of scientific knowledge. Ch. Darwin's theory of evolution serves as a vivid example of the application of a systematic approach in biology.

In the XX century. The systematic approach occupies one of the leading places in scientific knowledge. This is primarily due to the change in the type of scientific and practical problems. In a number of fields of science, the problems of studying the organization and functioning of complex self-developing objects, the boundaries and composition of which are not obvious and require special research in each individual case, begin to occupy a central place. The study of such objects - multilevel, hierarchical, self-organizing biological, psychological, social, technical - required the consideration of these objects as systems.

There are a number of scientific concepts, which are characterized by the use of the basic ideas of the systems approach. So, in the teachings of V. I. Vernadsky about the biosphere and the noosphere, scientific knowledge is proposed new type objects - global systems. A. A. Bogdanov and a number of other researchers begin to develop the theory of organization. The allocation of a special class of systems - information and control - served as the foundation for the emergence of cybernetics. In biology, systems ideas are used in environmental studies, in the study of higher nervous activity, in the analysis of biological organization, in systematics. In economics, the principles of a systematic approach are used in setting and solving problems of optimal economic planning, which require the construction of multicomponent models of social systems. different levels. In management practice, the ideas of a systematic approach are crystallized in the methodological means of system analysis.

Thus, the principles of a systematic approach apply to almost all areas scientific knowledge and practices. In parallel, the systematic development of these principles in methodological terms begins. Initially, methodological studies were grouped around the problems of constructing a general theory of systems (the first program for its construction and the term itself were proposed by L. Bertalanffy). In the early 1920s young biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy began to study organisms as certain systems, summarizing his views in the book " Modern theory development "(1929). He developed a systematic approach to the study of biological organisms. In the book "Robots, People and Consciousness" (1967), the scientist transferred the general theory of systems to the analysis of the processes and phenomena of social life. In 1969, another book by Bertalanffy "General systems theory". The researcher turns his systems theory into a general disciplinary science. He saw the purpose of this science in the search for a structural similarity of laws established in various disciplines, on the basis of which general system regularities can be derived.

However, the development of research in this direction has shown that the totality of the problems of the methodology of system research significantly exceeds the scope of the tasks of the general theory of systems. To refer to this more broad scope methodological problems and use the term "systems approach", which since the 1970s. firmly entered into scientific use (in scientific literature different countries other terms are also used to denote this concept - "system analysis", "system methods", "system-structural approach", "general systems theory"; at the same time, the concepts of system analysis and general systems theory also have a specific, narrower meaning; with this in mind, the term "system approach" should be considered more accurate, moreover, it is most common in the literature in Russian).

The following stages in the development of a systematic approach in the 20th century can be distinguished. (Table 6.1).

Table 6.1. The main stages in the development of a systematic approach

The systematic approach does not exist in the form of a strict methodological concept, but rather a set of research principles. A systematic approach is an approach in which the object under study is considered as a system, i.e. a set of interrelated elements (components) that has an output (goal), input (resources), connection with the external environment, feedback. In accordance with the general theory of systems, an object is considered as a system and at the same time as an element of a larger system.

The study of an object from the standpoint of a systematic approach includes the following aspects of:

• - system-elemental (identification of the elements that make up this system);
• - system-structural (the study of internal relationships between the elements of the system);
• - system-functional (identification of system functions);
• - system-target (identifying the goals and sub-goals of the system);
• - system-resource (analysis of resources required for the functioning of the system);
• - system-integration (determination of a set of qualitative properties of the system that ensure its integrity and are different from the properties of its elements);
• - system-communication (analysis of external relations of the system with the external environment and other systems);
• - system-historical (studying the emergence of the system, stages of its development and prospects).

Thus, a systematic approach is a methodological direction in science, the main task of which is to develop methods for researching and constructing complex objects - systems of different types and classes.

One can meet a dual understanding of the systems approach: on the one hand, this is a consideration, analysis of existing systems, on the other hand, the creation, design, synthesis of systems to achieve goals.

In relation to organizations, the systems approach is most often understood as a comprehensive study of an object as a whole from the standpoint of system analysis, i.e. clarification of a complex problem and its structuring into a series of tasks solved using economic and mathematical methods, finding criteria for their solution, detailing goals, designing an effective organization to achieve goals.

System analysis used as one of essential methods in a systematic approach, as an effective means of solving complex, usually not clearly formulated problems. System analysis can be considered a further development of the ideas of cybernetics: it explores the general patterns related to complex systems that are studied by any science.

System engineering - applied science that studies the problems of real creation of complex control systems.

The process of building a system consists of six stages:

• 1) system analysis;
• 2) system programming, which includes the definition of current goals: scheduling and work plans;
• 3) system design - the actual design of the system, its subsystems and components to achieve optimal efficiency;
• 4) creation of software programs;
• 5) putting the system into operation and testing it;
• 6) system maintenance.

The quality of the organization of the system is usually expressed in the synergy effect. It manifests itself in the fact that the result of the functioning of the system as a whole is higher than the sum of the results of the same name of the individual elements that make up the totality. In practice, this means that from the same elements we can obtain systems of different or identical properties, but of different efficiency, depending on how these elements are interconnected, i.e. how the system will be organized.

Organization, which is an organized whole in the most general abstract form, is the ultimate extension of any system. The concept of "organization" as an ordered state of the whole is identical to the concept of "system". The concept opposite to "system" is the concept "non-system".

A system is nothing but an organization in statics, i.e. some fixed on this moment state of order.

Consideration of an organization as a system makes it possible to systematize and classify organizations according to a number of common features. So, according to the degree of complexity, there are nine levels of hierarchy:

• 1) the level of static organization, reflecting the static relationships between the elements of the whole;
• 2) the level of a simple dynamic system with pre-programmed mandatory movements;
• 3) the level of information organization, or the level of "thermostat";
• 4) self-preserving organization - open system, or cell level;
• 5) genetically public organization;
• 6) organization of the "animal" type, characterized by the presence of mobility, purposeful behavior and awareness;
• 7) the level of individual human body- "human" level;
• 8) social organization, representing a variety of public institutions;
• 9) transcendental systems, i.e. organizations that exist in the form of various structures and relationships.

The application of a systematic approach to the study of an organization makes it possible to significantly expand the understanding of its essence and development trends, to more deeply and comprehensively reveal the content of ongoing processes, to identify the objective patterns of the formation of this multifaceted system.

A systematic approach, or a systematic method, is an explicit (obviously, openly expressed) description of the procedures for determining objects as systems and methods for their specific systematic research (descriptions, explanations, predictions, etc.).

A systematic approach to the study of the properties of the organization allows you to establish its integrity, consistency and organization. With a systematic approach, the attention of researchers is directed to its composition, to the properties of elements that manifest themselves in interaction. Establishment in the system of a stable relationship of elements at all levels and steps, i.e. the establishment of the law of connections between elements is the discovery of the structural nature of the system as the next step in concretizing the whole.

Structure as an internal organization of the system, a reflection of its internal content is manifested in the orderliness of the interconnections of its parts. This allows you to express a number of essential aspects of the organization as a system. The structure of the system, expressing its essence, is manifested in the totality of the laws of a given field of phenomena.

Study of the structure of the organization - milestone knowledge of the variety of connections that take place within the object under study. This is one of the aspects of the system. The other side is to identify intra-organizational relations and relationships of the object under consideration with other components of the higher-level system. In this regard, it is necessary, firstly, to consider the individual properties of the object under study in their relationship with the object as a whole, and secondly, to reveal the laws of behavior.

Applied to management activities, according to the definition of the famous scientist A. I. Berg, a system should be understood as “an organized set structural elements interrelated and performing certain functions. It follows that the system as a category of control theory is characterized by: a) the presence constituent parts(elements, subsystems); b) the presence of close ties between them; c) integrity, which is determined by the relationship and interaction of individual structural elements; d) a combination of the relative independence of each individual element of the system with the obligatory performance by it of the functions necessary for the existence of the system as a whole.

For management and a manager, a civil servant, social systems, which form a special class of systems, are of particular interest. The emergence and integrity, features of the functioning and development of social systems are determined by the interaction of people. The main element of these systems of any degree of complexity (from the family to the country and humanity as a whole) is a person with his own needs and interests, his own vision of the world, his own value orientations. That's why to general conditions formation and existence of systems, the presence of conscious goals or coinciding interests is added, which has crucial for people to work together.

With these circumstances in mind, we can define common features(system-forming factors) any social system, including labor economic organization:

a specific common goal of the entire set of elements;

subordination of the tasks of each element to the overall goal of the system;

awareness of each element of its tasks and understanding of the common goal;

performance by each element of its functions arising from the task;

the existence of specific relationships between the elements of the system;

the presence of a governing body;

the existence of mandatory feedback.

It should be emphasized that the commonality of goals in a social system is not just their mechanical coincidence, but something more complex. It must be borne in mind that, united by virtue of some of their interests and having in connection with this intention to solve precisely their own specific problem, people are forced to solve already common task for the entire association, that is, to achieve something that directly, directly, could not be included in their personal interests. This is precisely one of the most important features of the social system: creating it for one purpose, we are forced to solve some other problems.

“Consolation” can serve, firstly, that without the implementation of a common goal, one cannot achieve one’s goals. Secondly, the capabilities of the system are wider than the simple sum of the capabilities of its constituent elements. This property causes special effect, for which most systems are created. It is called, as already mentioned, the emergence effect. The effect of integrity can be especially significant in large industrial and territorial organizations.

Both theorists and practitioners of the systems approach are quite unanimous in the fact that its merits and advantages have received such wide confirmation and recognition that it is unnecessary to give additional arguments in its favor.

Renowned American Scientist Nobel Laureate Vasily Leontiev, in one of his speeches on the problems of improving management, emphasized: “In order to predict the development of the economy, a systematic approach is needed. The economy of each country is a large system in which there are many different types of activities, and each of them produces something - industrial products, services, etc., which are transferred to other industries. Each link, component of the system can only exist because it receives something from others.”

The system approach can be used in solving socio-economic, socio-political, engineering and technological and other problems involving the study or creation of system objects of high complexity, as well as their management.

As for the systematic approach in the study of management, it can be represented as a set of principles that must be followed and which reflect both the content and features of the systematic approach.

1. The principle of integrity consists in highlighting the object of study as a holistic formation, i.e., delimiting it from other phenomena and from the external environment. This can only be done by defining and evaluating distinctive properties phenomena and comparison of these properties with the properties of its elements. In this case, the object of study does not have to bear the name of the system. For example, a management system, a personnel management system, etc. It can be a mechanism, a process, a solution, a goal, a problem, a situation, etc. Recall that a systematic approach is a setting for learning, it is a set of principles and research methods. Integrity is not an absolute characteristic, it can be expressed to a certain extent. A systematic approach involves the establishment of this measure. This is what distinguishes it from the aspect, multi-aspect, complex, conceptual and other approaches, in which integrity does not act as a real and objective property, but as a certain condition for its study. Here integrity is conditional.

2. The principle of compatibility of elements of the whole. A whole can exist as a whole only when its constituent elements are compatible with each other. It is their compatibility that determines the possibility and existence of connections, their existence or functioning within the framework of the whole. A systematic approach requires evaluating all the elements of the whole from these positions. At the same time, compatibility should be understood not simply as a property of an element as such, but its property in accordance with the position and functional status in this whole, its relation to system-forming elements. The system-forming element for the socio-economic system is a person. His relationships with other people on a variety of occasions (technics, technology, information, social belonging, psychology, cost, money, etc.) characterize both the connections in the socio-economic system and its integrity. Management, as well as production, society, firm, etc., i.e. a certain community of people united by one of their needs is a socio-economic system. In the study of this system, both aspect and system approaches can be used.

3. The principle of the functional-structural structure of the whole is that in the study of control systems it is necessary to analyze and determine the functional structure of the system, that is, to see not only the elements and their connections, but also the functional content of each of the elements. In two identical systems with the same set of elements and their identical structure, the content of the functioning of these elements and their connections according to certain functions may be different. This often affects the effectiveness of management. For example, in the management system there may be undeveloped functions of social regulation, forecasting and planning functions, and public relations functions. A special factor in the use of this principle is the factor of development of functions and the degree of their isolation, which to a certain extent characterizes the professionalism of its implementation. The study of the functional content of the control system must necessarily include the definition of dysfunctions that characterize the presence of functions that do not correspond to the functions of the whole and thereby can disrupt the stability of the control system, the necessary stability of its functioning. Dysfunctions are, as it were, superfluous functions, sometimes outdated, having lost their relevance, but still exist due to inertia. They need to be identified during research.

4. Development principle . Any management system that is the object of research is at a certain level and stage of development. All its characteristics are determined by the characteristics of the level and stage of development. And this should not be ignored in the conduct of the study. How can this be taken into account? Obviously, through comparative analysis its past state, present and possible future. Of course, informational difficulties arise here, namely: the availability, sufficiency and value of information. But these difficulties can be reduced with a systematic study of the management system, which allows you to accumulate the necessary information, determine development trends and extrapolate them to the future.

5. Functionalization principle. Assessing the development of the management system, one cannot exclude the possibility of changing its general functions, acquiring new functions of integrity, with relative stability of internal ones, i.e. their composition and structure. This phenomenon characterizes the concept of lability of the functions of the control system. In reality, it is often necessary to observe the lability of control functions. It has certain limits, but in many cases it can reflect both positive and negative phenomena. Of course, this should be in the field of view of the researcher.

6. The principle of polyfunctionality. The control system may have multifunctional functions. These are functions connected according to a certain attribute, to obtain some special effect. It can be otherwise called the principle of interoperability. But the compatibility of functions is determined not only by its content, as is often assumed, but also by the goals of management and the compatibility of performers. After all, a function is not just a type of activity, but also a person who implements this function. Often functions that seem to be incompatible in their content turn out to be compatible in the activities of a certain specialist. And vice versa. In the study of multifunctionality, one should not forget about the human factor of control.

7. The principle of iteration. Any research is a process that involves a certain sequence of operations, the use of methods, the evaluation of preliminary, intermediate and final results. This characterizes the iterative structure of the research process. Its success depends on how we choose these iterations, how we combine them.

8. The principle of probabilistic estimates. In a study, it is not always possible to accurately trace and evaluate all causal relationships, in other words, to present the object of study in a deterministic way. Many connections and relationships are objectively probabilistic in nature, many phenomena can only be assessed probabilistically, given the current level, modern possibilities for studying socio-economic and socio-psychological phenomena. Therefore, the study of management should be focused on probabilistic estimates. This means the widespread use of statistical analysis methods, probability calculation methods, normative estimates, flexible modeling, etc.

9. Principle of variance follows from the principle of probability. The combination of probabilities gives various options reflection and understanding of reality. Each of these options can and should be the focus of the researcher's attention. Any research can be focused on either obtaining a single result, or on determining options reflection of the real state of affairs with the subsequent analysis of these options. The variance of the study is manifested in the development of not a single, but several working hypotheses or various concepts at the first stage of the study. Variation can also be manifested in the choice of aspects and methods of research, various ways, say modeling phenomena.

These principles of systematicity can only be useful and effective, can reflect a truly systematic approach, when they themselves are taken into account and used systematically, i.e. interdependent and related to each other. Such a paradox is possible: the principles of a systematic approach do not provide consistency in the study, because they are used sporadically, without taking into account their connection, subordination, and complexity. The principles of systematicity must also be used systematically.

Management based on the application of a systematic approach includes four successive stages (stages):

1. At the first stage, the scope of the systematic approach is determined, the scope and scope of the activity of the subject of management are specified, information needs (approximately) adequate to the scope, scope and scale of activity are established;

2. At the second stage, the necessary studies are carried out (system analysis);

3. At the third stage, alternative options for solving certain problems are developed, and the choice of the optimal option for each task is made (expert assessments are applied, including independent expertise).

Of course, in each specific case, the system approach should be implemented in the form of some specific (adapted to the system features) system method (analysis, information retrieval), i.e. a set of rules, procedures, instructions, standards, research methods and technologies for preparing and making decisions, taking into account the qualitative originality of the object and subject of management.

With a systematic approach, it is important to study the characteristics of an organization as a system, i.e. "input", "process" characteristics, and "output" characteristics.

Based marketing research first, the “output” parameters are examined, i.e. goods or services, namely what to produce, with what quality indicators, at what cost, for whom, in what time frame to sell and at what price. The answers to these questions should be clear and timely. At the “output”, as a result, there should be competitive products or services.

Then the "input" parameters are determined, i.e. the need for resources (material, financial, labor and information) is investigated. It is determined after a detailed study of the organizational and technical level of the system under consideration (the level of technology, technology, features of the organization of production, labor and management) and the parameters of the external environment (economic, geopolitical, social, environmental, etc.). And, finally, no less important is the study of the parameters of the process that converts resources into finished products. At this stage, depending on the object of study, production technology, or management technology, as well as factors and ways of improvement.

Thus, a systematic approach allows us to comprehensively evaluate any production and economic activity and the activity of the management system at the level of specific characteristics. This will help to analyze any situation within a single system, to identify the nature of the problems of "input", process and "output". The application of a systematic approach allows the best way to organize the decision-making process at all levels in the management system.

Now consider other approaches used in the study of control systems.

A complex approach involves taking into account the analysis of both the internal and external environment of the organization. This means that it is necessary to take into account not only internal, but also external factors - economic, geopolitical, social, demographic, environmental, etc. Factors are important aspects in the analysis of organizations and, unfortunately, are not always taken into account. For example, often social issues are not taken into account or postponed when designing new organizations. When implementing new technology Ergonomic indicators are not always taken into account, which leads to increased worker fatigue and, as a result, to a decrease in labor productivity. When forming new labor collectives socio-psychological aspects, in particular, the problems of labor motivation, are not properly taken into account. Summarizing what has been said, it can be argued that A complex approach is a necessary condition in solving the analysis of the organization.

To study the functional relationships of information support for management systems, an integration approach is used, the essence of which is that research is carried out both vertically (between individual elements of the management system) and horizontally (at all stages of the product life cycle).

Integration refers to the unification of management entities to enhance the interaction of all elements of the management system of a particular organization. With this approach, there are stronger links between individual subsystems of the organization, more specific tasks. For example, the control system sets the services and departments of the organization specific indicators of their activities in terms of quality, quantity, resource costs, timing, etc. Based on the implementation of these indicators, the set goals are achieved.

Horizontal integration across product life cycle stages requires the formation of a unified and clear information system management, which should include, first of all, indicators of the quality and quantity of costs at the stages of research, design and technological preparation of production, as well as indicators of the actual production, implementation, operation and removal of products from production.

Such consistency of indicators across the stages of the product life cycle allows you to create a management structure that provides efficiency and flexibility of management.

Vertical integration is the union of legally independent organizations for the best achievement of the set goals. This is ensured, firstly, by the unification of the efforts of people, i.e. a synergistic effect, and secondly, the creation of new scientific and experimental bases, the introduction of new technologies and new equipment. This, in turn, creates conditions for improving vertical ties between federal and municipal authorities and individual organizations, especially in production and social spheres activities. Such integration provides the best control and regulation in the process of implementation of new decrees, resolutions and other regulatory documents. Integration gives organizations additional features to increase their competitiveness through increased cooperation. There is a wider scope for the development and implementation of new ideas, the release of better products, efficiency in the implementation of decisions.

The application of the integration approach creates conditions for the best implementation of strategic tasks at all levels in the management system: at the level of the holding, individual companies and specific organizations.

Essence situational approach is that the motivation for the analysis is specific situations, a wide range of which significantly affects the effectiveness of management. With this approach, the control system, depending on the nature of the situations, can change any of its characteristics.

The objects of analysis in this case may be:

· Management structure: depending on the situation and on the basis of volumetric calculations, a management structure is selected with a predominance of either vertical or horizontal links;

· Management methods;

· Leadership style; depending on professionalism, number and personal qualities employees choose a leadership style that is either task-oriented or human relations;

· External and internal environment of the organization;

· Development strategy of the organization;

· Technological features of the production process.

Marketing Approach involves the analysis of organizations based on the results of marketing research. The main goal with this approach is the orientation of the control system to the consumer. Realization of the set goal requires, first of all, the improvement of the organization's business strategy, the purpose of which is to provide its organization with a sustainable competitive advantage. The marketing approach is designed to identify these competitive advantages and the factors that determine them.

As the practice of conducting research has shown, these factors include the following:

The quality of products or services;

The quality of the management of the organization itself;

· Marketing quality, ie. property of the product to meet the real needs of the population.

At the same time, it is important to take into account the competitive position, i.e. the position of the organization under study in the industry for a given period of time, since competition is an expensive event, and the market is characterized by high entry barriers.

Thus, the value of the marketing approach is to ensure the organization of the entire necessary information knowledge of which will allow you to retain and maintain your competitive position in the industry for a long time.

Innovative approach based on the ability of the organization to quickly respond to changes dictated by the external environment. This concerns the introduction of innovations, new technical solutions, the steady resumption of the production of new goods and services to best meet the needs of the sales market. The key to the successful functioning of any organization is that it must not only keep pace with technological progress, but also be ahead of it.

The introduction of innovation also requires a systematic analysis, namely, the determination of the organization's capabilities to introduce a particular innovation. The analysis process with an innovative approach is very complex and covers all stages of the product life cycle.

Consider these stages:

Analysis of the possibility of conducting research and development and - design work. Here it is necessary to determine whether the organization has the necessary financial resources, as the costs of developing innovative ideas and their implementation are increasingly increasing. As a rule, financing is carried out by investment companies, private and public funds, and a certain project or a new scientific idea is financed. Financing is carried out in several stages: first, applied research, then pilot development, and at the final stage - financing of mass production. The search for reliable financial investors is of no small importance, since knowledge-intensive production is fraught with great uncertainty. Many innovations do not reach mass production due to the fact that they are rejected by the market, and the financial risk here is quite large.

At this stage, it is also necessary to find out if there is a special group of people in the implementation team who will develop and implement innovative projects and what is their professional background.

Analysis of the possibility of introducing R&D results into production. Here it is necessary to determine the technical, organizational and economic feasibility of introducing new equipment or technology;

Analysis of the possibility of bringing a new product to the market. The marketing approach should play a special role here. It is necessary to study the requirements of the market, the nature of products of this type that are in demand, determine where they are produced and in what quantity.

Your own competitive position also plays an important role. It is at this stage of the analysis that the business (competitive) strategy of the organization should manifest itself to the greatest extent, on which the life expectancy of the product depends - from the first sales to saturation of demand and exit from the market.

With an innovative approach, it must be remembered that in order to successfully compete in the market, it is necessary to enable inventors to create new things, to create freely and bring their inventions to successful implementation. To do this, the team of inventors needs a certain freedom of creativity: the right to make decisions and be responsible for the final results. The management of the organization should be aimed at encouraging the initiative and enterprise of inventions.

Essence normative approach is as follows. The analysis of any management system with the aim of improving it is connected with taking into account the set of the most important standards that guide the company's apparatus in its activities. These are the standards established for each industry, for example, controllability standards and standards developed by the designers themselves. (Regulations on the organization, job descriptions, staffing and etc.). Norms can have a target, functional and social orientation. Target standards include everything that ensures the implementation of the goals set for the organization. These are, first of all, indicators of product quality, resource intensity of products, ergonomic indicators, reliability indicators, as well as the technical level of production.

The functional standards include the quality and timeliness of the development of plans, a clear organization of units, operational accounting and control, a strict distribution of functional responsibilities in each structural unit of the organization.

Standards in the social environment should provide optimal conditions for special development team. This includes indicators of incentives and labor protection, indicators of providing all employees with the necessary technical means for successful work. This also includes the need for systematic professional development, good motivation, legal and environmental regulations. Thus, the normative approach in the analysis requires taking into account the entire set of standards in the management of resources, process and product. The more scientifically based standards there are for all aspects of the organization's activities, the sooner success will come in achieving the goals.

aim behavioral approach is the creation of all the necessary conditions for the realization of the creative abilities of each employee, for the realization of their own importance in the management of the organization. It is important for managers to study the various behavioral approaches that general management recommends and to explore the possibility of their application in the process of analyzing the organization. It must be remembered that man is the most important element in the control system. A well-chosen team of like-minded people and partners who are able to understand and implement the ideas of their leader, - essential condition economic success.

System is a set of parts or components that are organizationally related. Therefore, the concept "system"

The essence of the systematic approach:

"analysis-synthesis"

("synthesis-analysis").

L. von Bertalanffy, .

Russell Ackoff defines

1) identification of the whole (system), of which the object of interest to us is a part;

3) an explanation of the behavior or properties of the object of interest to us in terms of its role or functions in general, of which it is a part. (i.e. the sequence "synthesis-analysis").

73. The concept of "system". System objects. Systems approach

System is a set of parts or components that are organizationally related. System- a set of interrelated and interacting elements (according to international ISO standards). V. Afanasiev believes that the key feature of the system is emergence. This principle of the emergence of properties in the whole that are not characteristic of elements individually is called W. R. Ashby emergence principle.

Therefore, the concept "system" most often defined as a set of elements that are in relationships and connections with each other, which forms a certain integrity.

In organizational systems, there is a constant process of transformation, during which elements change their state. In the transformation process, input elements are transformed into output elements.

The essence of a systematic approach

Previously, a reductionist approach dominated science and practice (in order to understand the whole, it is necessary to study its elements). Those. research methodology - "analysis-synthesis"(from parts to whole). The systems approach emerged as opposed to the reductionist one.

In accordance with systems thinking, it is believed that a better understanding of the system under study can be achieved by expanding the system, and not by reducing it to its constituent elements. Understanding goes from the whole to its parts ("synthesis-analysis"). Understanding the whole cannot be ignored, because this is very important information for the researcher.

The broadest interpretation of the system approach methodology belongs to L. von Bertalanffy, who proceeded from the fact that any organization is, first of all, the relationship between the interdependent parts of the system that ensure its existence. Therefore, the study of individual parts of the system cannot give a correct idea of ​​it as a whole. From this it was concluded that the system is qualitatively different from its constituent components, subsystems, and cannot be considered as a simple sum of its constituent elements.

The system approach is interdisciplinary and general scientific, because focuses on the integration of the achievements of all sciences (social, natural and technical), as well as the experience of practical activities, primarily in the field of organization and management. A good manager, as well as a good doctor, is a systems specialist who knows the structure and work of the entire organization or the whole organism. This is very valuable information for decision making.

Synthesis, or knowledge of the object as a whole, is the key to systems thinking. Russell Ackoff defines system approach methodology as the following order of the three stages of knowledge:

1) identification of the whole (system), of which the object of interest to us is a part;

2) an explanation of the behavior of the whole or the properties of the whole;

3) an explanation of the behavior or properties of the object of interest to us in terms of its role or functions in general, of which it is a part. (i.e. the sequence "synthesis-analysis").

In the traditional approach, the sequence is opposite - "analysis-synthesis".

The essence of a systematic approach

In modern scientific literature, a systematic approach is most often perceived as a direction in the methodology of scientific knowledge and social practice, which is based on the consideration of objects as systems.

The systematic approach focuses researchers on revealing the integrity of the object, identifying the diverse connections in it and bringing them together into a single theoretical picture.

The system approach is a form of application of the theory of knowledge and dialectics to the study of processes occurring in nature, society, and thinking. Its essence lies in the implementation of the requirements of the general theory of systems, according to which each object in the process of its study should be considered as a large and complex system and, at the same time, as an element of a more general system.

The essence of the system approach lies in the fact that relatively independent components are considered not in isolation, but in their interconnection, in development and movement. As one component of the system changes, others change as well. This makes it possible to identify integrative system properties and qualitative characteristics that are absent in the elements that make up the system.

Based on the approach, the principle of consistency has been developed. The principle of the system approach is to consider the elements of the system as interconnected and interacting to achieve the global goal of the system functioning. A feature of the system approach is the optimization of the functioning of not individual elements, but the entire system as a whole.

The systematic approach is based on a holistic vision of the objects or processes under study and seems to be the most universal method of research and analysis. complex systems. Objects are considered as systems consisting of regularly structured and functionally organized elements. A systematic approach is the systematization and unification of objects or knowledge about them by establishing significant links between them. The system approach involves a consistent transition from the general to the particular, when the basis for consideration is a specific ultimate goal, for the achievement of which the given system is being formed. This approach means that each system is an integrated whole even when it consists of separate disparate subsystems.

Basic concepts of the system approach: ʼʼsystemʼʼ, ʼʼstructureʼʼ and ʼʼcomponentʼʼ.

ʼʼSystem - ϶ᴛᴏ a set of components that are in relationships and connections with each other, the interaction of which generates a new quality that is not inherent in these components separatelyʼʼ.

A component is understood as any objects connected with other objects in a complex complex.

The structure is interpreted as the order of registration of elements in the system, the principle of its structure; it reflects the shape of the arrangement of elements and the nature of the interaction of their sides and properties. The structure connects, transforms the elements, giving a certain commonality, causing the emergence of new qualities that are not inherent in any of them. An object is a system if it is to be broken down into interrelated and interacting components. These parts, in turn, have, as a rule, their own structure and, therefore, are presented as subsystems of the original, large system.

The components of the system form backbone connections.

The main principles of the systems approach are:

Integrity, which allows considering the system at the same time as a whole and at the same time as a subsystem for higher levels.

Hierarchy of the structure, that is, the presence of a set (at least two) elements located on the basis of the subordination of elements of the lower level to elements top level.

Structurization, which allows you to analyze the elements of the system and their relationships within a specific organizational structure. As a rule, the process of functioning of the system is determined not so much by the properties of its individual elements, but by the properties of the structure itself.

Multiplicity, which allows using a variety of cybernetic, economic and mathematical models to describe individual elements and the system as a whole.

For example, the education system is perceived as a system that includes the following components: 1) federal state educational standards and federal state requirements, educational standards, educational programs of various types, levels and (or) directions; 2) organizations engaged in educational activities, teachers, students and parents (legal representatives) of underage students; 3) federal state bodies and bodies state power subjects Russian Federation implementing public administration in the field of education, and local self-government bodies exercising management in the field of education, advisory, advisory and other bodies created by them; 4) organizations that provide educational activities, assess the quality of education; 5) associations of legal entities, employers and their associations, public associations operating in the field of education.

In turn, each component of the education system acts as a system. For example, the system of organizations engaged in educational activities includes the following components: 1) preschool educational organizations 2) general educational organizations 3) professional educational organizations higher education educational organizations 4) educational organizations of higher education.

Educational organizations of higher education can also be considered as a system that includes the following components: institutes, academies, universities.

The presented hierarchy of systems included in the education system is located on the basis of the subordination of lower-level components to higher-level components; All components are closely interconnected, form a holistic unity.

The third level of methodology - concrete scientific - this is the methodology of a particular science, it is based on scientific approaches, concepts, theories, problems specific to scientific knowledge in a particular science, as a rule, these foundations are developed by scientists of this science (there are scientists of other sciences).

For pedagogy, this level of methodology is, first of all, pedagogical and psychological theories, concepts for private didactics (methods of teaching individual subjects) - theories in the field of didactics, for research in the field of education methods - basic concepts, theories of education. This level of methodology in a particular scientific research most often it is his theoretical basis of research.

The specific scientific level of pedagogy methodology includes: personal, activity, ethno-pedagogical, axiological, anthropological approaches, etc.

Activity approach. It has been established that activity is the basis, means and factor of personality development. The activity approach involves consideration of the object under study within the framework of the system of its activities. It involves the inclusion of educators in various activities: teaching, work, communication, play.

The personal approach means orientation in the design and implementation of the pedagogical process to the individual as a goal, subject, result and main criterion its effectiveness. It urgently demands the recognition of the uniqueness of the individual, his intellectual and moral freedom, the right to respect. Within the framework of this approach, it is supposed to rely on the natural process of self-development of the inclinations and creative potential of the individual, and the creation of appropriate conditions for this.

The axiological (or value) approach means the implementation in research, in education of universal and national values.

The ethno-pedagogical approach involves the organization and implementation of research, the process of education and training based on the national traditions of the people, their culture, national-ethnic rituals, customs, habits. The national culture gives a specific flavor to the environment in which the child grows and develops, various educational institutions function.

Anthropological approach, which means the systematic use of data from all sciences about man as a subject of education and their consideration in the construction and implementation of the pedagogical process.

To carry out the transformation, it is extremely important for a person to change the ideal way of his actions, the plan of activity. In this regard, he uses a special tool - thinking, the degree of development of which determines the degree of well-being and freedom of a person. It is a conscious attitude to the world that allows a person to realize his function as a subject of activity, actively transforming the world and himself on the basis of the processes of mastering the universal culture and cultural creation, self-analysis of the results of activity.

This, in turn, requires the use of a dialogic approach, which follows from the fact that the essence of a person is much richer, more versatile and more complex than his activity. The dialogic approach is based on faith in the positive potential of a person, in his unlimited creative possibilities continuous development and self-improvement. It is important that the activity of the individual, his needs for self-improvement are not considered in isolation. Οʜᴎ develop only in the conditions of relationships with other people, built on the principle of dialogue. The dialogic approach in unity with the personal and activity approach constitute the essence of the methodology of humanistic pedagogy.

The implementation of the above methodological principles is carried out in conjunction with the cultural approach. Culture is usually understood as a specific way of human activity. Being universal characteristic activity, it, in turn, sets the socio-humanistic program and predetermines the direction of this or that type of activity, its value typological features and results. Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, the assimilation of culture by a personality presupposes its assimilation of the ways of creative activity.

A person, a child lives and studies in a specific socio-cultural environment, belongs to a certain ethnic group. In this regard, the culturological approach is transformed into an ethnopedagogical one. In such a transformation, the unity of the universal, national and individual is manifested.

One of the resurgents is the anthropological approach, which means the systematic use of data from all the sciences of man as a subject of education and their consideration in the construction and implementation of the pedagogical process.

Tech level methodology make up the methodology and technique of research, ᴛ.ᴇ. a set of procedures that ensure the receipt of reliable experimental material and its primary processing, after which it can be included in the array of scientific knowledge. This level includes research methods.

Methods of pedagogical research - methods and techniques of cognition of the objective laws of education, upbringing and development.

Methods of pedagogical research are divided into groups:

1. Methods for studying pedagogical experience: observation, survey (conversation, interview, questionnaire), the study of written, graphic and creative works students, pedagogical documentation, testing, experiment, etc.

2. Theoretical methods of pedagogical research: induction and deduction, analysis and synthesis, generalization, work with literature (compilation of bibliography; summarizing; note-taking; annotation; citation), etc.

3. Mathematical methods: registration, ranking, scaling, etc.

The essence of the systematic approach is the concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Essence of a systematic approach" 2017, 2018.