Stages of the unification process. Social and state structure of Muscovite Rus at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries

In the XIV-XV centuries. specific Russia persistently collected its "crushed parts into something whole. Moscow became the center of the state formed in this way" (V. O. Klyuchevsky). The process of gathering Russian lands led to the formation of a single Russian state. Devastated, bled dry by the Mongol-Tatar yoke, divided into dozens of specific principalities, the country for more than two centuries consistently, difficultly, overcoming obstacles, went to state and national unity.

Association background. The features of the process of unification of the Russian lands consisted in the fact that its economic and social prerequisites matured gradually, as the process itself gained strength, lagging behind it. The growth of the population, the restoration of the destroyed economy, the development of abandoned and new lands, the spread of the three-field system, the gradual revival of cities and trade - all this contributed to the unification, but hardly made it really necessary. The decisive prerequisites have developed in the political sphere. The main impetus was the ever more insistent striving for liberation from the Horde yoke, from patronage and prodding, to gaining complete independence, to abandon humiliating trips to the Horde for a label for the great Vladimir reign, from paying tribute, from exactions. The struggle for unification merged with the struggle against the Horde. It demanded the exertion of all forces, unity, and a rigid guiding principle. This beginning could only be the grand ducal power, ready to act firmly, resolutely, recklessly, even despotically. The princes relied on their servants - the military in the first place - and paid them off with land transferred to conditional possession (the nobility, the estate system, serfdom would later grow out of these servants and this land ownership).

The prerequisites for unification include the existence of a single church organization, a common faith - Orthodoxy, language, the historical memory of the people, who kept memories of the lost unity and of the "bright bright and beautifully decorated" Russian Land.

Why did Moscow become the center of the association? Objectively, two "young" cities, Moscow and Tver, had approximately equal chances to lead the process of unification of Russian lands. They were located in the north-east of Russia, relatively far from the borders with the Horde (and from the borders with Lithuania, Poland, Livonia) and therefore were protected from sudden attacks. Moscow and Tver stood on the lands where, after the Batu invasion, the population of Vladimir, Ryazan, Rostov and other principalities fled, where demographic growth was observed. Important trade routes passed through both principalities, and they knew how to take advantage of their location. The outcome of the struggle between Moscow and Tver was therefore determined by the personal qualities of their rulers. Moscow princes in this sense surpassed Tver competitors. They were not outstanding statesmen, but they were better than others able to adapt to the nature and trends of their time. "They," medium-sized people, had to "do big things", their mode of action "was based not on the legends of antiquity, but on a prudent consideration of the circumstances of the current minutes". "Flexible, quick-witted businessmen", "peaceful masters", "hoarding, thrifty organizers of their lot" - this is how V. O. Klyuchevsky saw the first Moscow princes. Association stages. The process of creating a unified Russian state took a long period from the end of the 13th - beginning of the 14th century. until the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century.

Late XIII - first half of the XIV century:

the formation of the Moscow principality under Prince Daniil Alexandrovich (end of the 13th century) and its territorial growth (Pereslavl, Mozhaisk, Kolomna), the beginning of rivalry with Tver for the label for the great Vladimir reign and the first success of Moscow (1318, the murder of Prince Mikhail of Tver in the Horde and the transfer of the label to the Moscow prince Yuri, who owned it until 1325);

The reign of Ivan Danilovich Kalita (Kalita is a big wallet; the origin of the prince's nickname is connected not so much with his stinginess, but with the fact that he was famous for his generosity when distributing alms to the poor).

Ivan Kalita took part in the punitive campaign of the Mongol-Tatars against Tver, whose population rebelled in 1327 and killed the Khan's Baskak Cholkhan. The result was the weakening of Tver and the acquisition by Moscow of a label for a great reign (since 1328). Ivan Kalita convinced Metropolitan Peter to move his residence from Vladimir to Moscow. From now on Orthodox Church firmly supported the Moscow princes in their efforts to unite the country. Kalita managed to accumulate considerable funds, which were spent on buying up new lands and on strengthening the military power of the principality. Relations between Moscow and the Horde were built during this period on the same basis - with the correction of tribute payments, frequent visits to the Khan's capital, with ostentatious humility and willingness to serve. Ivan Kalita managed to save his principality from new invasions. "Forty years of great silence," according to Klyuchevsky, allowed two generations to be born and grow up, "on whose nerves the impressions of childhood did not instill the unaccountable horror of grandfathers and fathers before the Tatar: they went out to Kulikovo Field."

Second half of the 14th century In the 60-70s. 14th century Prince Dmitry, the grandson of Ivan Kalita, managed to solve a number of long-standing and very important problems in favor of Moscow. Firstly, the claims of neighboring princes to a great reign were repulsed. The label remained in Moscow. Secondly, it was possible to avert the military threat from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, whose ruler, Prince Olgerd, actively participated in domestic Russian politics and organized three campaigns against Moscow. Thirdly - and this is especially important - Moscow has achieved a decisive advantage over its traditional rival, the Tver Principality. Twice (in 1371 and 1375) Prince Mikhail of Tver received a label in the Horde for a great reign, and twice Prince Dmitry refused to recognize him as a Grand Duke. In 1375, Moscow organized a campaign against Tver, in which almost all the princes of North-Eastern Russia took part. Mikhail was forced to recognize the seniority of the Moscow prince and abandon the label for a great reign. Fourthly, for the first time in more than a century, the Moscow prince felt strong enough to go into open conflict with the Horde, to challenge it, relying on the support of the majority of Russian principalities and lands.

An event of great historical importance was the victory of the Russian army (the princely squads of almost all the lands of North-Eastern Russia were represented in it, only the Ryazan and Novgorod detachments did not come) in 1380. on the Kulikovo field over the army of the Tatar temnik Mamai.

The reasons for the victory in the battle, which apparently lasted more than ten hours, are generally understandable: Dmitry showed undeniable military leadership skills (gathering troops in Kolomna, choosing a battle site, disposition of troops, actions of an ambush regiment, etc.). The Russian soldiers fought bravely. There was no agreement in the Horde ranks. But the following are recognized as the main factors of victory: for the first time, a single Russian army fought on the Kulikovo field, made up of squads from almost all Russian lands, under the unified command of the Moscow prince; Russian soldiers were seized with that spiritual upsurge, which, according to L. N. Tolstoy, makes victory inevitable: "The battle is won by the one who firmly decided to win it." The Battle of Kulikovo brought the honorary nickname Donskoy to Prince Dmitry of Moscow. The victory was difficult. The bitterness of the battle lives on in the words of a contemporary: "O bitter hour! O hour of blood is full!"

The significance of the victory on the Kulikovo field is enormous: Moscow has strengthened its role as the unifier of the Russian lands, their leader; in relations between Russia and the Horde, a turning point occurred (the yoke will be lifted in 100 years, in 1382 Khan Tokhtamysh will burn Moscow, but the decisive step towards liberation was taken on August 8, 1380); the amount of tribute that Russia now paid to the Horde has significantly decreased; The Horde continued to weaken, from the blow received in the Battle of Kulikovo, she never managed to recover. The Battle of Kulikovo became milestone in the spiritual and moral revival of Russia, the formation of its national identity.

First half of the 15th century The main event of this stage was the feudal war of 1425-1453. between the Moscow prince Vasily II the Dark and the coalition of specific princes, which was headed by his uncle Yuri, and after the death of Yuri, his second cousins ​​​​Vasily Kosoy and Ivan Shemyaka. The long turmoil ended with the victory of the Moscow prince.

The second half of the XIV - the beginning of the XV century. The final stage of the unification process is associated with the reign of Ivan III (1462-1505) and the first years of the reign of his son Vasily III (1505-1533):

the collection of Russian lands around Moscow was basically completed. Novgorod (1477), Tver (1485), Pskov (1510), Ryazan (1521), Smolensk (1514) were annexed to Moscow;

"standing on the Ugra" (1480) ended the struggle of Russia for liberation from the two hundred and forty-year-old Mongol yoke. For more than two months, the Russian army of Ivan III and the Tatar army of Khan Akhmat stood on different banks of the Oka tributary of the Ugra River. Akhmat did not dare to join the battle and withdrew his troops, recognizing, in essence, the independence of Russia;

the process of forming a unified Russian state was also completed. Ivan III took the title of "Grand Duke of Moscow and All Russia", the marriage with the Byzantine princess Sophia Paleolog and the fall of Constantinople under the blows of the Ottoman Turks (1453) gave him reason to accept the Byzantine double-headed eagle as the coat of arms of the Russian state (the addition of the coat of arms of the Moscow Principality to it - George the Victorious - symbolized the role of Moscow as the capital of the state). Gradually, the system of government bodies also took shape: the Boyar Duma (a council of the nobility under the Grand Duke), the Treasury (the central administrative body, from which the central government bodies - orders were later separated; the concept of "order" was first used in 1512), Palaces (government bodies newly annexed territories). The country was divided into counties (ruled by governors), volosts and camps (ruled by volosts). The governors and volostels lived at the expense of feeding - fees from the local population. In 1497, the Sudebnik was adopted - the first legislative act of the unified Russian state. In particular, it contained a new norm on a single period for the transition of peasants from one landowner to another (two weeks before and after November 26 - St. George's Day). From the end of the XV century. the new term "Russia" was used more and more widely.

The struggle to overthrow the Golden Horde yoke became in the XIII-XV centuries. main national goal. Restoration of the country's economy and its further development created the prerequisites for the unification of Russian lands. The question was being decided - around which center the Russian lands would unite.

First of all, Tver and Moscow claimed leadership. The principality of Tver as an independent inheritance arose in 1247, when it was received by the younger brother of Alexander Nevsky, Yaroslav Yaroslavich. After the death of Alexander Nevsky, Yaroslav became the Grand Duke (1263-1272). The Tver principality was then the strongest in Russia. But he was not destined to lead the unification process. At the end of the XIII - beginning of the XIV century. the Moscow principality is rapidly rising.

Moscow, which was before the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars a small border point of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, at the beginning of the XIV century. turns into an important political center that time. What were the reasons for the rise of Moscow?

Moscow occupied a geographically advantageous central position among the Russian lands. From the south and east, it was covered from the Horde invasions by the Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod and Ryazan principalities, from the north-west - by the principality of Tver and Veliky Novgorod. The forests surrounding Moscow were impassable for the Mongol-Tatar cavalry. All this caused an influx of people to the lands of the Moscow principality. Moscow was a center of developed handicrafts, agricultural production and trade. It turned out to be an important junction of land and water routes, which served both for trade and for military operations.

Through the Moscow River and the Oka River, the Moscow Principality had access to the Volga, and through the tributaries of the Volga and the portage system, it was connected with Novgorod lands. The rise of Moscow is also explained by the purposeful, flexible policy of the Moscow princes, who managed to win over not only other Russian principalities, but also the church.

The founder of the dynasty of Moscow princes was the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky - Daniil Alexandrovich (1276-1303). Under him, the territory of the Moscow Principality grew rapidly. In 1301 it included Kolomna conquered from the Ryazan prince. In 1302 according to the will of the childless prince of Pereyaslavl, his possessions passed to Moscow. In 1303 Mozhaisk was annexed from the Smolensk principality to Moscow. Thus, the territory of the Moscow Principality doubled in three years and became one of the largest in northeastern Russia. Since Mozhaisk is located at the source of the Moskva River, and Kolomna is at the mouth, with their accession, the entire river was in the possession of the Moscow princes. Pereyaslavl-Zalessky was one of the richest and most fertile regions of the northeast, so its inclusion in the Moscow principality significantly increased the economic potential of the latter. The Moscow prince entered the struggle for the Great reign.

The struggle of Moscow and Tver for the grand throne

As a representative of an older branch, the Prince of Tver Mikhail Yaroslavich (1304-1317) received a label in the Horde for a great reign. In Moscow, at that time, the son of Daniil Alexandrovich Yuri (1303-1325) ruled.

Yuri Danilovich of Moscow was married to the sister of Khan Uzbek Konchaka (Agafi). He promised to increase the tribute from the Russian lands. Khan handed him a label to the grand throne. In 1315, Mikhail began a war with Yuri, defeated his squad, captured the Khan's sister, who soon died in Tver. Yuri blamed the death of the wife of the Tver prince. Called to the Horde, Michael was executed. Moscow prince for the first time in 1319. received a label for a great reign. However, already in 1325. Yuri was killed by the eldest son of Mikhail Tverskoy - Dmitry the Terrible Eyes. Khan Uzbek executed Dmitry, but, continuing the policy of playing off the Russian princes, he transferred the great reign to the brother of the executed - Alexander Mikhailovich (1326-1327).

Uprising in Tver

In 1327 the population of Tver rebelled against the Baskak tax collector Cholkhan (in Russia he was called Shchelkan), a relative of Uzbek. Outraged by the requisitions and violence, the people of Tver turned to Prince Alexander Mikhailovich for help. The Tver prince took a wait-and-see position. The rebellious Tverichi killed the Tatars. Taking advantage of this, the Moscow prince Ivan Danilovich appeared in Tver with the Mongol-Tatar army and crushed the uprising. At the cost of the lives of the population of another Russian land, he contributed to the rise of his own principality. At the same time, the defeat of Tver diverted the blow from the rest of the Russian lands.

And today the debate about two possible trends in the fight against the Horde does not stop. Who was right in the rivalry between the two principalities of the 14th century? Moscow, which was building up strength to fight the enemy, or Tver, which opposed the invaders with an open visor? Supporters are from both one and the other point of view.

Ivan Kalita

Ivan Danilovich (1325-1340), having defeated the uprising in Tver, received a label for a great reign, which from that time almost always remained in the hands of the Moscow princes.

The Grand Duke managed to achieve a close alliance between the Grand Ducal authorities of Moscow and the Church. Metropolitan Peter lived for a long time and often in Moscow, and his successor Theognost finally moved there. Moscow became the religious and ideological center of Russia.

Ivan Danilovich was a smart, consistent, albeit cruel politician in achieving his goals. Under him, Moscow became the richest principality of Russia. Hence the nickname of the prince - "Kalita" ("money bag", "purse"). Under Ivan Kaliga, the role of Moscow as a center for the unification of all Russian lands increased. He achieved the necessary respite from the Horde invasions, which made it possible to raise the economy and accumulate strength to fight the Mongol-Tatars. Ivan Kaliga received the right to collect tribute from the Russian principalities and deliver it to the Horde. Without resorting to weapons, he significantly expanded his possessions. Under him, the Galich (Kostroma region), Uglich, Belozersky (Vologda region) principalities submitted to the Moscow principality.

Under the sons of Ivan Kalita - Semyon (1340-1353), nicknamed the Proud for his arrogant attitude towards other princes, and Ivan the Red (1353-1359) - the Dmitrov, Kostroma, Starodub lands and the Kaluga region became part of the Moscow principality.

Dmitry Donskoy

Dmitry (1359-1389) received the throne as a nine-year-old child. The struggle for the grand princely Vladimir table broke out again. The Horde began to openly support the opponents of Moscow.

A peculiar symbol of the success and strength of the Moscow principality was the construction in just two years of the impregnable white stone Kremlin of Moscow (1367) - the only stone fortress in the territory of northeastern Russia. All this allowed Moscow to repel the claim to the all-Russian leadership of Nizhny Novgorod, Tver, and repel the campaigns of the Lithuanian prince Olgerd.

The balance of power in Russia has changed in favor of Moscow. In the Horde itself, a period of "great confusion" (50-60s of the XIV century) began - the weakening of the central government and the struggle for the khan's throne. Russia and the Horde seemed to "probe" each other. In 1377, on the Pyan River (near Nizhny Novgorod), the Moscow army was crushed by the Horde. However, the Tatars could not consolidate the success. In 1378 the army of Murza Begich was defeated by Dmitry on the Vozhens River (Ryazan land). These battles were a prelude to the Battle of Kulikovo.

Battle of Kulikovo

In 1380 temnik (head of the tumen) Mamai, who came to power in the Horde after several years of internecine strife, tried to restore the shattered dominance of the Golden Horde over Russian lands. Having concluded an alliance with the Lithuanian prince Jagail, Mamai moved his troops to Russia. Princely squads and militias from most of the Russian lands gathered in Kolomna, from where they moved towards the Tatars, trying to forestall the enemy. Dmitry proved himself to be a talented commander, making an unconventional decision for that time to cross the Don and meet the enemy in the territory that Mamai considered his own. At the same time, Dmitry set a goal to prevent Mamai from connecting with Jogail before the battle began.

The troops met on the Kulikovo field at the confluence of the Nepryadva River with the Don. The morning on the day of the battle - September 8, 1380 - turned out to be foggy. The fog dissipated only by 11 o'clock in the morning. The battle began with a duel between the Russian hero Peresvet and the Tatar warrior Chelubey. At the beginning of the battle, the Tatars almost completely destroyed the advanced regiment of Russians, and wedged themselves into the ranks of the large regiment standing in the center. Mamai was already triumphant, believing that he had won. However, an unexpected blow for the Horde followed from the flank of the Russian ambush regiment led by the voivode Dmitry Bobrok-Volynets and Prince Vladimir Serpukhovsky. This blow decided by three o'clock in the afternoon the outcome of the battle. The Tatars fled in panic from the Kulikovo field. For personal bravery in battle and military merits, Dmitry received the nickname Donskoy.

The defeat of Moscow by Tokhtamysh

After the defeat, Mamai fled to Kafa (Feodosia), where he was killed. Khan Tokhtamysh seized power over the Horde. The struggle between Moscow and the Horde is not over yet. In 1382, with the help of the Ryazan prince Oleg Ivanovich, who indicated the fords across the Oka River, Tokhtamysh with his horde suddenly attacked Moscow. Even before the Tatars' campaign, Dmitry left the capital to the north to gather a new militia. The population of the city organized the defense of Moscow, rebelling against the boyars, who rushed out of the capital in a panic. Muscovites managed to repulse the bottom of the enemy assault, for the first time using the so-called mattresses (Russian-made forged iron cannons) in battle.

Realizing that the city could not be taken by storm, and fearing the approach of Dmitry Donskoy with the army, Tokhtamysh told the Muscovites that he had come to fight not against them, but against Prince Dmitry, and promised not to rob the city. By deceit breaking into Moscow, Tokhtamysh subjected her to a brutal defeat. Moscow was again obliged to pay tribute to the khan.

The meaning of the Kulikovo victory

Despite the defeat in 1382, the Russian people after the Battle of Kulikovo believed in a speedy liberation from the Tatars. On the Kulikovo field Golden Horde suffered its first major defeat. The Battle of Kulikovo showed the power and strength of Moscow as a political and economic center - the organizer of the struggle to overthrow the Golden Horde yoke and unite the Russian lands. Thanks to the Kulikovo victory, the amount of tribute was reduced. In the Horde, the political supremacy of Moscow among the rest of the Russian lands was finally recognized. The defeat of the Horde in the Battle of Kulikovo significantly weakened their power. Residents from different Russian lands and cities walked on the Kulikovo field - they returned from the battle as the Russian people.

Before his death, Dmitry Donskoy handed over the Grand Duchy of Vladimir to his son Vasily (1389-1425) by will as the “fatherland” of the Moscow princes, without asking the right to a label in the Horde. There was a merger of the Grand Duchy of Vladimir and Moscow.

Timur's campaign

In 1395, the Central Asian ruler Timur - the "great lame", who made 25 campaigns, the conqueror of Central Asia, Siberia, Persia, Baghdad, Damascus, India, Turkey - defeated the Golden Horde and marched on Moscow. Vasily I gathered a militia in Kolomna to repulse the enemy. From Vladimir to Moscow they brought the intercessor of Russia - the icon of Our Lady of Vladimir. When the icon was already near Moscow, Timur abandoned the march to Russia and, after a two-week stop in the Yelets region, turned south. The legend connected the miracle of deliverance of the capital with the intercession of the Mother of God.

Feudal war second Thursdays of the 15th century. (1431-1453)

The feuds that were named feudal war second quarter of the XV century., began after the death of Basil I. By the end of the XIV century. in the Moscow principality, several specific possessions were formed that belonged to the sons of Dmitry Donskoy. The largest of them were Galician and Zvenigorod, which were received by the youngest son of Dmitry Donskoy, Yuri. According to Dmitry's will, he was supposed to inherit the grand throne after his brother Vasily I. However, the will was written when Vasily I had no children yet. Vasily I handed over the throne to his son, ten-year-old Vasily II.

After the death of the Grand Duke, Yuri, as the eldest in the princely family, began the struggle for the throne of the Grand Duke with his nephew, Vasily II (1425-1462). The struggle after the death of Yuri was continued by his sons - Vasily Kosoy and Dmitry Shemyaka. If at first this clash of princes could still be explained by the “old right” of inheritance from brother to brother, that is, to the eldest in the family, then after the death of Yuri in 1434 it was a clash of supporters and opponents of state centralization. The Moscow prince advocated political centralization, the Galician prince represented the forces of feudal separatism.

The struggle went on according to all the "rules of the Middle Ages", that is, blinding, and poisoning, and deceit, and conspiracies were used. Twice Yuri captured Moscow, but could not stay in it. Opponents of centralization achieved their highest success under Dmitry Shemyak, who was briefly the Grand Duke of Moscow.

Only after the Moscow boyars and the church finally sided with Vasily Vasilyevich II the Dark (blinded by his political opponents, like Vasily Kosoy, hence the nicknames “Slanting”, “Dark”), Shemyaka fled to Novgorod, where he died. The feudal war ended with the victory of the forces of centralization. By the end of the reign of Vasily II, the possessions of the Moscow principality had increased 30 times compared to the beginning of the 14th century. The Moscow Principality included Murom (1343), Nizhny Novgorod (1393) and a number of lands on the outskirts of Russia.

Russia and the Union of Florence

Basil II's refusal to recognize the union (union) between the Catholic and Orthodox churches under the leadership of the pope, concluded in Florence in 1439, speaks of the strength of the grand ducal power. The pope imposed this union on Russia under the pretext of saving the Byzantine Empire from conquest by the Ottomans. The Greek Metropolitan of Russia, Isidore, who supported the union, was deposed. In his place was elected Ryazan Bishop Jonah, whose candidacy was proposed by Vasily II. This marked the beginning of the independence of the Russian Church from the Patriarch of Constantinople. And after the capture of Constantinople by the Ottomans in 1453. the choice of the head of the Russian church was already determined in Moscow.

Summing up the development of Russia in the first two centuries after the Mongol devastation, it can be argued that as a result of the heroic creative and military labor of the Russian people during the XIV and the first half of the XV century. conditions were created for the creation of a single state and the overthrow of the Golden Horde yoke. The struggle for a great reign was already going on, as the feudal war of the second quarter of the 15th century showed, not between separate principalities, but within the Moscow princely house. The Orthodox Church actively supported the struggle for the unity of the Russian lands. The process of formation of the Russian state with its capital in Moscow was considered irreversible.

Chronology

• 1276 - 1303 Reign of Daniil Alexandrovich. Formation of the Moscow principality.
• 1325 - 1340 Reign of Ivan Danilovich Kalita.
• 1462 - 1505 Reign of Ivan III Vasilyevich.
• 1480 “Standing” on the Ugra River, liberation of Russian lands from the Golden Horde yoke.

Rise of Moscow

The rulers of the principalities that entered into rivalry with Moscow, not possessing sufficient on their own, were forced to seek support in the Horde or Lithuania. Therefore, the struggle of the Moscow princes against them acquired the character of an integral part of the national liberation struggle and received the support of both the influential church and the population interested in state association countries.

From the end of the 60s. 14th century a long struggle began between the Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich (1359 - 1389) and the creative prince Mikhail Alexandrovich, who entered into an alliance with the Grand Duke of Lithuania Olgerd.

By the time of the reign of Dmitry Ivanovich, the Golden Horde entered a period of weakening and protracted strife between the feudal nobility. Relations between the Horde and the Russian principalities became more and more tense. At the end of the 70s. Mamai came to power in the Horde, who, having stopped the disintegration of the Horde, began preparations for a campaign against Russia. The struggle to overthrow the yoke and ensure security from external aggression became the most important condition for the completion of the state-political unification of Russia begun by Moscow.

In the summer of 1380, having gathered almost all the forces of the Horde, which also included detachments of mercenaries from the Genoese colonies in the Crimea and peoples vassal to the Horde North Caucasus and the Volga region Mamai went to the southern borders of the Ryazan principality, where he began to expect the approach of the troops of the Lithuanian prince Jagiello and Oleg Ryazansky. The terrible threat looming over Russia raised the entire Russian people to fight against the invaders. AT short term regiments and militias from peasants and artisans from almost all Russian lands and principalities gathered in Moscow.

On September 8, 1380, the Battle of Kulikovo took place- one of the largest battles of the Middle Ages, which decided the fate of states and peoples

This battle showed the power and strength of Moscow as a political and economic center - the organizer of the struggle to overthrow the Golden Horde yoke and unite the Russian lands. Thanks to the Battle of Kulikovo, the amount of tribute was reduced. In the Horde, the political supremacy of Moscow among the rest of the Russian lands was finally recognized. For personal bravery in battle and military merits, Dmitry received the nickname Donskoy.

Before his death, Dmitry Donskoy transferred the great reign of Vladimir to his son Vasily I (1389 - 1425), no longer asking for the right to a label in the Horde.

Completion of the unification of Russian lands

At the end of the fourteenth century in the Moscow principality, several specific possessions were formed that belonged to the sons of Dmitry Donskoy. After the death of Vasily I in 1425, his sons Vasily II and Yuri (the youngest son of Dmitry Donskoy) began the struggle for the grand ducal throne, and after the death of Yuri, his sons Vasily Kosoy and Dmitry Shemyaka. It was a real medieval struggle for the throne, when blinding, poisoning, conspiracies and deceptions were used (blinded by opponents, Vasily II was nicknamed the Dark One). In fact, it was the largest clash between supporters and opponents of centralization. As a result, according to the figurative expression of V.O. Klyuchevsky "under the noise of specific princely quarrels and Tatar pogroms, the society supported Vasily the Dark". The completion of the process of unification of Russian lands around Moscow into a centralized state falls on the years of government

Ivan III (1462 - 1505) and Vasily III (1505 - 1533).

For 150 years before Ivan III, there was a gathering of Russian lands and the concentration of power in the hands of the Moscow princes. Under Ivan III Grand Duke rises above the rest of the princes not only in the amount of power and possessions, but also in the amount of power. It is no coincidence that a new title “sovereign” appears. The double-headed eagle becomes a symbol of the state when, in 1472, Ivan III marries the niece of the last Byzantine emperor, Sophia Paleolog. Ivan III, after the annexation of Tver, received the honorary title "by the grace of God the sovereign of All Russia, the Grand Duke of Vladimir and Moscow, Novgorod and Pskov, and Tver, and Yugra, and Perm, and Bulgarian, and other lands."

The princes in the annexed lands became the boyars of the Moscow sovereign. These principalities were now called uyezds and were ruled by governors from Moscow. Localism is the right to occupy one or another position in the state, depending on the nobility and official position of the ancestors, their merits to the Grand Duke of Moscow.

A centralized control apparatus began to take shape. The Boyar Duma consisted of 5-12 boyars and no more than 12 okolnichi (boyars and okolnichi - the two highest ranks in the state). In addition to the Moscow boyars from the middle of the 15th century. local princes from the annexed lands, who recognized the seniority of Moscow, also sat in the Duma. The Boyar Duma had advisory functions on “land affairs.” With the increase in the function of state administration, it became necessary to create special institutions that would manage military, judicial, and financial affairs. Therefore, “tables” were created, controlled by clerks, who later turned into orders. order system was a typical manifestation of the feudal organization of state administration. It was based on the principles of inseparability of judicial and administrative power. In order to centralize and unify the procedure for judicial and administrative activities throughout the entire state, under Ivan III in 1497, the Sudebnik was compiled.

In 1480 it was finally overthrown. This happened after the clash of Moscow and Mongol-Tatar troops on the Ugra River.

At the end of the XV - beginning of the XVI centuries. Chernigov-Seversky lands became part of the Russian state. In 1510, the Pskov land was included in the state. In 1514, the ancient Russian city of Smolensk became part of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. And finally, in 1521, the Ryazan principality also ceased to exist. It was during this period that the unification of the Russian lands was basically completed. A huge power was formed - one of the largest states in Europe. Within the framework of this state, the Russian people were united. This is a natural process historical development. From the end of the XV century. the term "Russia" began to be used.

Socio-economic development in the XIV - XVI centuries.

The general trend in the socio-economic development of the country during this period is intensive growth feudal tenure . Its main, dominant form was the patrimony, the land that belonged to the feudal lord by right of hereditary use. This land could be changed, sold, but only to relatives and other owners of estates. The owner of the patrimony could be a prince, a boyar, a monastery.

nobles, those who left the court of a prince or boyar owned an estate, which they received on the condition of serving on the patrimony (from the word “estate” the nobles were also called landowners). The term of service was established by the contract.

In the XVI century. there is a strengthening of feudal-serfdom orders. The economic basis of serfdom is feudal ownership of land in its three forms: local, patrimonial and state. A new term “peasants” appears, which has become the name of the oppressed class of Russian society. According to their social status, the peasants were divided into three groups: the possessive peasants belonged to various secular and church feudal lords; palace peasants who were in the possession of the palace department of the Moscow grand dukes (tsars); black-mouse (later state) peasants lived in volost communities on lands that did not belong to any owner, but were obliged to perform certain duties in favor of the state.

Destruction of the old major cities, such as Vladimir, Suzdal, Rostov and others, a change in the nature of economic and trade relations and routes led to the fact that in the XIII - XV centuries. New centers developed significantly: Tver, Nizhny Novgorod, Moscow, Kolomna, Kostroma, and others. In these cities, the population increased, stone construction was revived, and the number of artisans and merchants grew. Great success was achieved by such branches of craft as blacksmithing, foundry, metalworking, and coinage.

After the fall of Kyiv's role as a center ancient Russian statehood the greatest value in Russian political life acquired the Novgorod Republic and the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality. The khans of the Golden Horde considered Vladimir prince head of all North-Eastern Russia. However, soon the specific princes began to challenge this prerogative, joining the struggle for the reign in Vladimir. The most active in this struggle were the princes of Tver and Moscow.

The Muscovite principality gained independence in 1276. Its importance sharply increased in the 14th century, when it began to play the role of the main unifying center of the Russian lands. The following factors contributed to this:

• personal qualities of the first Moscow princes (Ivan I Kalita, Dmitry Donskoy), their political activity;
• favorable geographical position, which contributed to the increase in population;
• support for the church and the transfer of the center of Russian Orthodoxy from Vladimir to Moscow;
• assistance to the Horde, which transferred the labels for reigning to the Moscow princes.

The creation of a unified Russian centralized state included two complementary processes: the formation of the territory of the state and the organization of the country's administrative apparatus. The territory of the state was formed as a result of the annexation of previously independent principalities to Moscow. This happened in different ways. The Moscow princes not only conquered new territories, but also engaged in “rounding off” their possessions, by annexing the lands of their allies, they did not disdain bribing the enemy’s close associates, etc. This process took more than two centuries.

Politics of the Moscow princes

At the origins of the Moscow princely dynasty was one of the sons of Alexander Nevsky - Daniil Alexandrovich (1276-1303). Already during the years of his reign, Moscow managed to annex Kolomna, Mozhaisk and the Pereyaslavl lands. By the end of his reign, the Moscow principality became one of the largest principalities in North-Eastern Russia.

In 1319, the Moscow prince Yuri Danilovich for the first time received a label for a great reign at the headquarters of the khan. Promising to increase the collection of tribute, the prince received a favorable attitude from the Horde. Do not lose sight of the fact that he was married to the sister of Khan Uzbek. But finally the leadership of Moscow was secured by his successor Ivan Danilovich. Ivan I Danilovich Kalita (1283-1340) - Grand Duke of Moscow (1325-1340), Vladimir and Novgorod. He laid the foundation for the establishment of the economic and political union of the Moscow principality and the Golden Horde, for which he collected tribute from the Russian principalities. He severely suppressed popular discontent caused by constant requisitions, cracked down on political opponents. So, in 1327, together with the Horde, he suppressed the anti-Horde uprising of the population of Tver. As a result of the suppression of the uprising, not only did the transfer of the grand ducal label to Ivan Danilovich take place. Basque culture was liquidated. Now the mission of collecting tribute was entrusted directly to the Grand Duke. This provided the Moscow princes with the opportunity to receive additional income.

Ivan Kalita was constantly in close contact with the church fathers, Metropolitans Peter and Theognost. He achieved the transfer of the metropolitan see from Vladimir to Moscow (1328), after which it acquired the status of the religious and ideological center of Russia. The prince extended the influence of Moscow to a number of lands in the north of Russia (Tver, Pskov, Novgorod, etc.). The Moscow principality was considered the most prosperous, which explains the origin of Ivan Danilovich's nickname - "Kalita" (a bag for money).

The sons of Ivan Kalita, Semyon Proud (1340-1353) and Ivan Krasny (1353-1359), expanded the territory of the Moscow principality at the expense of the Dmitrov, Starodub, Kaluga and Kostroma lands.

Dmitry Donskoy (1350-1389) - Prince of Moscow (1359-1389) and Vladimir. As a prince of Moscow, he became the recognized leader of the anti-Horde coalition and the collector of Russian lands. The idea of ​​the independence and political unity of Russia began under Dmitry to coincide with the idea of ​​​​a strong grand ducal Moscow power. The Grand Duchy of Vladimir finally came under the rule of Moscow, which made the process of Moscow's rise irreversible.

Dmitry Donskoy received a label for the great reign of Vladimir in 1371. Soon he conquered Tver. During these years, the prince directed all his forces to the unification of Russian lands to fight the Horde. Events of the 60s - the first half of the 70s. strengthened the role of Moscow as an all-Russian center. In 1374, Prince Dmitry Ivanovich stopped paying tribute to the Horde and thereby severed relations with her. In 1377, the Moscow and Nizhny Novgorod troops took the city of Bulgar, due to which the trade route along the Volga was under the control of Moscow. In the next 1378, the Moscow army, led by Prince Dmitry Ivanovich, defeated the Horde on the Vozha River.

In his declining years, the prince independently, without the consent of the Golden Horde, transferred the great reign of Vladimir to his son Vasily (1389-1425), which led to the merger of the Vladimir and Moscow principalities.

By the middle of the XV century. Moscow princes achieved significant independence of the Russian Church from the Patriarch of Constantinople, and after the fall of Constantinople (1453), the head of the Russian Church began to be determined in Moscow.

The relationship between the processes of unification of Russian lands and liberation from the Horde rule

The strengthening of Moscow's positions coincided with the beginning of a period of internal conflicts and civil strife in the Golden Horde. The reason for the aggravation of relations with the Mongols was the demand of Khan Mamai to increase the amount of tribute collected. Both the Russians and the Horde carefully prepared for the battle. The Horde gathered up to 100 thousand people. They were supported by Prince Jagiello of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Prince Oleg Ivanovich of Ryazan.

Dmitry Donskoy managed to assemble an all-Russian militia. Even the Lithuanian princes Andrei Polotsky and Dmitry Trubetskoy acted in alliance with him. The Russian army was supported by the Orthodox Church. There is a legend that before the battle on the Kulikovo field, Dmitry Ivanovich received a blessing from Sergius of Radonezh.

A tangible defeat was inflicted on the Horde in the Battle of Kulikovo (1380). The beginning of the battle was preceded by the legendary duel between the Russian hero Peresvet and Chelubey from the side of the Mongols. Although the victory of the troops of the Moscow prince Dmitry Donskoy did not lead to the complete liberation of Russia from the yoke, moreover, in 1382 Moscow was burned by Khan Tokhtamysh, who replaced Mamai, however, it was after the battle on the Kulikovo field that the role of Moscow as an all-Russian center of rallying all forces against Hordes, and residents of different Russian cities for the first time felt like representatives of one people.

Restoration of the economy of Russian lands. Colonization of North-Eastern Russia. Forms of land tenure and categories of the population. Russian city

Colonization of North-Eastern Russia

North-Eastern Russia is a group of Russian principalities that united in the interfluve of the Volga and Oka in the 9th-15th centuries, around which the modern Russian state began to take shape.

The Slavic colonization of North-Eastern Russia is a rather long process of the settlement of the Slavs in the Finno-Ugric lands of the Volga-Oka interfluve, which began in the 9th century. As a result of this process, the prerequisites were created for the formation of the Great Russian nationality in this region, which resulted in an increase in the share of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality among the lands that were previously part of Ancient Russia.

The Slavic colonization of this region can be divided into several stages. The first stage was the appearance in the north-eastern part of Russia in the 9th-10th centuries. the first Slavic settlers. Along the Volga, to the north and east of the Volga-Oka interfluve, the Krivichi began to settle, compactly settled in the area of ​​​​the Suzdal opolye. Further north, the Ilmen Slovenes occupied the territory. The south of the Moscow region and the Ryazan region were inhabited by Vyatichi, as well as Radimichi and northerners.

At the second stage of colonization in the XII-XIII centuries. the migration of the South Russian population took place in the Rostov-Suzdal land. An active participant in the colonization of North-Eastern Russia was the son of Vladimir Monomakh, the Rostov-Suzdal prince Yuri Dolgoruky. He lured new settlers by providing them with loans to settle in a new place. Settlers received the status of free farmers, which freed them from many feudal duties. Andrei Bogolyubsky continued his father's colonization activities.

The third stage of colonization falls on the period of the Mongol-Tatar invasion in the XIII-XIV centuries. The population, including those of noble origin, of Kyiv, Chernigov and other southern Russian principalities, massively moved to the northeast. At the same time, Metropolitan Maxim moved from Kyiv to Vladimir-on-Klyazma (1299). These processes were due to the smaller scale of ruins and the faster pace of restoration of North-Eastern Russia.

Restoring the economy of Russian lands

The Golden Horde invasion caused a slowdown and decline in the economic development of the Russian lands. The process of restoration of North-Eastern Russia fell on the XIV-XV centuries. Abandoned lands were restored and new lands were developed, new settlements were founded - settlements, villages, villages. There was an increase in the area of ​​arable land and the improvement of methods of tillage. Three-fields became the dominant farming system. Everywhere used tools made of metals (plow, plow). Horticulture and horticulture revived. Apiary beekeeping has come to replace beekeeping.

During this period, Moscow not only increased its political importance, but also became a major center for handicraft and agricultural production and trade. This was facilitated by its geographical position as an important junction of land and waterways, which served both for trade and military purposes.

Forms of land tenure and population categories

From the end of the XIII century. begins a period of rapid growth of large feudal landownership. Its main form remained a large princely, boyar and church fiefdom. From the middle of the XIV century. the land holdings of the monasteries increased considerably. This can be traced on the example of the famous Trinity Monastery (Trinity-Sergius Lavra), at the origins of which stood Sergius of Radonezh (1321-391). On the outskirts of Russia, there were still lands of peasant communities that paid taxes to the state treasury.

The increase in patrimonial allotments was facilitated by the prince granting land with peasants. Large feudal lords (princes, boyars, monasteries) in order to more quickly develop and successful operation estates provided part of the undeveloped lands to their palace and military servants in conditional holding on certain conditions. In the Russian state of the XIV-XV centuries. this form of land ownership was called service, or local, and became the basis material well-being nobles.

The main categories of the population were: grand dukes, appanage princes, service princes, boyars, servants. By the XIV century. many terms denoting various forms of dependence of the era of Ancient Russia (“purchases”, “smerdy”, “outcasts”) have gone into the past. They were replaced by a universal name - peasants (free community members and who were completely dependent on the feudal lords).

Russian city

The restoration of agricultural land has had a positive effect on the development of cities. The decline of such large cities as Vladimir, Suzdal, Rostov, changes in the nature of economic and trade relations led to the emergence in the XIII-XV centuries. new centers: Tver, Nizhny Novgorod, Moscow, Kolomna, Kostroma, etc. The population grew in them, stone construction revived, and the proportion of artisans and merchants increased. Trade in agricultural products remained the most developed, but crafts also developed rapidly: blacksmithing and foundry, metalworking, and coinage.

Russian cities were still dependent on the feudal state, which distinguished them from the cities of Western Europe, many of which were self-governing. Free townspeople were divided into "black artisans", who were burdened with a "tax" - a complex of duties of a natural and monetary nature, paid in favor of the state, and boyar, monastic or princely artisans, exempted from tax duty.

Cultural development of Russian lands and principalities in the 13th - mid-15th centuries

The development of the culture of this period was decisively influenced by overcoming the consequences of the Horde invasion and the transformation of Moscow into the main unifying center of North-Eastern Russia.

AT literature a significant number of works were devoted to the struggle against the Horde (“The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu”, “Zadonshchina”, etc.). One of the first monuments of secular literature was the narrative of the Russian merchant Afanasy Nikitin "Journey beyond the three seas" (1468-1474) - the first Russian work with an accurate description of a trading and non-religious journey. Most of Nikitin's notes are devoted to India. The composition is filled with lyrical inserts and episodes of an autobiographical nature. Lives, which were an example of a symbiosis of church and secular literature (“The Life of Alexander Nevsky”), were widely disseminated. Chronicle writing ("Russian Chronograph") was revived. In 1408, the compilation of the first All-Russian chronicle code (Trinity Chronicle) was completed.

AT architecture stone construction returns to its former positions (the Church of the Savior in Novgorod, the white stone walls of the Moscow Kremlin (1367), which was the only stone fortress in North-Eastern Russia, the Spassky Cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery in Moscow, etc.). The attraction of European architects, mainly Italians, begins.

AT painting iconography still dominates. The outstanding representatives of icon painting of that period were Theophanes the Greek (1340-1410) - the great Russian and Byzantine icon painter, miniaturist and master of monumental fresco paintings (Moscow Church of the Nativity of the Virgin) and Andrei Rublev (c. 1360-1428) - the most famous and revered master of the Moscow school icon painting, book and monumental painting of the 15th century, canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church as a saint. Andrei Rublev's brush belongs to the famous icon "Trinity" (c. 1420-1430), which has become one of the pinnacles of not only Russian, but also world art. The outstanding icon painter also painted the frescoes of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, the icons of the Zvenigorod Cathedral, the Trinity Cathedral in the Trinity-Sergius Lavra.

The unification of the Russian lands took place in the acute struggle of the Russian people for their state unity and national independence, for overcoming feudal fragmentation and internal contradictions among the principalities. In this struggle, the promotion of Moscow as a center of political and socio-economic consolidation of the forces of the Russian people was facilitated by objective and subjective factors.

Among the objective factors, first of all, it should be noted that the Moscow land was the territory where the formation of the Great Russian nationality began. Geographical position Moscow guaranteed her a certain security: from the north-west of Lithuania, she was covered by the Tver principality; from the east and southeast of the Golden Horde - by other Russian lands, which contributed to the influx of residents here and the constant increase in population density. The intersection of trade routes contributed to the transformation of Moscow into a major hub of economic ties between the Russian lands.

In the gradual transformation of Moscow into the center of the unification of Russian lands, he played a role and subjective factor- active policy of the Moscow princes. The ancestor of the Moscow princely dynasty is the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky - Daniel. He received the Moscow throne in 1276. In 1303, the Moscow principality passed to his eldest son, Yuri Danilovich. Yuri for a long time fought with the Prince of Tver Mikhail Yaroslavich, which ultimately ended in favor of Moscow.

Prince Yuri Danilovich, thanks to his flexible policy in relations with the Golden Horde, achieved significant political success: he enlisted the support of Khan Uzbek, marrying his sister, received a label for a great reign. Having admitted his defeat and reconciled with Yuri Danilovich, Prince Dmitry Mikhailovich of Tver, the son of Mikhail Yaroslavich, nevertheless remained his main rival and contender for the Grand Duke's table.

What was Moscow at the dawn of its existence? It was an ordinary medieval city. Located at the mouth of the Moskva River, it was divided into two parts: "detinets" and "posad". Detinets, who received in the XII-XIV centuries. The name Kremlin, was protected by a moat that ran close to the modern building of the Grand Kremlin Palace and occupied an area of ​​about one hectare. Posad was the place of settlement of the bulk of the inhabitants. There was also a "bargaining" - a trading square, on which, according to the old Russian custom, the church of Paraskevna-Latnitsa, the patroness of trade, was built. Posad, which also had defensive significance, was constantly strengthened and expanded. By the 16th century it acquired a rounded shape, well known from the ancient plans of Moscow. Its fortifications, having appeared as a continuation of the Kremlin, later developed into a special ring of defense, became the outer fortifications of the entire city. The territory that departed from the settlement to the Kremlin was populated and rebuilt in the same way as the Kremlin. In turn, neighboring villages, being included in the settlement, became city blocks.

In the winter of 1237-1238. Moscow, like many other Russian cities, was devastated by the Horde. At the same time, Moscow put up serious resistance and it was difficult to take its fortifications. In the soon restored city, the old rampart, built almost 100 years before, remained the basis of the fortifications. By the end of the thirteenth century The first stone church appeared in the Kremlin, which meant a serious increase in the political prestige of the capital of the young Moscow principality. By this time, the fortress of Moscow had increased several times, occupying the adjacent areas of the settlement. However, the Moscow settlement itself grew significantly: in the 12th - 13th centuries. it already occupied the entire territory of the modern Kremlin and the entire Moskvoretsky hem of Kitay-gorod, with the exception of its eastern tip.

First quarter of the 14th century was marked by the struggle of Moscow for the great reign. Moscow's main rival was Tver. In 1327, Moscow became the capital city of all Russian lands and later led their struggle to overthrow the Horde yoke. Of course, the development of both the city itself and its fortifications was determined by the political and military situation of that time. However, even during the period of the most fierce struggle with Tver and for some time after that, the Kremlin remained the basis of the defense of Moscow, which still opposed the troops of Batu.

Several stone cathedrals had already been built inside the Kremlin. Of these, Uspensky is especially important, the construction of which is closely connected with the fact that Moscow became the religious center of all Russia, its metropolis.

Running a little ahead, we note that in 1367 a new stone Kremlin was built. The construction of a white stone fortress in Moscow was associated by contemporaries with the increased political significance city, with the strengthening of its role as the capital of all Russian lands. Since then, Moscow began to be called white-stone. The Kremlin, built under Dmitry Donskoy, occupied almost the same territory as the modern one. It was a powerful fortress with nine towers. They housed advanced throwing weapons, including the first cannons in Russia. In order to quarry, hew and bring white-stone blocks in a short time, dig ditches for foundations, lay down and equip walls and towers, about 2 thousand people had to work on construction every day. Such a construction was only within the power of a large city. Moscow has grown significantly. Its oldest Bolshoy, or Veliky, settlement between the Moscow and Neglinnaya rivers occupied the entire territory of the future Kitay-gorod, and in some areas approached the Yauza.

In the last quarter of the XIV century. from the Moskva River to the Neglinnaya, along the line of the future Kitay-gorod, wooden and earthen fortifications were built. However, more than a century and a half passed before the defensive work here ended with the construction of a stone fortress.

The Kremlin was not only a fortress, but also an architectural center, the most important ensemble of Moscow. Behind the white stone walls and towers, one could see the domes of stone churches and the figured roofs of the palaces of the Moscow nobility, over which the palace of the Grand Duke dominated. Describing the performance of Russian troops on a campaign against Mamai, the author of The Tale of the Battle of Mamai says that three columns of Russian troops were walking along three roads from the Kremlin, and Grand Duchess Evdokia and the wives of others looked at them "tears shedding like a river stream" from the window of the tower princes who went on a campaign.

For more than 100 years, the white-stone Kremlin served as Moscow's defense. The troops of the Horde Khan Tokhtamysh managed to take it only in 1382, and then by deceit, when they assured the Muscovites of their intention to make peace. The Kremlin endured more than one siege. Its white stone walls suffered both from assaults and from fires. They were repaired not with stone, but with wood, and by the end of the 15th century. there were already so many such repairs that the Italian A. Contarini, who visited Moscow at that time, wrote down: the fortress in Moscow was wooden. This Kremlin needed to be rebuilt. However, the construction, at the end of the 15th century, after the fall of the Horde yoke, the stone Kremlin was no longer necessary for defense, but for prestige. It was supposed to show the entire world of that time, especially Western Europe, the military power and high cultural achievements of the young Russian state.

They built the brick Kremlin for more than 30 years. Italian craftsmen supervised the work. The military-defensive and architectural structures of the Kremlin, for the most part, have survived to this day (Questions of History. 1990. No. 3. P. 115).

What place did Moscow occupy in the history of Russia during the period of feudal wars?

During the feudal war between Moscow and Tver, the princes sought to enlist the support of the metropolitan. The place of his stay was important for the princes - the city in which the head of the Russian church lived was considered the capital of the Russian land. Moscow becomes the center of the all-Russian metropolis.

In this year - 1340 - the grandson of Alexander Nevsky, Ivan Kalita, takes the throne of Moscow. During the reign of Ivan Kalita, the Moscow principality was finally defined as the largest and strongest in northeastern Russia. Since the time of Kalita, a close alliance of princely power with the church has developed, which played a large role in the formation of a centralized state. With the transfer in 1326 of Kalita's ally, Metropolitan Peter, of his residence from Vladimir to Moscow, the latter became the church center of all Russia, which further strengthened the position of the Moscow princes.

In relations with the Horde, Kalita continued the line of external, formal observance of vassal dependence on the Horde, outlined by Alexander Nevsky, in order not to give the Horde khans a pretext for new invasions and devastation: he regularly paid the established tribute to the Horde, but at the same time in all internal affairs Russia strove for the greatest possible independence. Thanks to this policy, the Horde khans did not receive a reason for new devastating raids on the Russian land.

Ivan Kalita obtained from the Horde a very important concession for Russia - the final renunciation of the hated and humiliating for the Russian people system of Basque and the right to pay tribute to the Russian princes. Baskaism as a system of collecting tribute from households organized by the Golden Horde, carried out by Baskaks (tribute collectors) with the help of armed guards, was abolished. The appointment of Kalita as the main tribute collector was a great political gain both for himself and for the entire Moscow boyars. Ivan Kalita laid the foundations for the might of the Moscow principality. He is called the first collector of Russian land, who laid the foundation for the rise of Moscow. He achieved the rise and expansion of the Moscow principality in various ways: he arranged marriages of local princes with representatives of his own family; appointed his deputies to separate principalities; he bought land in other principalities for himself and assisted his boyars in this on the basis of private patrimonial property.

In general, Ivan Kalita played a positive role in the unification of northeastern Russia around Moscow as the main territorial core of the future Russian centralized state.

However, how politician it should not be especially idealized. He was the son of his time and his class, a smart, stubborn, purposeful ruler, but also cruel and cunning. In his actions, there were no openly expressed motives for rebuffing the invaders - he paid off the Golden Horde with the correct payment of the "exit". And yet, his tactics gave Russia a respite from the Horde raids. The policy of Ivan Kalita served to strengthen the feudal system in Russia and the progressive development of Russian society. While tough and brutal, it also contributed to state centralization.

The Moscow region, due to its historical development in socio-economic and cultural relations, developed faster than other Russian lands. Its population to a greater extent influenced the development and convergence of the elements of the language, culture and life of the people who inhabited the entire north-eastern Russia. Under the prevailing conditions of feudal fragmentation, the Novgorod, Pskov, Tver, Ryazan, and Nizhny Novgorod lands began to objectively gravitate toward reunification into a single state. At the same time, centrifugal tendencies continued to persist, due to the separatism of local princes. That is why the Moscow prince Dmitry Ivanovich (1363-1389), nicknamed the Donskoy for the Battle of Kulikovo, had to wage a stubborn struggle with the princes. Fighting the separatism of the princes, Dmitry Ivanovich subjugated the most powerful principalities (Tver and Ryazan) to the power of the Moscow prince. Thus, the leading role of Moscow in the unification of the Russian lands was finally secured.

In the XIII-XIV centuries. the population density of northeastern Russia increased markedly, and the territory it developed also increased. The development of the system of land tenure, crafts and trade contributed, on the one hand, to the expansion of economic ties between cities and villages located on this territory, and on the other hand, to a wider and closer communication of people, during which common features were formed in their character, occupations, family everyday life and public behavior, appeared common features in their dwellings, clothing, food, customs and rituals. All this, taken together, constituted the characteristic features of the new nationality. The population of northeastern Russia began to consider the land of their dwelling as their own, their fatherland. In the second half of the XIV century. this region with its center in Moscow was called "Great Russia". Hence the names "Great Russian people", "Great Russian people".

Having asserted his power over the Russian princes, subordinating Tver and Ryazan to Moscow, Dmitry Ivanovich decided to fight against the main enemy of Russia - the Golden Horde. She then experienced the process of feudal fragmentation, accompanied by protracted strife and the periodic change of khans. In relations between Russia and the Horde, a trend of extreme instability and tension began to prevail. All this resulted in a bloody clash. (Above, we spoke in detail about the Battle of Kulikovo and its consequences for Russia.)

Although the Horde Khan was still considered the supreme ruler of Russia, his power over other lands was significantly weakened. The Horde was forced to recognize Moscow as the political center of Russia. Moreover, the Moscow princely dynasty obtained from the Horde the recognition of their right to a great reign as a "fatherland" that was inherited. New order succession to the throne, he stopped the old enmity for seniority, found support among the people and among the clergy. Although Russia did not completely get rid of the feudal war, but by the middle of the 15th century. a serious step towards the establishment of the Moscow autocracy was made. In accordance with the procedure established by him, before his death, Dmitry Ivanovich blessed his son Vasily for a great reign - now he no longer feared that the Horde or other Russian princes would dare to challenge his rightful heir to the grand throne.

The reign of Dmitry Donskoy left a deep mark on Russian history. Among the important results of his activities are the following: securing the status of the national capital for Moscow, and for the Moscow princes - the great reign in Russia; keeping intact the patrimonial estates that passed to Dmitry Ivanovich from his ancestors; strengthening the defense capability of Russia as a result of the fight against foreign invaders, especially the Horde; the introduction of the minting of silver coins earlier than in other feudal centers of Russia; economic support for the urban trade and handicraft population. Thanks to the successful activities of Dmitry, the further strengthening of the Moscow principality continues.

Summarizing the above initial period unification of Russian lands and the role of Moscow in the formation of a centralized state, it should be noted: objectively feudal fragmentation was a natural stage in the development of the feudal states of Europe and Asia. Russia was no exception in this respect. But, being at a new, higher stage of feudal society, fragmentation brought with it a number of negative consequences: endless internecine wars, the loss of national unity, the weakening of the defense in the face of foreign aggression, etc. All this led society into a state of continuous tension and had a negative effect on the development the country's economy. Fear of foreign enslavement, the desire to preserve and maintain public order made firm power desirable, so that in the end the feudal war contributed to the strengthening of the grand ducal power. The unification policy of the Grand Dukes was supported by the most diverse social strata of Russian society, since an important factor in the process of unification of the principalities was the nationwide struggle for national independence and the overthrow of the Horde yoke, for an independent and strong statehood capable of providing protection to the people.

Objectively, the process of political unification of the Russian lands began in Russia with the territorial growth and political strengthening of individual principalities. In the struggle that began between them for political predominance, an all-Russian political center was revealed, which led the struggle for the unification of the scattered Russian lands into a single state and for the overthrow of the Golden Horde yoke. The winner in this struggle was the Moscow principality, whose capital - Moscow - during the reign of Dmitry Donskoy became the generally recognized political and national center of the emerging Russian state. Moscow's successes in the state-political unification of the Russian lands were consolidated by its victory over a coalition of specific princes who tried during the feudal war of the middle of the 15th century. restore the crumbling orders of feudal fragmentation.

The Orthodox Church also contributed to the unification of the Russian lands. She supported the flexible policy of a forced alliance with the Golden Horde of Alexander Nevsky, inspired Dmitry Donskoy to the Mamaev battle; during the feudal war, she openly opposed the obsolete policy of the specific princes for strengthening the power of the Grand Duke of Moscow. The union of the church with the Moscow princes was further strengthened during the period of the elimination of feudal fragmentation.

In 1442, at the suggestion of Vasily II, the Council of the Russian clergy in Moscow appointed Jonah metropolitan without the sanction of the Patriarch of Constantinople. This act marked the end of the dependence of the Russian Church on the Patriarchate of Constantinople. However, the Moscow metropolis fell into direct dependence on the grand duke's power, for now only it could protect the interests of the metropolis on an all-Russian scale and maintain its authority in the struggle for the purity of the Orthodox faith.