Grand Duchy Lithuanian (history and map).

Some modern historians, challenging the conclusions of the Imperial Geographical Society (although not having access to his archives - Nobody worked with Polotsk after Tatishchev), heedifying the descendant of zmudinov, which "For a long time, I was sitting on the princely thrones of the feces of the Polotsky Principality - it was weakened and there were invited / printed princes from severe flying (zmudi), so the joining of Polotsky lands was voluntary and peacefully"

Immediately arises such a question to which the answer is not given.
How likely to invite the invitation (peaceful - there was no conquest) on the princely throne in the Christian Center of the leaders of the Aboriginal Gentiles

[ "Mortificates wear bad clothes and, moreover, in a vast majority of ash color. Life is carried out in low and more than very long huts; in the middle the fire is supported in them, which sits the father of the family and sees the cattle and all his home apparel. For they have in them The custom of keeping cattle, without any partition, under the same roof, under which they live. Most more notable uses of buffaloes as cups. ... The land is exploded not with iron, and a tree ... going to plow, they usually carry with themselves A lot of lamps that land moate "
S. Herburstein, "Notes on Muscovy", the XVI century, about the modern zmudinov. (In the XIII century it was still sad)]

And what the inhabitants were guided, preferring to them from adjacent (Volyn, Kiev, Smolensk, Novgorod, Mazovia) principalities, which

• represent powerful state Education
• closer in culture
• closer in tongue
• dynastically relative
• live in cities, know writing and similarity laws

And this is despite the fact that at that time in Polotsk was "Freeness of Polotsk Abo Venice" - Further rulers quite often just expelled.

XIII-XIV century

Describing the early history of Lithuania, S. M. Solovyov writes: "By contacting, on the one hand, the Baltic Sea, with another surrounded by tribes of Slavic and Finnish, the tribe of Lithuanian from time immemorial pores in the country of its coated rivers, lakes, swamps, impassable forests, With difficulty available and unattractive for the conqueror. " At the time when Velikorsia fell under mongolian Igo, in the 40s of the XIII century on the outskirts of the former Kievan Rus Suddenly, a new state appeared - the Lithuanian principality, which included only the eastern part of modern Lithuania (Aukshaytia) and Novogrudskaya Earth, known as under the name "Black Rus". However, the name of Lithuania and before the occasionally flashed on the pages of Russian chronicles. From the XII century, using Rus fragmentation, the squads of Lithuanian breeding leaders committed raids on border areas. For example, the Kiev source of the Novgorod chronicle under 1220g. He reports: "In winter, Lithuania has come, and the vost Chernigovsky's volost, Mstislav Svyatoslavich drives about them from Chernigov and comprehend them, beating everyone, and full of depart." By that time, Lithuanians had tribal unionsThe "senior" princes strengthen their power, in one word, the process is repeatedly described in the history of other countries and peoples and preceding the formation of the state.

As for Russia, it is experiencing the terrible times of the invasion of Mongol; The situation is complicated by the danger from the north, where in Latvian lands and Esta, the Order of the Marenossev flavored the flames of Christianity, threatening and the Polotsky Prince, and Pskov, and Novgorod, and from the West, where the Teutonic Order subjugated the Baltic tribes of Prussians and dreamed of new conquests in the East (in 1237. The Order was united, and the onslaught of Slavic and Lithuanian lands intensified). The task of liberation, the overthrew of the Orthodi authorities spoke to the fore for Russia. The threat from the West complicated this task, forced to fight for two fronts. It was clear that it was during this struggle that the leader would be determined, which will be destined to start the implementation of the communal program inherited from the Kiev Rus (at that moment, it is still unlikely to seriously inspire someone from Eastern European politicians, except for the Golden Thawan Khan, who has sought to take all Russians to the hands land).

Weakened Northeast Rus in the XIII century. It was clearly not able to lead this struggle. Episodic outbreaks of resistance chances for success did not have. Symbiosis of Northeast Rus with the Horde, the union of its principalities under the rule of the Khan, the lack of these ruined lands of real forces for the struggle - all this, although temporarily, excluded local princes from among the possible leaders of the liberation movement. Some longer, this chance was preserved by the princes of Galico-Volyn Rus, who (in particular, Daniel Galitsky) tried to fight the Horde, but were defeated and were also forced to pay tribute. Tatar raids and efforts of neighboring states subjugate these principalities weared and South-Western Rus. The Horde could hardly be seriously threatened with Novgorod, but indirect pressure on him (through the great princes of Vladimir) forced the Novgorod residents to bother the Khan. The trading republic, who mastered the northern lands, was not trying to actively fight against the Tatars, and its leaders did not show much interest in the affairs of the remaining Russian principalities.

Only the principality of Western Russia retained freedom, reliably covered by the hordes of the possessions of neighbors, forests and swamps. The Polotsk Earth, who has long-grained from Kiev, divided into small principalities, kept unity when it was about military affairs. The current Western Belarus (Grodno, Brest) was subordinate to Volyn Princes, actively operating in this region. And from the north, Lithuanian squads came increasingly: how the allies of Volyn princes, the way they are rivals.

As Dundy notes, the initial stage of the formation of the Grand Duchy of Lithuanian sources is painted quite foggy. The question of who, actually, became the initiator of the creation of this state: Lithuanian to know who captured Russian lands, or it was the Western Russian principalities who joined Lithuania. " Political relations, complicated, dictated to the need for Lithuanian and Russian nobility to seek agreements to reprain, primarily the Teutonic Order, which by that time was united with the Order of the Middle Mares. Already then there were agreements of those or other Russian centers with Lithuania. For example, in the subject of Polotsk, the city of Erosik Rules Prince Vsevolod. "He was married to the daughter of one of the most powerful Lithuanians (Daughter's) and being, as the son-in-law, for them, almost his own, associated with them above and friendship, often led by their troops, facilitated them with the crossing through Dvina and supplied them with edible supplies, Whether they went to russia, leaf or Estonia. " In this passage from the source, it can be seen how Russian feudal principalitys coming to Lithuania were drawn into dependence on Lithuanian rulers. Common interest was dictated by the strengthening of Lithuanian-Russian ties. In 1213. The same Daughter's "with large gifts went to the Great King of Novgorod and concluded a peaceful union with him." V. T. Pashutu believes that the agreement of Lithuanian princes with Galico-Volyn Rusy (1219) is not an accident, but a regular act of a certain policy. "Seeing the increasing threat from the Order, the most influential part of Lithuanian nobilite has decided to act united, so that, ensuring itself, safety from the south, more successfully fight against the knights in the north."

Thus, it is undoubted that the emergence of the Lithuanian state was the result of a compromise agreement between Lithuanian aware of the local Slavic boyarism. Researchers disagree in opinions regarding the participation of citizens in solving this issue. V. T. Tashutu believes that "the transition from raids to Russian lands to their business by the squads of Lithuanian princes occurred as a result of a collusion with local boyars, frightened by Tatar or German threat." Dundy, on the contrary, adheres to the point of view that "such a compromise would be impossible without the support of citizens, in many Western Russian principalities who kept a decisive voice in political affairs. And this, in turn, does not fit into the canonical scheme "Capture", agreements of feudal supports at the expense of the masses. "

The Lithuanian state from the moment of his appearance was the balto-Slavic power, the creator of which was Lithuanian Prince Mindovg. Explaced from Aubshaitiya rivals, he was accepted for the jurisdiction in Novogrudok, with the help of local boyars restored his power in East Lithuania and began a methodological elimination of relatives and tribal princes from other dynasties. Already in this initial period The tendency to the Slavic Dynasty ruling in Lithuania is noticeable. The fact of baptism in Orthodoxy of one of the sons of Mindovga is indisputable - Voichelik, who his father handed over the Novogrudskoy Prince and who decided to leave him and take the San Monk. At the same time, the Black Rus moved to the prince of Roman Danilovich and one of the Galician-Volyn princes became vassal of the Lithuanian Grand Prince. In the fall 1236 Mindovg was killed by conspirators. His supporters were supported by the Voichela, who "Pinis with Pinian to Novgorod and Ottola took the Novgorod and Podis to Lithuania." Thus, initially, the hiking of the voyage was supported by Slavic lands, that is, the existence of the Lithuanian principality already during this period obviously answered the interests of not only Lithuanians, but also the East Slavic population of the territories included in its composition. Voycelk concludes a union with the Galician-Volyn princes, restores his suzernet over Vitebsk, Polotsk.

It should be noted that the preservation of the indigenous Lithuania and the help of paganism in a weak degree influenced the internal policies of the state. Moreover, a high level of development of feudal relations, characteristic of Slavic lands, the traditions of ancient Russian culture allowed them not only to preserve their originality, but also to have a significant impact on the system of indigenous Lithuania. If the Ordans carried their management system and exploitation to the conquered countries, the ums of local public structures in order to adapt them to the needs of their empire, the Lithuanian princes behaved in Russian principalities as well as in their time Varyagi: they took local customs, managed "in Starin" , preserved the previously established system of ownership. The gradual Slavication of Lithuanian indigenous land, which lasted a few centuries, more and more limited the range of distribution of the Lithuanian language (although the chubs of this process was touched by weakly). All this was naturally predetermined by the attitude towards the Great Principality of the Lithuanian of his East Slavic population: it, with the same right as Lithuanians, considered this state to be.

The desire of Lithuanian princes to expand its possessions objectively answered the real desire of East Slavic land to combine. Therefore, in this region, Lithuanian princes assumed a function in other parts of Russia, the local Rurikovichi was performed. Such a task was set by Mindovg and Voichelik. With their successors, despite the crossbursts, the expansion of Lithuanian ties with other Russian lands, the approval of Lithuanian princes in various centers of Western Russia was preparing the soil for future consolidation. The implementation of this unifying program is associated with the name of the Grand Duke Gedimin. He spread the borders of his power away to the south and east, while Moscow and Tver princes challenged in Horde Vladimir's great reign and did not even think about a decisive fight with her. Relying on the support of the Grand Duchy of Lithuanian Western Russian lands hoped to reset the Mongolian IHO. In the 30s of the XIV century Smolensky Prince Ivan Aleksandrovich concluded a treaty agreement with Gedymin and recognized himself with "younger brother", i.e. Vassal of the Lithuanian sovereign.

Announced by this Union Khan Uzbek in 1339. I sent my sort to Smolensk with Mirza Tavlubiam. Moscow Prince Ivan Kalita participated in this campaign. The hike ended well for Smolensk: the horde was supposed to accept the refusal of the city to pay tribute. Thus, the limit of the spread of the Horde's power in Western Russian lands was laid. Gedimine retained control over Polotsk, where the Lithuanian dynasty and rules brother Gedimin, Warrior, has long been approved. He is subject to Vitebsk and the Minsk Principality. In the West, the troops of the Lithuanian Prince successfully reflected the attacks of the Crusaders. In the late 20s - early 30s of the XIV century. Kyiv Principality recognizes the Supreme Power of Gedimin; Kiev Prince Fedor supports him in the fight against rivals. Fearing for the land of his republic, who threatened the attack of Sweden, Novgorod boyars entered into an agreement with the Gedimine Government in 1331, to see him important suburbs for the protection of the Swedish-Danish threat. In 1333 Lithuanian Prince Narimunt-Gleb Gediminovich received in the holding of military and economically, Novgorod suburbs. It was a major success of Gedimine Government.

All this should have a joke to alarmed the Moscow government, which himself came into contact with Lithuania (as it can be judged by marriage in 1333. Semyon Ivanovich with Lithuanian prince Aigust), then the Government of Kalita began to look for agreements with the Novgorod Republic: Ivan Kalita accepted In 1334, Novgorod Embassy and visited Novgorod himself. Gedimine answered a raid in 1335 on Torzhok. Calita's troops made an attack on the city-busy Lithuania and Ryasno. This fact, the Lithuanian government did not attach then muchMeanwhile, he marked the entry of the strongest Moscow Principality in the fight for the championship in Russia.

The time of open collision of Moscow and Lithuania has not yet come. Busy struggle for Vladimir, Rostov, small diets of Northeastern Russia, Moscow Princes have not yet looked at the lands of Western Russia inaccessible. But the two powers gradually fought with new possessions, their borders were inexorably approaching each other. Already during Gedimine, it can be noted the first while small military collisions; But only under the heirs of Gedimin and Ivan Kalita, this conflict will acquire the nature of the open struggle for the possession of "All Rus."

The considered in this chapter make some conclusions about the nature of Russian-Lithuanian relations in the XIII - the first half of the XIV century. And about the influence of these relationships on the unifying processes in Northeast Rus. First, at the beginning of the XIII century. The Lithuanian state has become the center of agshaitiya lands association, hemitetia, part of Yatvägia and Zemgalia. This union in the form of struggle for the Lithuanian monarchy, which was born in the context of repeated feudal wars complicated by the intervention of Governments of Russia, Order, Poland, papal curia. The composition of the Lithuanian state gradually included Belarusian and Russian lands, boyars and princes of which were looking for in collaboration with Lithuania to get rid of the threat of horde and the Order. Strengthening the Moscow Principality at Ivan Kalita opens the beginning of fundamental changes in the political situation of Eastern Europe. In these new conditions, the distribution of the authorities of Lithuanian feudalists to Russian lands was becoming undesirable for the violation of the Moscow principality, which herself sought to become the center unifying processes In Russia.

Thus, the first stage of Russian-Lithuanian relations is ends, characterized by the relatively peaceful existence of Russia and Lithuania due to the lack of strength and the presence of another threat, which it was necessary to think first. As this threat is weakened, the collision of the interests of the Grand Duchy of the Lithuanian and Moscow Principality in the South-Western Russian lands becomes increasingly. The presence of a strong rival undoubtedly performed as one of the catalysts of unifying processes in Northeast Russia, pushed the rulers of the Moscow principality to accelerate the accession of land. In the first half of the XIV century, Moscow Rus turned out to be unable to prevent Hediminovich's successes in the West and South; But her strength was enough to prevent the completion of the unification of the Russian lands around wine. The stage of Russian-Lithuanian relations in its content should have to show whose right to leadership in Russia is more reasonable.

Russian-Lithuanian relations in the XIV-XV centuries

Dying, Gedimine shared his possessions between family sons. The Grand Principality of Lithuanian enters into the period of feudal fragmentation. But this did not happen: the trends towards the union, the centripetal processes on the lands of Russia and Lithuania were so strong that the preservation of the devices did not destroy the unity of the power. The struggle of Gediminovichi for his father's legacy turned out to be short. The Grand Duke became Olgerd with the consent of Keestuta (in fact, the brothers were coordinates). Pretty clearly distinguishing "spheres of influence" and interests, they performed general task - preserving and expanding the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Castut, who managed by Native Lithuania and Zhmudu, took over the reflection of the onslaught of the Crusaders (of course, using the active support of the brother and all Slavic land of Power). "Eastern state policy he provided Olgedu.

In those years Golden Horde worried the period of bloody cross-consumables; The struggle aggravated between the principalities of Vladimir Rus. After the death of energetic Simeon proud, his brother Ivan Red failed to preserve the conquered by Moscow leadership, although he received a label to the Grand Diction. After his death, the label went to the Suzdal Prince Dmitry Konstantinovich; The tradition was violated, questioned the hereditary right of descendants of Kalita to leadership - the reason was the child of the Moscow Prince Dmitry. As a result, a situation was created when in fact not one of the princes of North-Eastern Russia could not control the actions of the neighbors. During a number of years of Moscow diplomacy, it was to focus on solving a purely regional task - restoring its leadership within the limits of Northeast Rus. At this time, Olgerend enhances pressure to Smolensk and Bryansk lands. In 1356 He captures Rzhev, in 1359. - owned by the Smolensky principality Mstislavl, in 1462. - Toropets. Thus, the ownership of the Grand Duchy of Lithuanian approached the Chernigovo - Seversk land, where many descendants of the local branch of Rurikovich were still ruled, as well as the Kiev region, since the Gedimin who was in the orbit of Lithuanian influence, but, like the Chernihiv land, which retained the dependence on the Horde . Using an extremely favorable situation in the south (the struggle between various groups of the goldside feudal faeodals, weakened by the steppe power in the 60s. XIV century.), Olgerend subjugates the Kiev Principality, Chernigovo - Seversk land, handing out their cities in the lots of their sons and nephews.

It seemed that Leadership in Russia was forever moved to Gediminovich. In the Union with Tver, Olgere tried to consolidate this success in the "Votchin" of his main opponent - in the northeast. However, intensified Moscow, seeing a real threat to its positions in this region, sought to prevent the expansion of Lithuanian influence. Without having forces and means to combat him, the Moscow government tried to weaken the ally of Olgere - Tver, which is in support of which Olgere was organized in 1368. The first major campaign to Moscow. Tver Prince Mikhail Alexandrovich raises the Lithuanian troops to Moscow, watched from the Khan label to the Grand Diction. But, as Brockhauses and Efron are noticed in their famous dictionary, "the Moscow Prince is no longer afraid of a horde, nor Lithuania." Inspired by the military failure of Olgerd, Moscow Prince Dmitry Ivanovich in the same year was able to form a coalition directed against Tver, thereby proving that Moscow's leadership among the principalities of this region is recognized by most of their rulers (perhaps, precisely because too real And the perspective of the capture of their possessions by Olgerm was similar). Tver was forced to capitulate and, in any case, formally abandon the Union with Lithuania. Not discouraged by the first failure, in the fall of 1371. Olgerd repeated the campaign, deposited Moscow 8 days, but was forced to sign a truce. Moscow resisted, and it undoubtedly increased her authority.

The last hike (in the fall of 1732) also did not bring Olgedu success and, after all, he was forced to recognize the "secondary" rights of descendants of Kalita to the Vladimir great reign. It can be concluded that Olgere's attempts to continue in the northeast, the association's business was demonstrated that in this region there was its own, quite a rigid political structure and, unlike the rest of Russian lands, there are no real prospects for the establishment of Gediminovichi power. Greeks believes that "in the first half of the XIV century. The trend of feudal concentration, and at the same time the tendency of consolidation of ethnically homogeneous territories began to clearly take over the trend of feudal crushing. In the historical destinies of the Russian Earth, this trend was found in the development of two parallel existing feudal states: the Grand Duch of the Lithuanian and Great Vladimir Prince. " The difference between them was that the growth process of the Moscow principality did not exit initially for the ethnic borders of Russian territories and was carried out by expanding one of the leading Russian principalities, and the process of unification of the South-Western Russian lands proceeded in the framework of the Grand Duch of Lithuanian and Russian, at the head of which It turned out to be actually the Lithuanian dynasty. If at the end of the XIII - the beginning of the XIV centuries existed a peculiar balance between the Lithuanian and Russian parts of this principality, then at Olgere, this balance was, apparently violated.

The rapid territorial growth of the Grand Due to the Russian lands created here a new alignment of forces, increasing the political potential of Russia and reducing the share of the Lithuanian element. And the farther the principality promoted its borders to the East and the Southeast, the Russian territory, which included in its composition, the more "Russified" the Lithuanian dynasty, the more consistent the ruling circles of this state defended the community program for the merger of all Russian land under their power . So bizarrely intertwined in political life The Grand Duchy is two trends: the tendency of the formation of a multinational state and the trend of the Renaissance of the communional "national" state on the basis of the restoration of the unity of the Russian Earth. In the era of the Board of Olgere, this second trend historical Development It turned out to be leading and determining. The fact that the Lithuanian dynasty was put on the path of "division" of this state did not change the nature of his policies in relation to Russian lands, did not eliminate the parallelism in the then historical life of Lithuania and Moscow. Complex political struggle These states continued throughout the second half of the XIV century, and in the same essentially rhythm, in the same alternation of success and failures, which were characterized by the rivalry of Lithuania and Russia in the belt of neutral Russian cities - in Veliky Novgorod, Tver, etc. An important role in Golden Horde, Constantinople and, partly, Poland played this struggle.

Throughout 1375 - 1380. In the struggle of Moscow and wine for the domination of Russian lands, in the struggle of the hordes for the preservation of their significance in the political life of Eastern Europe, there were significant fluctuations, "unforeseen" shifts were arisen in the prevailing forces, there was an increase in the military-political potential of one party and the corresponding weakening of another Parties. So, after the Tver campaign 1375, after a hike on the Bulgar (1376) and victory on the river. Very (1378) The advantage of Moscow became apparent and so significant that the Union between Lithuania and the Horde became closer, and the military and political pressure on them to Moscow - even more intense. However, Dmitry Donskoy at that time did not inactive, continuing to increase the military forces and trying to expand the circle of its allies.

Battle September 8, 1380 On the Kulikov, the field between the troops of Mama and the combined forces of Dmitry Donskoy put an end to an unstable equilibrium between Moscow and wine, immediately leading to such an alignment of forces in Eastern Europe, in which Vladimir reign began to dominate the system of Eastern European states. The Triumph of Moscow forced the Lithuanian Prince Yagailo to seek the Union with Dmitry. Then there was a project that provided for the baptism of Yagaylo in Orthodoxy and his marriage at one of the daughters of Dmitry Ivanovich. Then, in 1381, the fate of the Grand Principality of Lithuanian and Russia could turn quite differently. Takhtamysh's campaign and burning Moscow in 1382. For a whole century, the final overthrow of Russia of the Horde Iga. The news of the crushing defeat of Moscow forced Yagaylo to look for new unions and refuse the project. In 1385 He concluded an agreement with Polish magnates. Marriage on the Polish Queen of Jadwig, the promise to baptize Lithuania to Catholic and to attach it to the possessions of the Polish crown dramatically changed the situation in the Grand Duch. As in the time of Mindovga, Lithuania turned face to the West, to Catholic Europe. Through the campaign, Tokhtamysh Horde again managed to prevent an excessive strengthening of the Moscow Principality.

With the coronation of Yagaylo, the question arose about who will actually manage from his behalf the Grand Principality Lithuanian. Initially, the king instructed this mission to his brother Skirgailo. However, it soon turned out that in Lithuania there is a strong opposition: the son of Keestuta became the leader, Vitovt, who used the Order in his interests. Greeks notes that "Having achieved a complete celebration of Yagaylo, the rulers of the Order began to take care of keeping this Lithuanian leader in the fairway of their policy. Already in October 1382. They invited Vitovt to themselves with an explicit intention to turn him into a yagaylo curvature gun. " Having entered into an alliance with the Crusaders, Vitovt took a few times hiking on Lithuania; He managed to take a number of cities. The threat of power Yagailo was great, and the king pretended to partially sacrifice it by proposing the appropriate return conditions. The son of Keestuta, named by historians Great, approving his power throughout the territory, still sent its main efforts to the East. Like his predecessors, he enjoyed the weakening of the horde, turmoil in Northeast Russia to expand its sphere of influence.

20th. The XV century is the period of the greatest foreign policy success of the Grand Principality of Lithuania. Under the influence of the Vitovt, there were the Volga Horde and the Crimea, where weak khans replaced each other. In 1425 The son-in-law of Vitovt, Moscow Prince Vasily Dmitrievich died. With it, Moscow, while maintaining leadership in Northeast Russia, quite consistently recognized the role of wine in the matters of "All Russia". Moscow Prince sought to avoid clashes with powerful Lithuania, without having any serious tasks outside the traditional sphere of Moscow influence. In 1426 Vitovt made a campaign on Pskov and accepted the redemption from him. B1427 He makes a triumphant journey through the eastern outskirts of his state. To meet him, the princes of Ryazan, Pereyaslavl, Prier, Vorotynsk, Odayeva and "Blilled him," handing rich gifts. In 1428 Vitovt made a campaign to Novgorod and took a huge redemption from him.

After the death of Vitovt in 1430. In Lithuania occurs feudal warAs a result of which the younger son Yagaylo, Kazimir, who was crowned in wine in 1440, turns to the throne. Casimir reign 52 years and his long rule was the time of weakening the Grand Duchy. From the mid-50s. This state finally loses the former offensive gust. The successors of Vitovt refuse the community program, focusing their efforts to preserve the integrity of the state. The transition of Gediminovichi from the offensive to the defense coincides with time with the success of the unification policy of Moscow. In 1463 Yaroslavl princes are inferior to Ivan III their victob. In 1474 Rostov princes sold him the remaining part of Rostov remained behind them. In 1471 Ivan III makes a trip to Novgorod, executed by the leaders of the Boyarskaya Party of Worec, destroying the agreement between Novgorod and Kazimir and forced the Novgorod residents to adopt the archbishop from Moscow. In 1479 Ivan again siege to Novgorod, forcing him to get into the Moscow principality. The policy of Ivan III was supported by Pskov, where the positions of the Moscow Prince also strengthened: his governor received the court's right to 12 suburbs of Novgorod instead of 7.

This is the strengthening of Moscow's activity, especially after the victory in 1480. Over Ahmatom on r. Ugra, threatened by the possessions of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, but his government is not able to prevent the loss of a number of border areas. During the joining of Tver Lithuania retains neutrality. A. L. Khoroskevich notes that "this neutrality Casimir in 1486. Explained the terms of the "Dutch" with Vasily II, which allegedly did not allow him to give help to the Tver Prince Mikhail. The last Tver Prince and his boyars were refuge in Lithuania. "

In the city of the 15th century, Moscow Princes "plunge" the Eastern Territory of Hediminovich's Power (the power of Moscow recognize Vyazma, Novogrod-Seversky, Chernihiv, Putivl, Bryansk), the Crimeans are attached to South Rus, subject to Kazimir. In September 1484 "According to the word of the Grand Duze, Ivan Vasilyevich, All Russia, Tsar Ming Ming Hard, Horde with all Silah and Grad Kiev took the fire so earlier, and the Voyiv of Kiev, and the land of Kiev."

By the 80th. XV century For a change of individual Russian lands, as A. L. Khoroskevich believes, "the Russian state comes, relations with which new problems give rise to." This state develops as a multinational, incorporated far from all the land populated by Russians or upstream to the Old Russian nationality by Belarusians and Ukrainians. Their lands were part of the Great Principality of Lithuania, and West-Ukrainian (headed by Lviv) - to Poland. The proclamation of Ivan III in 1478 of the program of returning all Russian land - Vitebsk, Polotsk, etc. and the repetition of this declaration in 1480 at the same time with the liberation of Russia from the Ordane Iga, was accompanied by the rapid resistance of Lithuania and the Polish king. Further expansion of Russia to the West is suspended. All R. XVI in. Ivan Grozny during Livonian war For a short time it takes Polotsk, but cannot hold it. According to the results of the war, Russia loses almost the entire coast of the Baltic. All R. The XVII century, after joining Russia of Ukraine, the royal troops occupy the entire territory of the Grand Duchy, the garrison of Alexei Mikhailovich is in vigilant. If you believe the works of historians of the 50s. The twentieth century, written in the anniversary of these events, the local population climbed into the struggle against the "Panov" and rejoiced the prospect of reunification. But suddenly everything changes: the gentry that recently swatched the king, takes on the weapon, rebellion against the royal garrisons Belarusian citizens. Ultimately, the Moscow State Commonwealth and Kiev and Kiev and Kiev. The state territory of the Grand Principality of Lithuanian up to the 70s. XVIII century, i.e. The sections of the Commonwealth speech are preserved within the boundaries of the XVI century.

The reason not allowed to fully fulfill the program of reunification of Russian lands in the volume of the Old Russian state, Dumin sees in real differences in the development of land, which was part of the Grand Duchy of the Lithuanian and Moscow State. Moscow princes, especially from the time of Ivan III, actively destroy the previously established feet structures, "remove" their local feudalists, eliminate (as it was in Novgorod and Pskov) urban freedoms. The government of the Great Principality of Lithuanian and Russian goes quite different ways. Condeming as a federation as a result of a compromise between the local feudalities and the Lithuanian dynasty, this state offers its new submitted guarantee of the preservation of "old", i.e. Former forms of ownership, local utensils, political rights of the population (of course, subject to the adoption of the supreme power and participation in national affairs, primarily in military campaigns). In grafted 1447, complained to the whole boyars of the principality, provided the battles the right of a raid court, having deprived the sovereign right to interfere with the relationship between the feudalists and their subjects.

On the contrary, in Moscow Rus, the state seeks to limit the judicial rights of the feudalists, thereby strengthening their dependence on its power. In Lithuania throughout the XVII century. Weakens the dependence of feudal feudal from the sovereign in a land question. In Russia, as is well known, it was at that time a local land tenure, strengthening the connection of the feudal with Süster, actively developed. In the Grand Duch, the rights of citizens are expanding. The development of urban self-government for the pattern of typical Magdeburg law for Europe in the entire imperfection of this system has contributed to the creation of self-governing urban communities capable of protecting the estate rights of citizens in clashes with royal officials and individual feudals. In some kind of great principality, initially even conservative, the effect of European, primarily the Polish sample, becomes more and more. The Russian state from the end of the XV century. Developed towards the absolute monarchy.

Question 13.

An important role in Russian history was played by the Grand Principality Lithuania (incl). Lithuanian tribes in the Baltic States - Jimaty (Zmmuda), Aukstesteta, Yatvägi, etc. - later than east Slavs, switched to class society. The Lithuanian state was created only in the 13th century. His founder became Mindovg, who was first mentioned in Russian chronicles in 1219. Mindovg united under his authority Lithuanian lands in a bloody struggle with the rest of the princes. Mindovg supported the Union with Alexander Nevsky and with Galitsky Prince Daniel Romanovich, for whom he was married his daughter. The Lithuanians at this time were still pagans, for the right to Christianization of Lithuania rival Orthodoxy (Rus) and Catholicism (Poland and Teutonic Order). Mindovg was accepted by Catholicism in 1251, but it was only his clever political maneuver. A few years later he returned to paganism and continued to successfully fight against the Teutonic Order for Lithuania's independence. In 1263, Mindovg died as a result of a conspiracy of the princes hostile to him. In Lithuania began inter part. Separate princes (Toyden, Voycelk) managed only to temporarily strengthen the princely power. Their successor to Viten (1293-1315) in alliance with Galician princes won the victory over the Teutonic Order. The flourishing of inclues came at Britia - Gedimine (1316-1341). From the very beginning, inclusions were not only Lithuanian, but also Russian lands. Already Mindovu was subordinate to the Black Rus - the Earth in the Neman's pool around Grodno. With his heirs, the number of Russian lands, subject to the grand princes of Lithuanian, has increased significantly. Especially large territories of Russia found themselves in inclusions during Gedimine. In his hands were Minsk, tours, Vitebsk, Pinsk. In Polotsk, Lithuanian princes were sitting in the prince. The influence of Gedimin also spread to Kiev, Galician and Volyn lands. In the successors of Gedimin - Olgere, Keystut, Vitovte - even more Russian and future Belarusian and Ukrainian lands are included in incl. Ethnographic Lithuania was about one tenth of this extensive state. Methods for the joining of these lands were different. There was a straight seizure, but often the Russian princes recognized the power of Lithuanian princes voluntarily, and local boyars called for them, concluding agreement with them - "Rows". The reason for this was adverse foreign policy conditions. On the one hand, the Russian lands threaten the aggression of the German knightly orders, on the other - the Ordan Igo. Feudal fragmentation And the princely interdarmobes in Northeast Rus made it powerless to help the Western and southwestern parts of the country. Therefore, the Russian feudalists searched for the protection against the external threat, especially since Lithuanian princes were not vassals of the Horde, and thus the Ordan Igo did not apply to its territory. Russian lands in composition, more numerous than Lithuanian, and standing at a higher level of development, had a significant impact on the nature of social relations and the culture of this state. Feodal to know incl, except for the princes, was mainly not from Lithuanians, but from Russians. This was also explained by the fact that in Lithuania, a free peasantry was last preserved in Lithuania, and the local feudal class was numerically extremely small. Therefore, the Russian princes and boyars in the incl participated in solving political issues in diplomatic negotiations.

The Grand Distribution of the Lithuanian - Eastern European State, which existed from the first half of the XIII century to 1795 in the territory of modern Belarus, Lithuania, Ukraine, Russia, Poland (Slash), Latvia (1561-1569) and Estonia (1561-1569).

Since 1385, he was with Poland in personal union, known as Krevskaya Ulya, and from 1569 - in the Seimogo Lublin Ulya. In the XIV-XVI centuries, the Great Principality of Lithuanian - the rival of Moscow Rus in the struggle for domination in Eastern Europe.

The chronology of the main event events (before the formation of a compulciety speech):
IX-XII century - the development of feudal relations and the formation of classes in the territory of Lithuania, the formation of the state
The beginning of the XIII century - the strengthening of the aggression of the German Crusaders
1236 - Lithuanians win the swords of swords in Schäulya
1260 - Victory of Lithuanians over Durpet's Teutions
1263 - Association of the main Lithuanian lands under the authority of Mindovga
XIV century - a significant expansion of the territory of the principality due to new lands
1316-1341 - Princess Gedimine
1362 - Olgerd breaks the Tatar in the battle with blue waters (the left influx of southern Bug) and takes Podolia and Kiev
1345-1377 - Best of Olgere
1345-1382 - Keestuta Prince
1385 - Grand Duke Yagailo
(1377-1392) concludes Krevian Ulya with Poland
1387 - Adoption of Lithuania Catholicism
1392 - As a result of the civilian struggle, Vitovt is becoming Vitovt, who opposed the Yagailo policy of 1410 - the United Lithuanian-Russian and Polish troops of the headwood broke the Knights of the Teutonic Order in the Grunwald battle
1413 - Golden Sania, in accordance with which the rights of Polish gentry applies to Lithuanian Catholics
1447 - the first grafting - a set of laws. Together with the judiciary
1468 he became the first experience of codification of law in the principality
1492 - "Vague the Grand Duke Alexander." The first Charter of the Shantehet
End of the XV century - the formation of the communal school of the Seima. Growth and privilege of Panov
1529, 1566, 1588 - the exit of three editions of the Lithuanian Statute - "Charter and Pie", Zemsky and regional "Privilev", which secured the rights of the gentry
1487-1537 - held with ruus breaks against the background of the strengthening of the Moscow Principality. Lithuania lost Smolensk, captured by Vitovt in 1404th. In the truce of 1503, Rus returned 70 volosts and 19 cities, including Chernigov, Bryansk, Novgorod-Seversky and other Russian lands
1558-1583 - the war of Russia with the Livonian Order, as well as with Sweden, Poland and the Grand Duration Lithuanian for the Baltic States and the exit to the Baltic Sea, in which Lithuania has failed
1569 - signing of Lublin Ulya and the unification of Lithuania in one state with Poland - Commonwealth

Map of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, where territorial changes in various historical periods are displayed:

Here is an excerpt from Igor Kurukin's article "Great Lithuania or Alternative Rus?", Published in the magazine "Around the World" in N1 for 2007:

In the middle of the XIII century, Prince Mindovg (Mindaugas) by iron hand combined chaotic tribal unions. Moreover, seeking to overcome Teutons, he took the royal crown from Roman dad (Mindovg remained in the history of the first and only Lithuanian king), then the East was unfolded and looking for support against the Crusaders from Alexander Nevsky. As a result, the country did not recognize the Tatar yoke and quickly expanded its territory through weakened Western Russian principalities (the land of the current Belarus).

Century later, Gedimin and Olgere had already had a power, including Polotsk, Vitebsk, Minsk, Grodno, Brest, Tours, Volyn, Bryansk and Chernigov. In 1358, Olgerda ambassadors even stated the Germans: "All Russia should belong to Lithuania." In reinforcement of these words and ahead of Muscovites, the Lithuanian prince opposed the "most" gold hordes: in the 1362th defeated the Tatars at blue waters and secured an ancient Kiev for Lithuania for almost 200 years.

According to the non-surrender coincidence, at the same time, the Moscow Princes - descendants of Ivan Kalita are "collecting" the lands. So by the middle of the XIV century there were two centers, claimed to combine the ancient Russian "inheritance": Moscow and founded in 1323. The conflict was not to be avoided, especially since the main tactical rivals of Moscow appeared in the Union with Lithuania - Tver Princes, they sought "under the arm" of the West and Novgorod boyars.

Then, in 1368-1372, Olgerd in the Union with Tver made three campaigns to Moscow, but the forces of rivals turned out to be approximately equal, and the case was over the contract separated by the "spheres of influence". Well, since it was not possible to destroy each other, I had to get closer: some of the children of the Genadum of Olgerd accepted Orthodoxy. This is here Dmitry and suggested that the dynastic union who has not yet been determined, who was not destined to take place. And not only did not like the word by the princess: it became - on the contrary. As you know, Dmitry could not resist Tokhtamysh, and in 1382 the Tatars let Moscow "on flow and looting". She was again made by the Horde Danny. The Union with a failed test stopped attracting the Lithuanian sovereign, but rapprochement with Poland gave him not only a chance to the royal crown, but also real assistance in the fight against the main opponent - the Teutonic Order.

And Yagailo nevertheless married - but not at the Moscow Princess, but on the Polish Queen of Jadvig. Breastled according to the Catholic ritual. Became the Polish king under christian name Vladislav. Instead of the Union with the Eastern Brothers, the Krevian Seni of 1385 with Western happened. From that time, Lithuanian history has been firmly overwhelmed with Polish: the descendants of Yagaylo (Yagellons) were made in both powers of three centuries - from XIV to XVI. But nevertheless there were two different states who retained each political device, system of law, currency and army. As Vladislav Yagailo, he spent most of his reign in new possessions. The old rules of his cousin Vitovt and Rules brightly. In a natural union with the Poles, he defeated Germans in Grunewald (1410), joined Smolensk Earth (1404 years) and Russian principalities in Oki's upper reaches. Mighty Lithuanian could even plant his own depths for the Horde throne. The huge "otkuk" paid him Pskov and Novgorod, and the Moscow Prince Vasily I Dmitrievich, as if byverting inside out the plans of his father, married a whit-moving daughter and began to call the father's father-in-law, that is, in the system of the then feudal representations, recognized himself with his vassal. At the top of greatness and glory, Vitovt lacked only the royal crown, which he stated at the congress of monarchs of Central and Eastern Europe in 1429 in Lutsk in the presence of the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire of Sigismund I, the Polish King Yagailo, Tver and Ryazan Princes, Moldovan Moldovar, Embassies Denmark, Byzantium and Pope Roman. In the fall of 1430, Moscow Prince Vasily II, Metropolitan Fothy, Tverskaya, Ryazan, Odoevsky and Mazovsky Princes, Moldovan Lord, Livonsky Master, Ambassadors of the Byzantine Emperor, gathered to Coronation. But the Poles refused to miss the embassy that the royal regalia from Rome was lucky (in the Lithuanian "Chronicle Bykhovo" it is even said that the crown was taken away from the ambassadors and cut apart). As a result, Vitovt was forced to postpone the coronation, and in October of the same year, he suddenly fell ill and died. It is possible that the Lithuanian Great Prince was poisoned, because a few days before his death, he felt perfectly and even went to hunt. With the whit of the Earth of the Grand Duch of Lithuania stretched from Baltic Sea to black, and its eastern border passed under Vyazma and Kaluga ...

In cases where highly developed territories were included in Lithuania, the great princes retained their autonomy, guided by the principle: "Starns are not crumbling, we do not introduce novels." So, loyal spreads from the tree of Rurikovichi (Princes Dutin, Vorotnsky, Odoevsky) for a long time retained their possessions completely. Such lands received diplomas - "Prints". Their inhabitants could, for example, demand the change of the governor, and the sovereign did not undertake certain actions against them: not to "join" into the right of the Orthodox Church, do not relocate local boyars, do not give the feots from other places, not "to dry out" received by local courts solutions. Until the XVI century, the Slavic lands of the Grand Duchy were operated by legal norms that were torn to the "Russian truth" - ancient times of laws given by Yaroslav Wisely.

The polyethnic composition of the Power then reflected even in its name - "Grand Duch of Lithuanian and Russian", and official language The principality was considered Russian ... But - not Moscow (rather, Starobelorussky or Starokrainsky is a big difference between them to early XVII The century is not traced). It made up laws and acts of the State Chancellery. The sources of the XV-XVI centuries testify: Eastern Slavs, within the borders of Poland and Lithuania, considered themselves the "Russian" people, "Russians" or "Rusyn", at the same time, will repeat, without identifying themselves with "Muscovites".

In the northeast part of Russia, that is, in the one that, in the end, and has been preserved on the map under this name, the process of "gathering lands" was longer and more difficult, but also the degree of unification of the once independent principalities under heavy Lengus Kremlin Vladyk was immeasurably above. In the turbulent XVI century, "free autocracy" (the term Ivan Grozny) was strengthened in Moscow, the remains of the Novgorod and Pskov liberty disappeared, their own "diets" of aristocratic families and semi-broadcast border crossings. All the more or less noble subjects carried the lifelong service of the sovereign, and attempts to defend their rights regarded as a betrayal. Lithuania in the XIV-XVI centuries was, rather, the federation of land and principalities under the rule of the great princes - descendants of Gedimin. Others were the relationship between the authorities and the subjects - the sample of the social device and state orders of Poland affected. "Aliens" for the Polish nobility, Yagellons needed her support and were forced to give all new privileges, spreading them on Lithuanian subjects. In addition, descendants of Yagailo led an active foreign Policy, And for this, too, it was necessary to pay knights sent to the campaigns.

After the Lublin Unce, according to which, in 1569, Poland and Lithuania were united in one state - Speech saluting, the Polish gentry had a powerful stream into rich and few still populated the lands of Ukraine. There both mushrooms grew by Latifundy - Zamoyskiy, Zholkev, Kalinovsky, endpool, Potoksky, Vishnevian. With their appearance, there was a lot of violence in the past: after the magnits, a Catholic clergy went beyond the magnami, and in 1596 the well-known Brest Union was born - the Union of Orthodox and Catholic Churches in the territory of the Commonwealth. The basis of the Union was the recognition of the Orthodox Catholic dogmas and the Supreme State of Pope, while maintaining rites and worship in Slavic languages \u200b\u200bin Slavic.

Sania, as expected, did not allow religious contradictions: the collisions between those who remained faithful to Orthodoxy, and the uniates were fierce (let's say, uniation bishop of Josafat Kuntsevich was killed during the Vitebsk renewal of 1623). The authorities closed Orthodox churches, and those who refused to join the Unce of the priests were expelled from parishes. Such a national-religious oppression brought in the end to the uprising of Bogdan Khmelnitsky and the actual disappearance of Ukraine from speech. But on the other hand, the privileges of the gentry, the brilliance of her education and culture attracted Orthodox nobles: in the XVI-XVII centuries, Ukrainian and Belarusian to know often reversed from the Fathers' faith and passed into Catholicism, together with the new faith new Language and culture. In the XVII century, Russian language and Cyrillic emerge in the official letter, and at the beginning of the new time, when the establishment of national states was becoming in Europe, the Ukrainian and Belarusian national elites were interpreted.
Volnitsa or invalo?

... and the inevitable happened: in the XVII century, the "Children's Validity" of the gentry turned into paralysis of state power. The famous principle of Liberum Veto - the requirement of unanimity in the adoption of laws in the Seimas - led to the fact that in no way any of the "constitutions" (decrees) of the congress could not enter into force. Any meeting could disrupt any foreign diplomat or simply the divergent "ambassador". For example, in the 1652th, a certain Vladislav Sicinsky demanded to close the Seimas, and he was dumbfatherly separated! Later, 53 meetings of the highest assembly (about 40%!) Commonwealth were inconspicuously ended.

But in fact, in the economy and large politics, the total equality of "Panov-Brothers" led to the all-in-knowledge of those who had money and influence, - Magnatov- "Roll", who bought themselves state postsbut irrefined king. Possessing such families as already mentioned Lithuanian radariilles, with dozens of cities and hundreds of villages were comparable to sizes with modern European states, like Belgium. "Papers" contained private armies, superior and equipped with superior crown troops. And on the other pole there was a lot of the most proud, but poor nobility - "Zagal's shredder (tiny plot of land. - Ed.) Equal to the governor!" - Which by his subtleness has long inspired the hatred of the lower classes, and from "patrons" just forced to endure everyone. The only privilege of such a gentry could remain only a ridiculous demand to master the magnate of the foil it only on the Persian carpet. The requirement is - either as a sign of respect for the ancient freedoms, or in the mockery over them - was observed.

In any case, Panskaya Volost turned into a parody of itself. Everyone was as if convinced that the basis of democracy and freedom was the full impotence of the state. No one wanted to strengthen the king. In the middle of the XVII century, his army consisted of no more than 20 thousand soldiers, and the IV Fleet created by Vladislav had to sell due to the lack of funds in the treasury. The united Great Principality of Lithuanian and Poland could not "digest" huge lands, which fled in the overall political space. Most of the neighboring states have long been turned into centralized monarchies, and the Shankhetsky Republic with its anarchic free without an effective central authority, financial system and regular army It turned out to be uncompetitive. All this, as a slowly acting poison, poisoned by compolutely.
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By the time of its formation, at the end of the 13th century and the XIV century, the Grand District of Lithuanian was a confederation of Lithuanian and Russian lands and principalities, united under the suseruinetics of the Grand Prince. Each of the lands was an independent sociopolitical unit. During the 15th century, great princes tried to strengthen the power of the central government over all the territories of the Grand Duchy.

Nevertheless, for a long time it was difficult to overcome the resistance of local authorities trying to preserve their former rights. Each area used the wide autonomy, which was provided by a special leader (grades) of the Grand Duke. In addition, issued in 1561, Vitebsk Earth, the Grand Duke gave an oath of not to force the inhabitants of this area to relocate in any other region of the Grand Duchy (in contrast to Moscow politics); Do not send soldiers from the indigenous population to the garrison service in any other land; And do not cause Viteblyanne (resident of the Vitebsk Earth) to Lithuania. Similar letters were issued by Polotsk, Smolensk (nine years before the seizure of its Muscovy), Kiev and Volyn lands. In many cases, the affairs of each of these land were discussed and conducted by local residents - nobles-landowners and those who lived in major cities. Local nobility assemblies were constantly going to Volyni.

The process of strengthening the authorities of the Central Government over autonomous lands was motivated, as in Muscovy, military and financial considerations of the Grand Duke and Wiel Council. In the XIV and early XV century, the danger of the Teutonic Order was represented for the Grand Principality of Lithuanian. At the end of the 15th century, we claimed on Western Russian lands, considering their field to be inheritance, the Grand Prince of Moscow. Throughout the XV and XVI centuries, Tatars were constantly attacked by Lithuanian, as well as on Muscovy, and Poland was constantly attacked, and Poland was forced to reflect the offensive of Ottoman Turks. The best organization of the country's economic resources was required effective system Management so that the Lithuanian state can cope with ever-emerging difficulties.

One of the first tasks of the Grand Duke was to lead to the dock, the part of the territory over which he had direct power, that is, the Georgian lands. The main population in these possessions amounted to sovereign peasants, but part of the State Lords was transferred to the "Georgian nobility", those who owned the sites of the Georgian lands, being at the position of servants of the Grand Duke. Their position was similar to the owners of the places in Muscovy, and the term "estheus" himself was often used in the West of Russian documents. Residents of small cities located gentlemen were also under the immediate authority of the Grand Duke.

In order to make the ownership of the crown more efficiently, they were divided into a number of areas, at the head of each of which stood a grand permanent governor, who was also called the "power". The holder was the main manager. Collector of taxes with gentlemen lands in his area. It was also a military head of the district responsible for mobilizing in the event of war, and local judge in the State Lands of these governors was given the right to leave some of the collected taxes and litigation - the way of remuneration, which corresponded to the system of "feeding" in Muscovy.

Outside the District of Howers lay the land of the nobility - extensive ownership of princes and panov and smaller gestures of the gentry. Velmazbi used the same legal rights in relation to the population of their possessions, as the degree in the Georgian lands entrusted to him. The gentry demanded such power over their servants and farmers - tenants of their lands.

It should be noted that in the second half of the XV century, the Polish gentry managed to achieve the right to local government, as well as a number of other privileges. The expansion of the rights of a small nobility in Poland could not speed up such a process and in the Grand Duch of Lithuanian. During the war, each venel joined the army with his retinue, and the gentry of each district formed a separate regiment. For participation in hostilities, small nobles demanded the satisfaction of their political claims, and the Grand Duke and the Council of the Helds were gradually forced to give way to these requirements. At the same time, however, they tried to establish political and military control over the provinces.

In the middle of the XVI century, a balanced system of management of regions and areas was established. The network of districts (tons) was the lower layer of the system. By 1566 total number There were thirty-one areas. The ruler of the district, the headman, was at the same time a "power" (governor) of the state land and head common management district.

For the maintenance of litigation on land, the gentry "Survival Court" was organized in each ebony. The nobility of each tnet at mobilization was a separate military unit with its own banner. The chapter stood a special officer, who was called the Horing Shelf.

The areas that have established a higher level of local government were called voivodeships. Each voivodship included from one to five tets. At the head of everyone stood the governor or the governor. In the end, the last title was preferable. The governor was a "power" of the Central District of Voivodeship, the head of the administration of Voivodeship, the commander-in-chief of all the armed forces, mobilized within its voivodship in the event of war, and the chief judge. His power extended to the population of gentle lands and for a small nobility, but not for nobles.

In addition to the governor in many voivodeships was the post of "commander of the castle (fortress)" called "Kasheteln".

Positions of the governor and Kasheteln were established in 1413, first only in Lithuania (not including hemisytia), which was divided on this occasion into two voivodeships, wine and trockey. During the board, Swidrigailo was established by the post of Marshal Volyni. Marshal carried out military leadership. In the XVI century, Volyn became ordinary voivodship. 1471, when Kiev lost the status of the principality, the position of Governor of Kiev was created. In 1504, the Voivodship formed the Land, and in 1508 - Smolenskaya (captured by Muscovites 1514). By 1565, thirteen of the voivodes were formed (not counting Smolensk, which at that time was in Moscow).

The ethnic composition of three voivodes was mostly the advantage of Lithuanian: Vilna (five tones), trocia (four tits) and gem. The latter consisted of only one thing, and the chapter was called an old-age, and not a governor; However, his authority was equated to power of the governor. In all other voivodes, the Russians constituted the bulk of the population. These are the following areas:

1. Voivodeship Novogrudskoe (Novgorod-Lithovskoye). It included three tets: Novogrudok (Novogorod), Slonim Volkovysk.

2. Voivodship Bearer (Brest), which consisted of two tts: Brest and Pinsk.

3. Podlyashskoye Voivodship, Three Tights: Belk, Darous and Melnik.

4. Voivodship Minsk, two tits: Minsk and Rechitsa.

5. Voivodeship Mstislavl, one is.

6. Voivodeship Polotsk, one leads.

7. Voivodship Vitebskoe, two tits: Vitebsk and Orsha.

8. Voivodeship Kiev, two tets: Kiev and Mozyr.

9. Voivodship Volynskoe, three tits: Lutsk, Vladimir and Kremen.

10. Voivodship Braslavskoe, two tets: Braslav and Vinnitsa.

The boundaries of Polotsk and Vitebsky Voivodes almost completely coincided with the borders of the former Russian principalities with the same on the titles. Three other voivodeship in the Russian part of the Grand Principality (Kiev, Volyn, Minsk) also almost corresponded to the Old Russian principalities.

As a result of both ancient Russian traditions, still existing in most part of Western Russian land and creating a powerful administrative center in each voivodship, the local government played a much more important role in the Grand Duch of Lithuanian than in Muscovy. On the other hand, the central administration services were developed in a smaller steppe than in Moscow.

The main relationship between the central and local government of the Grand Duchy was provided by Aristocracy - Panya. It was they who occupied the most important positions both on the central and in the provincial level and amounted to Pana Rada (the Government Council), which not only gave advice to the Great Prince, but actually led the country.

Legally, the Grand Duke was legally at the head of the Lithuanian-Russian state. According to the tradition, he was chosen from the descendants of the Gedimin, but there was no particular law on the prestiplotia. After the unification of Lithuania and Poland in 1385, Vitovt, the son of Keestuta, headed the Lithuanian opposition to his cousin, the King Yagailo (son of Olgerda), and he managed to establish himself as the Grand Duke Lithuanian. After the death of Vitovt (1430), several princes from the house of Gedimin were claimed at the crown. Only after the younger son Yagailo Casimir was proclaimed the Grand Duke Lithuanian in 1440, the dynastic world was restored. In 1447, Casimir was elected the King of Poland, while remaining the Grand Duke Lithuanian at the same time. Thus, the descendants of Yagailo (Jagelons) managed to establish a common Polish-Lithuanian dynasty. On the association of Poland and Lithuania first testified only to the identity of the ruler. Only during the Lublin Unce 1569. The relationship between the two states has become real.

Grand Duke It was not an autocrat even before the first Lithuanian statute constitutionally limited his power in favor of the Wiel Council. He could act independently, only when the case concerned the ownership of the crown, but even in the management of state-owned lands, he, in fact, was depending on officials who, according to custom, were chosen from among the aristocracy. Gospolds of the Earth were not in the personal ownership of the Grand Prince, but belonged to the state in his face. But the great princes and members of their families also had personal, fairly extensive land.

The Grand Duke had also the right to collect taxes and fees of the most different character. However, taxes intended for the needs of the army and gathered from all over the territory of the Grand Duchy, were established by the Board of Venels, and later than the Seimas. Taxes on the use of ownership of the crown could be determined by the Grand Duke itself. In fact, they usually also claimed individual members of the Wiel Council, although it is not at all necessary to ensure that the entire council is.

The Grand Duke also possessed certain royal prerogatives ("regalia"), such as coin chasing and salt and alcohol. The exceptional right to trade alcoholic beverages was known as the "right of propagation", the Grand Duke could have disposed of his right to the content of the restaurants and often sold it for a suitable fee to individuals or gave them to those who wanted to have mercy. So many representatives of the nobility could acquire this right. In Poland, the gentry received the exclusive right of propagation (Propinacja) on the basis of the statute of Petrkov (Piotrkow) 1496

You can add to this that the purified alcoholic beverage, which is now known all over the world under the Russian name "Vodka", was first mentioned in the documents of the Grand Duchy of Lithuanian at the very beginning of the XVI century. He was called "burned wine", hence the Ukrainian word "burner" (gorilka).

A large princess helped a number of state dignitaries, whose positions were established in accordance with the Polish model and whose titles had mainly Polish origin. Polish positions of this kind were originally related to the household of Prince (courtiers, Urzydy DWORSKIE). During the XIII and XIV centuries, they became the provisions of the royal administration.

The nearest assistant of the Grand Duke was a landfit (Marshalor Zemsky). This official was responsible for compliance with the etiquette at the court of the Grand Duke, as well as at the Seimas meetings. In the absence of the Grand Duke at the meeting of the Council of the Wiel, the Décoruserver was his authorized representative. His deputy was called the ruler. He standing at the head of the court ministers (nobles). The remaining courtiers were as follows: Vinolrypius, butcher, stable and so on.

We were more important than the posts of Chancellor, the land treasurer, his deputy - the court treasurer, who was responsible for the treasury of the Grand Duke, commander-in-chief and his deputy - field commander. In wartime, the Commander-in-Chief had full control over the army, especially during long-range hikes.

None of these officials possessed political power; The progress of cases gave the Council of the Wiel, and the influence of any of the highest dignitaries was based mainly on their membership in the Council. Otherwise, they just performed the decision of the Council.

The Board of Wiel was finally established at Kazimir and his sons. By this time, its composition was so rushing that the "plenary" council meetings convened only in emergency cases or when the Sejm was at the "session".

At the "plenary" sessions of the Council of Places in the front row, the Roman Catholic Bishop of Viligo, Voivoda Viligo, Voivode and Casheln, Trokaya and the elder of Gemiteytia. On the places of the second row, the Roman Catholic Bishops of Lutsk, Brest, Gemiteytia and Kiev; In the back of them, the Voivod Kiev, Starost Lutsk, Governor of Smolensk and Polotsk, Street Grodno and Governor Novogrudok, Vitebsk and Punches. Supreme Santers - such as the ruler (Marshals) and hetmans - did not have specially designed places, since usually the ruler or hetman combined his position with the position of the governor or the headman. The places of younger courtiers were in the second next.

In between "plenary" meetings of the Council, his inner circle, known as the highest, or a secret is glad, continued to act on an ongoing basis. The inner circle consisted of a Roman Catholic bishop of wine (and any other Catholic bishop, if he was present at the Council's meeting), all the governors who were members of the Rada, the elder of Gemite and Lutsk, two rules and the Treasury Secretary.

The Council of the Wiel, especially his inner circle, was the main driving force of the government. The constitutional powers of the Council were formulated in grades of 1492 and 1506. And finally decorated the first Lithuanian Statute of 1529. According to the last, sovereign (Lord) was obliged to maintain all previous laws in immunity and not to publish new laws without the Council's knowledge (Section III, Article 6).

Velmazby played a prominent role in foreign affairs Grand Duchy of Lithuanian. They represented the princess in his negotiations with Poland, as well as with the Moscow State.

In 1492 and 1493. In the preliminary negotiations on the alleged marriage of Ivan Ivan III, Elena and the Grand Duke Alexander Litovsky took an active part of the Lithuanian Veelmembrais: Jan Zarezinsky, Stanislav Glebovich and Jan Kertovich. Each of them took turns attended Moscow. Zaberezinsky and Glebovich have established friendly relations with the senior Moscow boyarian by Prince Ivan Yuryevich Patriceev (who, by the way, was a descendant of Gedimin) and some other Moscow boyars. When Princess Elena arrived in Lithuania, Prince Konstantin Ivanovich Ostrogsky and Princes Ivan and Vasily Glinsky met.

In November 1493, the Lithuanian "Great Embassy for the conclusion of a peace treaty between Lithuania and Moscow was sent. The embassy consisted of three venels: Peter Ivanovich (who was a leader and a lodgerant of CTOCKA), Stanislav Kezgail (Hemons) and Vothaja Yanovich. At the same time, the Lithuanian Council of Venels sent a message to Patriceev, asking him to contribute to establishing friendly relations "between the two states. The message was signed by the Roman Catholic Bishop of Lutsk and Brest Yan, Petrom Yanovich "(member of the embassy), Prince Alexander Yuryevich Golzhansky (Grodno) and Stanislav Kezgail (member of the embassy).

Attempts by the Lithuanian Council to establish a close relationship between him and the Moscow Boyar Duma were upset because of Opal Prince Patrikeev in 1499; But even after that, the exchange of messengers between Lithuania and Moscow contributed to the establishment of personal contacts between the subjects of the two countries. Among the Lithuanian envoys who visited Moscow in the first half of the XVI century, there was Sapega (in 1508), Glebovich (1537 and 1541), Tyshkevich (1555) and Volovich (1557 ). During his stay in Moscow in 1555, Yuri Tyshkevich, being Greco-Orthodox, inflicted a visit to Metropolitan Macaria and asked him a blessing.

The Council of the Holes of the Grand Principality of Lithuania can be compared with the Polish Senate - the Highest Chamber of the Polish Sejm. The lower chamber of this Seima was the Chamber of Representatives of the Local Nobility - Izba Poselska (Embassy Chamber).

The local Assembly of the Polish gentry took a different form in the second half of the XVI century. It was on these assemblies that the small nobility elected his deputies to the National Sejm.

Under the Polish influence, the local nobility of the Grand Principality of Lithuanian also began to seek both local self-government and national representation. In order to achieve this, the small noblemen enjoyed political or military circumstances, in which the Grand Duke and the Wiel Council were especially needed to be active. First, for help in mobilizing the army for big war Or supporting the interests of the Grand Principality in conflicts and negotiations with Poland also applied to representatives of the Lithuanian nobility. The first national Sejm of the Grand Duchy - in which not only representatives of Lithuania actually, but also the Russian regions, took place in 1492 after the death of Casimir for the election of a new Grand Prince.

After that, representatives of the small nobility took part in the meetings of the Seimas, whenever he convened. Governors were given instructions to ensure the presence of the seimation of the seim of two deputies from the gentry from each tetage. Local election seamas of the gentry (SEMICS) at that time did not regularly acted. The deputies from the gentry were first not chosen, but were prescribed local or regional officials. Only during the reign of Sigismund II August (1548-78), the semists of a small -coming nobility were officially recognized and received the right to elect "envoys" to the National Sejm. This right was granted by the Vilenque diploma of 1565 and confirmed by the Second Lithuanian Statute (Section III, Articles 5 and 6).

What was the participation of Russians in the government and administration of the Lithuanian-Russian state? Due to the fact that most of The population of the Great Principality was Russian and that mostly by the Russian language used both in the administration and in courts, it would be possible to expect Russians to make most of the government. In fact, it was not.

Among the factors that prevented Russian participation in the management of the country was the strong position that the Roman Catholic Church occupied. It should be remembered that it was proclaimed by the State Church of Lithuania under the conditions of the first ENIA with Poland. After that, the Lithuanian people were facing Roman Catholicism. The first Catholic bishopianship organized in Lithuania was Vilensk. In 1417, another was formed in his hemite. Twelve years later, two Catholic bishops were appointed to Ukrainian lands - in Lutsk and Kiev. Another Catholic breakfast was organized in Brest. Since the Ukrainian people at that time belonged to the Greek-Orthodox Church, the approval of Roman-Catholic bishops on these lands was actually the meaning only for small groups of the population, mainly for Lithuanians and Poles living in Ukraine. However, this action marked the beginning of the ambitious program of Roman proselytism in Ukraine.

Under the terms of the diploma of 1434, the existence of the Greek-Orthodox Church in the Grand Durability was recognized, and the Orthodox "believing was promised equality in rights with Catholics. The same promise was repeated Casimir in 1447. Despite this, no Orthodox clergyman was never Allowed to the Wiel Council. On the other hand, as already noted above, permanent places in the Council were provided to all Catholic bishops.

As for the secular members of the Council, among them were both Russians and Lithuanians. In the middle of the XVI century the greatest influence When solving public affairs, Radzivil (Lithuanian genus) was used. However, some of the Russians, such as princes of Ostrog, Khodkevichi and Volovichi, played a prominent role in the Council. The situation of those who held posts in the central and local administration was similar.

In the literacy released in 1564 in Belsk, the following Russians are mentioned (or adhering to Russian traditions) Sanovnikov: Yan Ieronimovich Khodkiewicz, the elder of the gemaitia; Prince Konstantin Konstantinovich Ostrogsky (son of Konstantin Ivanovich), Voevod Kiev and the ruler of Volyn; Pavel Ivanovich Sapega, Voevod Novogrudok; Prince Stepan Andreevich Zbarazhsky, Vilver Vitebsk; And Ostafij Volovich, the ruler of the courtyard and the secretary of the Treasury. These people witnessed the fastening of the diplomas (hated) stamp. Among other Russian witnesses were Grigori Aleksandrovich Khodkiewicz, Vasily Tyshkevich, Prince Alexander Fedorovich Chartersky and Prince Andrei Ivanovich Vishenetsky.

Despite the high position that some Russian dignitaries occupied, they did not constitute an organized group. In the Council of Weljects there was no "Russian Party". Most Russian nobles were devoted subjects of the Grand Principality of Lithuanian, quite satisfied with their position in the government.

It seems that the national self-consciousness exhibited Russians in such regions as Smolensk, Polotsk, Vitebsk, Kiev and Volyn. In many cases, however, here, as in other areas of Lithuania, the difference between the social and economic interests of the aristocracy and the small nobility, which undermined the sense of ethnic community. At the Lublin Sejm (1569) it became obvious that the transition of Ukrainian regions from Lithuania to Poland to a large extent contributed to the dissatisfaction of the Ukrainian small -coming nobility with its position.

In the Russian regions of the Grand Duchy, a minority of the population was to know; Most were peasants. However, they did not have votes in the government. I used political influence only to know.