NOVGOROD PRINCIPALITY

The territory of the Novgorod principality increased gradually. Novgorod principality began with ancient area settlements of the Slavs. It was located in the basin of Lake Ilmen, as well as the rivers Volkhov, Lovat, Msta and Mologa. From the north, Novgorod land was covered by the fortress-city of Ladoga, located at the mouth of the Volkhov. Over time, the territory of the Novgorod principality increased. The principality even had its own colonies.

Novgorod principality in XII - XIII centuries in the north, owned lands along Lake Onega, a basin Lake Ladoga and northern shores of the Gulf of Finland. The outpost of the Novgorod principality in the west was the city of Yuryev (Tartu), which was founded by Yaroslav the Wise. This was the Chudskaya land. The Novgorod principality expanded very quickly to the north and east (northeast). So, lands that stretched to the Urals and even beyond the Urals went to the Novgorod principality.

Novgorod itself occupied a territory that had five ends (districts). The entire territory of the Novgorod Principality was divided into five regions in accordance with the five districts of the city. These areas were also called pyatinas. So, to the north-west of Novgorod was the Vodskaya Pyatina. It spread towards the Gulf of Finland and covered the lands of the Finnish Vod tribe. The Shelon Pyatina spread to the southwest on both sides of the Shelon River. Between the rivers Msta and Lovat, southeast of Novgorod, there was Derevskaya Pyatina. On both sides Lake Onega northeast to White Sea located Obonezhskaya pyatina. Beyond the Derevskaya and Obonezhskaya pyatinas, to the southeast, was the Bezhetskaya pyatina.

In addition to the indicated five pyatins, the Novgorod principality included Novgorod volosts. One of them was the Dvina land (Zavolochye), which was located in the area of ​​the Northern Dvina. Another volost of the Novgorod principality was the Perm land, which was located along the Vychegda, as well as along its tributaries. The principality of Novgorod included land on both sides of the Pechora. It was the region of Pechora. Yugra was located to the east of the Northern Urals. Within the Onega and Ladoga lakes was the land of Korela, which was also part of the Novgorod principality. The Kola Peninsula (Tersky Coast) was also part of the Novgorod Principality.

The basis of the Novgorod economy was Agriculture. The land and the peasants working on it provided the main income for the landowners. These were the boyars and, of course, the Orthodox clergy. Among the large landowners were merchants.

On the lands of the Novgorod pyatins, the arable system prevailed. In the extreme northern regions, the undercut was preserved. Lands at these latitudes cannot be called fertile. For this reason, part of the bread was imported from other Russian lands, most often from the Ryazan principality and the Rostov-Suzdal land. The problem of providing bread was especially relevant in lean years, which were not uncommon here.

It was not only the earth that fed. The population was engaged in hunting for fur and sea animals, fishing, beekeeping, salt mining in Staraya Russa and Vychegda, iron ore mining in Vodskaya Pyatina. Trade and crafts were widely developed in Novgorod. Carpenters, potters, blacksmiths, gunsmiths, shoemakers, tanners, felters, bridge workers and other artisans worked there. Novgorod carpenters were even sent to Kyiv, where they carried out very important orders.

Trade routes from Northern Europe to the Black Sea basin, as well as from Western countries to Eastern Europe passed through Novgorod. Novgorod merchants in the 10th century sailed on their ships along the route ʼʼfrom the Varangians to the Greeksʼʼ. At the same time, they reached the shores of Byzantium. The Novgorod state had very close trade and economic ties with the states of Europe. Among them was Gotland, a large trading center of North-Western Europe. In Novgorod there was a whole trading colony - the Gothic court.
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It was surrounded by a high wall, behind which there were barns and houses with foreign merchants living in them.

In the second half of the 12th century, Novgorod's trade relations with the union of North German cities (Hansa) were strengthened. All measures were taken to ensure that foreign merchants feel completely safe. Another merchant colony and a new German trading yard were built.
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The life of the trading colonies was regulated by a special charter (ʼʼSkraʼʼ).

Novgorodians supplied linen, hemp, linen, lard, wax and the like to the market. Metals, cloth, weapons and other goods went to Novgorod from abroad. Goods went through Novgorod from the countries of the West to the countries of the East and in the opposite direction. Novgorod acted as an intermediary in such trade. Goods from the East were delivered to Novgorod along the Volga, from where they were sent to Western countries.

Trade within the vast Novgorod Republic developed successfully. Novgorodians also traded with the principalities Northeast Russia where Novgorod bought first of all bread. Novgorod merchants were united in societies (like guilds). The most powerful was the trading company ʼʼIvanovskoye Stoʼʼ. Members of society had great privileges. From among its midst, the trading society again chose the elders according to the number of districts of the city. Each headman, together with the thousandth, was in charge of all commercial affairs, as well as the merchant court in Novgorod. The head of the trade established measures of weight, measures of length, etc., supervised the observance of accepted and legalized rules for conducting trade. The dominant class in the Novgorod Republic were large landowners - boyars, clergy, merchants. Some of them owned lands that stretched for hundreds of miles. For example, the boyar family Boretsky owned lands that extended over vast territories along the Northern Dvina and the White Sea. Merchants who owned significant lands over the territory were called ʼʼliving peopleʼʼ. Landowners received their main income in the form of dues. The landowner's own farm was not very large. Slaves worked on it.

In the city, large landowners shared power with the merchant elite. Together they made up the city patriciate and managed the economic and political life Novgorod.

The political system that developed in Novgorod was distinguished by its originality. Initially, Kyiv sent princes-governors to Novgorod, who obeyed the great Kyiv prince and acted in accordance with instructions from Kyiv. The prince-viceroy appointed posadniks and thousands. At the same time, over time, the boyars and large landowners more and more evaded submission to the prince. So, in 1136, this resulted in a rebellion against Prince Vsevolod. The annals say that ʼʼthe vadish of Prince Vsevolod in the episcopal court with his wife and children with his mother-in-law and the guard of day and night 30 husband for a day with weaponsʼʼ. It ended with the fact that Prince Vsevolod was sent to Pskov. And in Novgorod, a people's assembly, the veche, was formed.

The posadnik or the tysyatsky announced the meeting of the people's assembly on the trading side in the Yaroslavl courtyard. Everyone was summoned by the ringing of the veche bell. In addition, birgochis and Podveiskys were sent to different parts of the city, who invited (clicked) the people to the veche meeting. Only men participated in the decision-making. Any free person (male) could take part in the work of the veche.

The powers of the veche were wide and weighty. The veche elected the posadnik, the thousandth (previously they were appointed by the prince), bishop, declared war, made peace, discussed and approved legislative acts, tried the posadniks, the thousandth, sotskys for the crimes, concluded agreements with foreign powers. Veche invited the prince to rule. It also ʼʼshowed him the wayʼʼ when he did not justify his hopes.

Veche was legislature in the Novgorod Republic. The decisions made at the meeting had to be implemented. This was the responsibility of the executive in power. The head of the executive power was the posadnik and the thousand. The posadnik was elected at the veche. The term of his office was not determined in advance. But the veche could withdraw it at any time. The posadnik was the highest official in the republic. He controlled the activities of the prince, ensured that the activities of the Novgorod authorities were consistent with the decisions of the veche. The supreme court of the republic was in the hands of the townsman. He had the right to remove and appoint officials. The prince headed the armed forces. The posadnik went on a campaign as an assistant to the prince. In fact, the posadnik headed not only the executive branch, but also the veche. He received foreign ambassadors. If the prince was absent, then the armed forces were subordinate to the posadnik. As for the thousandth, he was an assistant to the posadnik. He commanded separate detachments during the war. In peacetime, the tysyatsky was responsible for the state of trade affairs and the merchant court.

The clergy in Novgorod were headed by a bishop. Since 1165, the archbishop became the head of the Novgorod clergy. He was the largest of the Novgorod landowners. The ecclesiastical court was in charge of the archbishop. The archbishop was a kind of foreign minister - he was in charge of relations between Novgorod and other countries.

Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, after 1136, when Prince Vsevolod was expelled, the Novgorodians elected a prince at a veche. Most often he was invited to reign. But this reign was severely limited. The prince did not even have the right to buy this or that piece of land with his own money. All his actions were observed by the posadnik and his people. The duties and rights of the invited prince were stipulated in the contract, which was concluded between the veche and the prince. This agreement was called ʼʼnextʼʼ. Under the treaty, the prince had no administrative power. In fact, he was supposed to act as commander-in-chief. At the same time, he personally could not declare war or make peace.
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The prince for his service was allocated funds for his ʼʼfeedingʼʼ. In practice, it looked like this - the prince was allocated an area (volost), where he collected tribute, which was used for these purposes. Most often, the Novgorodians invited the Vladimir-Suzdal princes, who were considered the most powerful among the Russian princes, to reign. When the princes tried to break the established order, they received a fitting rebuff.
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The danger to the liberties of the Novgorod Republic from the Suzdal princes passed after in 1216 the Suzdal troops suffered a complete defeat from the Novgorod detachments on the Lipitsa River. We can assume that since that time Novgorod land has become a feudal boyar republic.

In the XIV century, Pskov spun off from Novgorod. But in both cities, the veche order lasted until they were annexed to the Moscow principality. There is no need to think that an idyll was realized in Novgorod, when the power belongs to the people. There should be no democracy (power of the people) in principle. Now there is not a single country in the world that could say that the power in it belongs to the people. Yes, the people take part in the elections. And that is where the power of the people ends. So it was then, in Novgorod. The real power was in the hands of the Novgorod elite. The cream of society created a council of gentlemen. It included former administrators (posadniks and thousand star osts of the Novgorod districts-ends), as well as current posadnik and thousand. The Novgorod archbishop headed the council of gentlemen. In his chambers, a council gathered when it was necessary to decide matters. At the meeting, ready-made decisions were made, which were developed by the council of gentlemen. Of course, there were cases when the veche did not agree with the decisions proposed by the Council of Masters. But there were not so many such cases.

NOVGOROD PRINCIPALITY - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "NOVGOROD PRINCIPALITY" 2017, 2018.

Velikiy Novgorod. Or Lord Veliky Novgorod, as his contemporaries called him, occupied a special place among other Russians. principalities. As the center of the Slavic lands in the northwestern corner of Russia, Novgorod by the end of the 9th century. becomes a rival of Kyiv. He defeated Kyiv, but after the transfer of the capital of united Russia to the south, the Kyiv princes began to send their eldest sons to their governors.

Nevertheless, Novgorod retained its special position; princely power did not take root here, as in other cities of Russia. The reason for this was the whole structure of life in ancient Novgorod. From the very beginning, the city grew primarily as a trade and craft center. It was located on famous way "from the Varangians to the Greeks".

From here there were ways to the Southern Baltic, to the German lands, to Scandinavia. Through Lake Ilmen and the Meta River, the path led to the Volga, and from there to the countries of the East.

Novgorodians had something to trade. They exported primarily furs, which were mined in the northern forests. Artisans of Novgorod supplied their products to the domestic and foreign markets. Novgorod was famous for its masters of blacksmithing and pottery, gold and silversmiths, gunsmiths, carpenters, and tanners. Streets and "ends" (districts) of the city often bore the names of craft professions: Carpenter's end, Kuznetskaya, Goncharnaya, Shieldnaya streets. In Novgorod, earlier than in other cities of Russia, associations of large merchants appeared. Rich merchants had not only river and sea ​​vessels, but also warehouses, barns. They built rich stone houses and churches. Many foreign merchants came to Novgorod. The "German" and "Gothic" courts were located here, which indicated the close trade relations of the city with the German lands. In Novgorod, not only merchants and artisans were involved in trade, but also boyars and representatives of the church.

The confident economic development of Novgorod was largely due not only to favorable natural and geographical conditions, but also to the fact that for a long time it did not know a serious external danger. Neither the Pechenegs nor the Polovtsians reached these places. German knights appeared here later. It created favorable conditions for the development of the region.

great strength in Novgorod principality over time, received large boyars-landowners. It was their land holdings, forests, fish lands that provided the main commercial products - furs, honey, wax, fish, other products of the earth, forests, water. It was the boyars and large merchants who often organized long-distance expeditions of the ushkuins, river and sea, in order to master new fishing lands, and to extract furs. The interests of the boyars, the merchants, the church were intertwined, which is why the top of the city, the so-called aristocracy, relying on their untold wealth, played such a big role in the political life of Novgorod.

The aristocracy in political life led artisans and other people. Novgorod acted as a united front against political pressure either from Kyiv or from the Rostov-Suzdal Principality. Here, all Novgorodians were at the same time, defending their special position in the Russian lands, their sovereignty. But in inner life there was no such unity in the city: there were frequent violent clashes of interests between ordinary citizens and the city elite, which resulted in open speeches, uprisings against the boyars, wealthy merchants, usurers. More than once, the rebellious townspeople broke into the archbishop's court. The urban aristocracy also did not represent a single whole. Separate boyar and merchant groups competed with each other. They fought for lands, incomes, privileges, for placing their protege at the head of the city - a prince, a posadnik or a thousand.

Similar orders developed in other large cities of the Novgorod land - Pskov, Ladoga, Izborsk, where there were strong boyar-merchant clans, their own craft and working masses of the population. Each of these cities, being part of the Novgorod principality, at the same time claimed relative independence.

Novgorod competed with Kyiv not only in terms of economic, commercial, but also in terms of appearance cities. Here, early on, on the left bank of the Volkhov, on a hillock, a Kremlin appeared, surrounded by a stone wall, unlike many other Russian citadels, fenced with wooden and earthen fortifications. The son of Yaroslav the Wise, Vladimir, built here the St. Sophia Cathedral, which competed in beauty and majesty with Kyiv Sofia. Opposite the Kremlin, there was a marketplace, where the city veche usually took place - the gathering of all politically active Novgorodians. Many important issues in the life of the city were resolved at the veche: city authorities were elected, candidates for invited princes were discussed, and the military policy of Novgorod was determined.

Illustration. Novgorod principality

A bridge across the Volkhov was built between the left-bank and right-bank Novgorod, which played an important role in the life of the city. Fisticuffs often took place here between various warring factions. From here, according to the verdict of the city authorities, criminals condemned to death were thrown into the depths of the Volkhov.

Novgorod was for its time a city of high culture of life. It was paved with wooden pavements, the authorities closely monitored the order and cleanliness of the city streets. A sign of the high culture of the townspeople is widespread literacy, which was manifested in the fact that many Novgorodians mastered the art of writing on birch bark letters, which archaeologists find in abundance during the excavation of ancient Novgorod dwellings. Birch bark letters were exchanged not only by boyars, merchants, but also by ordinary townspeople. These were IOUs and requests for loans, notes to wives, letters of petition, wills, love letters and even poetry.

As the power of the Kyiv princes weakened, the development of political separatism became more and more independent from Kyiv. This was especially evident after the death of Mstislav the Great. In Novgorod then "sat" his son Vsevolod. When he left Novgorod and tried unsuccessfully to get himself a throne of Pereyaslavl, which was more honorable in the princely family, the Novgorodians did not let him back. But the city needed a prince - to command the army, to defend the possessions. Considering, apparently, that Vsevolod Mstislavich had received a good lesson, the boyars returned him back, but Vsevolod again tried, relying on Novgorod, to get involved in the inter-princely struggle for power. He drew Novgorod into a confrontation with Suzdal, which ended in the defeat of the Novgorod rati. This overflowed the patience of the Novgorodians. The boyars opposed the prince and "black people"; neither the church nor the merchants, whom he infringed on their rights, supported him. In 1136, Vsevolod and his family were taken into custody by the verdict of the veche, in which representatives from Pskov and Ladoga took part.

Then he was expelled from the city, accused of being "does not watch the death", i.e., does not express the interests of ordinary people, poorly led the army during the war with the Suzdal people and was the first to flee the battlefield, dragged Novgorod into the struggle in the south.

After the events of 1136, the urban aristocracy finally came to power in Novgorod - a large boyars, rich merchants, an archbishop. The city became a kind of aristocratic republic, where several large boyar and merchant families, the posadnik, the thousand, the archbishop determined the entire policy. Veche invited princes as military leaders and supreme judges. Unwanted princes were expelled. Sometimes several princes were replaced during the year.

Over time, Novgorod in its economic relations was less and less oriented to the south, its ties with the South Baltic world, the Scandinavian and German lands became closer. Among the Russian lands, the strongest ties Novgorod kept with its neighbors: Polotsk, Smolensk and Rostov-Suzdal principalities.

The territory of the Novgorod principality increased gradually. The Novgorod principality began with the ancient region of the settlement of the Slavs. It was located in the basin of Lake Ilmen, as well as the rivers Volkhov, Lovat, Msta and Mologa. From the north, Novgorod land was covered by the fortress-city of Ladoga, located at the mouth of the Volkhov. Over time, the territory of the Novgorod principality increased. The principality even had its own colonies.

Novgorod Principality in the XII-XIII centuries in the north owned lands along Lake Onega, the basin of Lake Ladoga and the northern shores of the Gulf of Finland. The outpost of the Novgorod principality in the west was the city of Yuryev (Tartu), which was founded by Yaroslav the Wise. This was the Chudskaya land. The Novgorod principality expanded very quickly to the north and east (northeast). So, lands that stretched to the Urals and even beyond the Urals went to the Novgorod principality.

Novgorod itself occupied a territory that had five ends (districts). The entire territory of the Novgorod Principality was divided into five regions in accordance with the five districts of the city. These areas were also called pyatinas. So, to the north-west of Novgorod was the Vodskaya Pyatina. It spread towards the Gulf of Finland and covered the lands of the Finnish Vod tribe. The Shelon Pyatina spread to the southwest on both sides of the Shelon River. Between the rivers Msta and Lovat, southeast of Novgorod, there was Derevskaya Pyatina. On both sides of Lake Onega to the northeast to the White Sea, there was the Obonezh Pyatina. Beyond the Derevskaya and Obonezhskaya pyatinas, to the southeast, was the Bezhetskaya pyatina.

In addition to the indicated five pyatins, the Novgorod principality included Novgorod volosts. One of them was the Dvina land (Zavolochye), which was located in the area of ​​the Northern Dvina. Another volost of the Novgorod principality was the Perm land, which was located along the Vychegda, as well as along its tributaries. The principality of Novgorod included land on both sides of the Pechora. It was the region of Pechora. Yugra was located to the east of the Northern Urals. Within the Onega and Ladoga lakes was the land of Korela, which was also part of the Novgorod principality. The Kola Peninsula (Tersky Coast) was also part of the Novgorod Principality.

The basis of the Novgorod economy was agriculture. The land and the peasants working on it provided the main income for the landowners. These were the boyars and, of course, the Orthodox clergy. Among the large landowners were merchants.

On the lands of the Novgorod pyatins, the arable system prevailed. In the extreme northern regions, the undercut was preserved. Lands at these latitudes cannot be called fertile. Therefore, part of the bread was imported from other Russian lands, most often from the Ryazan principality and the Rostov-Suzdal land. The problem of providing bread was especially relevant in lean years, which were not uncommon here.

It was not only the earth that fed. The population was engaged in hunting for fur and sea animals, fishing, beekeeping, salt mining in Staraya Russa and Vychegda, iron ore mining in Vodskaya Pyatina. Trade and crafts were widely developed in Novgorod. Carpenters, potters, blacksmiths, gunsmiths, shoemakers, tanners, felters, bridge workers and other artisans worked there. Novgorod carpenters were even sent to Kyiv, where they carried out very important orders.

Trade routes from Northern Europe to the Black Sea basin, as well as from Western countries to Eastern Europe passed through Novgorod. Novgorod merchants in the 10th century sailed on their ships along the route "from the Varangians to the Greeks." At the same time, they reached the shores of Byzantium. The Novgorod state had very close trade and economic ties with the states of Europe. Among them was Gotland, a large trading center of North-Western Europe. In Novgorod there was a whole trading colony - the Gothic court. It was surrounded by a high wall, behind which there were barns and houses with foreign merchants living in them.

In the second half of the 12th century, trade relations between Novgorod and the union of North German cities (Hansa) were strengthened. All measures were taken to ensure that foreign merchants feel completely safe. Another merchant colony and a new German trading yard were built. The life of the trading colonies was regulated by a special charter ("Skra").

Novgorodians supplied linen, hemp, linen, lard, wax and the like to the market. Metals, cloth, weapons and other goods went to Novgorod from abroad. Goods went through Novgorod from the countries of the West to the countries of the East and in the opposite direction. Novgorod acted as an intermediary in such trade. Goods from the East were delivered to Novgorod along the Volga, from where they were sent to Western countries.

Trade within the vast Novgorod Republic developed successfully. Novgorodians also traded with the principalities of North-Eastern Russia, where Novgorod bought primarily bread. Novgorod merchants were united in societies (like guilds). The most powerful was the trading company "Ivanovskoye hundred". Members of society had great privileges. From among its midst, the trading society again chose the elders according to the number of districts of the city. Each starosta, together with the thousandth, was in charge of all commercial affairs, as well as the merchant court in Novgorod. The head of the trade established measures of weight, measures of length, etc., supervised the observance of accepted and legalized rules for conducting trade. The dominant class in the Novgorod Republic were large landowners - boyars, clergy, merchants. Some of them owned lands that stretched for hundreds of miles. For example, the boyar family Boretsky owned lands that stretched over vast territories along the Northern Dvina and the White Sea. Merchants who owned large areas of land were called "living people". Landowners received their main income in the form of dues. The landowner's own farm was not very large. Slaves worked on it.

In the city, large landowners shared power with the merchant elite. Together they constituted the urban patriciate and controlled the economic and political life of Novgorod.

The political system that developed in Novgorod was distinguished by its originality. Initially, Kyiv sent governor-princes to Novgorod, who were subordinate to the Grand Prince of Kyiv and acted in accordance with instructions from Kyiv. The prince-viceroy appointed posadniks and thousands. However, over time, the boyars and large landowners more and more evaded submission to the prince. So, in 1136, this resulted in a rebellion against Prince Vsevolod. The annals say that "the vadish of Prince Vsevolod in the episcopal court with his wife and children, with his mother-in-law and the guard guard day and night 30 a husband for a day with weapons." It ended with the fact that Prince Vsevolod was sent to Pskov. And in Novgorod, a people's assembly, the veche, was formed.

The posadnik or the tysyatsky announced the meeting of the people's assembly on the trading side in the Yaroslavl courtyard. Everyone was summoned by the ringing of the veche bell. In addition, birgochis and Podveiskys were sent to different parts of the city, who invited (clicked) the people to the veche meeting. Only men participated in the decision-making. Any free person (male) could take part in the work of the veche.

The powers of the veche were wide and weighty. The veche elected the posadnik, the thousandth (previously they were appointed by the prince), bishop, declared war, made peace, discussed and approved legislative acts, tried the posadniks, the thousandth, sotskys for the crimes, concluded agreements with foreign powers. Veche invited the prince to rule. It also "showed him the way" when he did not justify his hopes.

Veche was the legislative power in the Novgorod Republic. The decisions made at the meeting had to be implemented. This was the responsibility of the executive in power. The head of the executive power was the posadnik and the thousand. The posadnik was elected at the veche. The term of his office was not determined in advance. But the veche could withdraw it at any time. The posadnik was the highest official in the republic. He controlled the activities of the prince, ensured that the activities of the Novgorod authorities were consistent with the decisions of the veche. The supreme court of the republic was in the hands of the townsman. He had the right to remove and appoint officials. The prince headed the armed forces. The posadnik went on a campaign as an assistant to the prince. In fact, the posadnik headed not only the executive branch, but also the veche. He received foreign ambassadors. If the prince was absent, then the armed forces were subordinate to the posadnik. As for the thousandth, he was an assistant to the posadnik. He commanded separate detachments during the war. In peacetime, the tysyatsky was responsible for the state of trade affairs and the merchant court.

The clergy in Novgorod were headed by a bishop. Since 1165, the archbishop became the head of the Novgorod clergy. He was the largest of the Novgorod landowners. The ecclesiastical court was in charge of the archbishop. The archbishop was a kind of foreign minister - he was in charge of relations between Novgorod and other countries.

Thus, after 1136, when Prince Vsevolod was expelled, the Novgorodians elected a prince at a veche. Most often he was invited to reign. But this reign was severely limited. The prince did not even have the right to buy this or that piece of land with his own money. All his actions were observed by the posadnik and his people. The duties and rights of the invited prince were stipulated in the contract, which was concluded between the veche and the prince. This agreement was called "next". Under the treaty, the prince had no administrative power. In fact, he was supposed to act as commander-in-chief. At the same time, he personally could not declare war or make peace. The prince for his service was allocated funds for his "feeding". In practice, it looked like this - the prince was allocated an area (volost), where he collected tribute, which was used for these purposes. Most often, Novgorodians invited the Vladimir-Suzdal princes, who were considered the most powerful among the Russian princes, to reign. When the princes tried to break the established order, they received a fitting rebuff. The danger to the liberties of the Novgorod Republic from the Suzdal princes passed after in 1216 the Suzdal troops suffered a complete defeat from the Novgorod detachments on the Lipitsa River. We can assume that since that time Novgorod land has become a feudal boyar republic.

In the XIV century, Pskov spun off from Novgorod. But in both cities, the veche order lasted until they were annexed to the Moscow principality. One should not think that an idyll was realized in Novgorod, when the power belongs to the people. There can be no democracy (power of the people) in principle. Now there is not a single country in the world that could say that the power in it belongs to the people. Yes, the people take part in the elections. And that is where the power of the people ends. So it was then, in Novgorod. The real power was in the hands of the Novgorod elite. The cream of society created a council of gentlemen. It included former administrators (posadniks and thousand star osts of the Novgorod districts-ends), as well as current posadnik and thousand. The Novgorod archbishop headed the council of gentlemen. In his chambers, a council gathered when it was necessary to decide matters. At the meeting, ready-made decisions were made, which were developed by the council of gentlemen. Of course, there were cases when the veche did not agree with the decisions proposed by the Council of Masters. But there were not so many such cases.

Novgorod land (Republic)

The power of one person over another destroys, first of all, the one who rules.

Lev Tolstoy

The largest principality of the era of specific fragmentation of Russia was the Novgorod land, which was ruled in the form of a boyar republic. The principality prospered due to the development of trade and crafts, because Novgorod, the center of the earth, was located on the most important trade routes. Novgorod for a long time maintained its independence from Kyiv and managed to maintain its independence and originality.

Geographical position

The principality of Novgorod or Novgorod land (republic) was located in the northern part of Russia from the Arctic Ocean to the upper reaches of the Volga, and from the Baltic Sea to Ural mountains. The capital is Novgorod. Large cities: Novgorod, Pskov, Staraya Russa, Ladoga, Torzhok, Korela, Pskov and others.

Map of the Novgorod land in the 12th-13th centuries.

Specificity geographical location consisted in the almost complete absence of agriculture, since the soil was unsuitable for agriculture, as well as remoteness from the steppes, due to which Novgorod practically did not see the Mongol invasion. At the same time, the principality was constantly subjected to military invasions by the Swedes, Lithuanians and German knights. Thus, it was the Novgorod lands that were the shield of Russia, which guarded it from the North and West.

Geographical neighbors of the Novgorod Republic:

• Vladimir-Suzdal Principality
• Smolensk principality
• Polotsk principality
• Livonia
• Sweden

Economic features

The lack of good arable land has led to The Novgorod Republic actively developed crafts and trade. Among the crafts stood out: the production of iron, fishing, hunting, salt making and other crafts characteristic of northern regions. Trade was mainly carried out with neighboring regions: the Baltic states, German cities, Volga Bulgaria, Scandinavia.

Novgorod was the richest trading city in Russia. This was achieved by the advantageous geographical position, as well as the presence of trade relations with various regions, including with Byzantium and the Caucasus. Mostly Novgorodians traded in furs, honey, wax, iron products, pottery, weapons, and so on.

Political structure

The Novgorod feudal republic was formally ruled by a prince, but in reality the control system can be represented as an inverted triangle.

Veche and the boyars had real power. Suffice it to say that it was the veche who appointed the prince, and it could also expel him. In addition, at the citywide veche, which functioned within the framework of the boyar council (300 gold belts), the following were appointed:

• Prince - was invited along with the squad. His residence was outside the city. The main task is to protect Novgorod land from external threats.
• Posadnik is the head of the city administration. His tasks are to monitor the prince, to judge in cities, to manage cities. In submission had the headman of the streets of the city.
• Tysyatsky - the head of the city administration and the city militia (assistant posadnik). He was engaged in population management.
• The archbishop is the head of the Novgorod church. Tasks - storage of archives and treasury, responsibility for external relations, monitoring of trade, compilation and preservation of annals. The archbishop was approved by the Moscow metropolitan.

The prince could be called by the Novgorodians, but he could also be expelled, which happened often. A gift (contract) was concluded with the prince, in which the rights and obligations of the prince were indicated. The prince was considered only as a protector from foreign invaders, but had no influence on internal politics, as well as the appointment/removal of officials. Suffice it to say that during the 12th-13th centuries the princes in Novgorod changed 58 times! Therefore, we can safely say that the real power in this principality belonged to the boyars and merchants.

The political independence of the Novgorod Republic was formalized in 1132-1136 after the expulsion of Prince Vsevolod Mstislavich. After that, the Novgorod land liquidated the power of Kyiv and became in fact independent state with a republican form of government. Therefore, it is customary to say that the Novgorod state was a boyar republic with elements of a system of urban self-government.

Novgorod the Great

Novgorod - the capital of the Novgorod land, was founded in the 9th century as a result of the unification of the settlements of three tribes: Chud, Slavic and Meryan. The city was located along the Volkhov River and was divided by it, as it were, into 2 parts: eastern and western. The eastern part was called Trade, and the western - Sofia (in honor of the cathedral).

Novgorod was one of the largest and most beautiful cities not only in Russia, but also in Europe. The population of the city was quite educated compared to other cities. This was largely due to the fact that crafts and trade developed in the city, which required specific knowledge.

culture

Novgorod is one of largest cities of his time. It is no coincidence that he is often called Lord Veliky Novgorod. Sophia Cathedral was located in the center of the city. The pavements in the city were paved logs and were constantly updated. The city itself was surrounded by a moat and wooden walls. Wood and stone construction was practiced in the city. As a rule, churches and temples were built of stone, one of the functions of which was to store money.

Chronicles, fairy tales and epics were created in the Novgorod land. Much attention was paid to iconography. The brightest canvas of that era is the “Angel with Golden Hair”, which today can be seen in the Russian Museum in St. Petersburg.

Developed in the principality and architecture with fresco painting. The main direction of development is realism.

Main events

The main events in the principality in the 12th-13th centuries:

• 1136 - the expulsion of Prince Vsevolod Mstislavich, after which the Novgorodians independently elected their own prince.
• 1156 - independent election of the Novgorod Archbishop
• 1207-1209 - social movements in Novgorod against the boyars
• 1220-1230 reign of Yaroslav, son of Vsevolod Big Nest
• 1236-1251 - reign of Alexander Nevsky

Agriculture.

In the economy of the Novgorod Republic, agriculture played a paramount role - medieval society was agrarian. The most important source of knowledge about agriculture is archeology. Through a comprehensive study of grain, weed seeds and agricultural tools found during excavations, it was found that the level of development of agriculture in the Novgorod land was very high already in the 11th - 12th centuries.

Of the cultivated crops, the first place belonged to winter rye, as indicated by the predominance of seeds of winter weeds (the fact is that for each crop there are accompanying plants).

Wheat occupied the second place in Novgorod agriculture. Judging by the seeds of spring weeds, in the 12th century, mainly spring wheat was grown in the Novgorod land. To a much lesser extent than rye and wheat, barley and oats were sown.

The emergence of a winter rye culture is a sure sign of the formation of a gratuitous farming system. Under the conditions of old-arable soils, only a fallow field, which is the defining element of this system, can be the predecessor of a field with winter rye. One of its forms is a two-field - alternation of fallow and winter rye. Since it has been established that wheat was cultivated in the ancient Novgorod spring field, we can speak of the existence in the 12th century of a three-field crop rotation, the most common in the fallow system of agriculture. True, the slash and shift systems of agriculture, which had lost their former importance, as well as some transitional forms of the fallow system, for example, the motley field, when crops of grain and fallow alternated without any order, still continued to exist.

Agricultural machinery used by ancient Novgorod farmers corresponded to the level of development of agriculture at that time. During excavations in Novgorod, coulters were found, the design of which proves that they were used to cultivate cultivated old arable soils. In the cultural layer of the 13th century, a coulter of the so-called reinforced design was found, which differs from the usual one in a slightly smaller size, greater thickness and narrower working part. Similar coulters were intended for processing heavy soils and forest clearing. This means that the slash-and-burn system of agriculture had not yet disappeared by that time.

The land was cultivated with many-toothed, more often three-toothed plows. The appearance of such plows, obviously, was associated with the transition to arable farming using draft power. Bread was harvested with sickles.

Cattle breeding was closely connected with agriculture, which also played an important role in the economy of the Novgorodians. If agriculture was the main occupation of the rural population of the Novgorod Republic, then the townspeople could also engage in cattle breeding. This is evidenced by archaeological evidence. In all layers of ancient Novgorod, unearthed by excavations, a huge amount of animal bones was found. The wide distribution of cattle breeding in Novgorod is evidenced by the cultural layer, abundantly saturated with manure. Novgorodians bred large and small cattle, pigs, horses.

In addition to cattle breeding, both rural and urban population Novgorod land was engaged in vegetable growing and fruit growing. Gardens and orchards were probably the property of many city estates. In any case, the seeds of vegetables and fruits are not a rare find during excavations. Cucumber seeds were found in layers of the 13th century. It can also be assumed that cabbage was grown in ancient Novgorod - strikers were found in the layers of the 13th century - hand tools for planting cabbage. Under 1215, a turnip is mentioned in the annals, which, obviously, was very common in Novgorod. Dill seeds were found in the layers of the 12th century.

From fruit trees cherry was the most common. Cherry pits are very common during excavations, and the largest number is in the layers of the 12th century. An apple tree was also grown in Novgorod.

From berry bushes blackcurrants and raspberries were bred, the seeds of which are often found during excavations.

Despite the fact that the agriculture of Veliky Novgorod was, as far as conditions allowed, developed, it could not meet all the needs of the Novgorod population. As noted in the introduction, the scarcity of soils and the nature of the climate encouraged Novgorodians to actively engage in crafts and trade. In addition, by producing goods, Novgorod could sell them to the West without intermediaries. Thus, the prerequisites for the development of crafts in the Novgorod Republic were quite significant.

Chronicles call the following craft specialties: shield maker, tanner, silversmith, boilermaker, oponnik, carnation, blacksmith. Silversmiths were called artisan jewelers. Shield makers, carnation makers and boiler makers were masters of various specialties in blacksmithing. Oponniks were called artisans engaged in a certain type of weaving (later they became known as felters). Novgorodians achieved particular success in carpentry: they were known in Russia as skilled carpenters.

At the end of the Brief Edition of Russian Pravda is the so-called "lesson to the bridgemen". Mostniks, apparently, were called the builders of pavements or bridges. In the conditions of the damp Novgorod climate, the streets of the city without pavements would be impassable and impassable, especially in spring and autumn. Pavements were rebuilt approximately every 15 - 20 years, sometimes they were repaired, and thanks to this they served longer. Thus, bridge builders did not experience a lack of work, and this specialty appeared early (the oldest Novgorod bridges date back to the middle of the 10th century). Quite often it was necessary to build bridges, which constantly suffered from fires, even the Great Bridge across the Volkhov repeatedly burned. The great attention to the construction of pavements is evidenced by the so-called “Charter of Prince Yaroslav on bridges” dating back to the 60s of the XIII century, which refers to the obligation of Novgorodians to pave public areas of the city.

The handicraft professions mentioned in the annals do not exhaust all types of handicraft in ancient Novgorod, there were many more of them. Finding out what was the level of development of the craft, how diverse were the craft professions, it turned out to be possible only after systematic archaeological work began to be carried out in Novgorod.

The excavations of Novgorod, which began in 1932 and continue to this day, have shown that Novgorod was the largest craft center of its time. This conclusion was made on the basis of a study of the remains of craft workshops, unearthed by excavations, and the products of Novgorod artisans. Of course, not all craft workshops left behind traces that can reliably establish what their inhabitants were doing. It is possible to identify a craft workshop, first of all, by a large number of production residues, as well as by defective products, semi-finished products and tools. As a result of excavations carried out in different parts of the city, the remains of craft workshops were discovered. This indicates that the majority of the population of ancient Novgorod was engaged in various crafts.

The 12th century and the first half of the 13th century were the heyday of crafts in many ancient Russian cities. But a heavy burden Tatar yoke could not but affect the production spheres of Russia. Many cities were destroyed, thousands of people, including artisans, were killed or taken into captivity. As a result, the craft fell into decline. Novgorod the Great escaped ruin by escaping with tribute.

However, if in a number of cities destroyed by the Tatar-Mongol invasion, the period preceding it turned out to be the time of the highest flowering of medieval crafts (handicraft production in these cities could not reach the pre-Mongolian level at a later time), then this cannot be said about Novgorod. The process of development of productive forces in the Novgorod feudal republic was not interrupted, and in the second half of the 13th century they continued to develop along an ascending line. Novgorod craft, like Novgorod itself, reached its peak in the 14th century.

The high level of iron-working production contributed to the progress of many other crafts that could not develop successfully without the appropriate tools. Based on the study of various tools, it can be argued that in Novgorod, in addition to masters of various blacksmith specialties, locksmiths, turners, joiners, carpenters, woodworkers, wood carvers, bone cutters, leather workers, shoemakers, tailors, and jewelers worked. The study of a huge number of household items and other finished products, as well as semi-finished and defective products, helps to complete the list of specialties of Novgorod artisans. Attention is drawn to the wide variety of both finished products and tools.

Obviously, artisans in Novgorod specialized in the production of certain types of products. Moreover, sometimes the same master was engaged in various types of crafts. A shoemaker, for example, was also a tanner for a long time, which is confirmed by the joint finds of the remains of both industries. Only in the 12th - 13th centuries did shoemaking separate from the leather craft. The shieldman, in addition to knowledge of blacksmithing, had to have skills in processing copper, wood and leather, since shields were made from all these materials. But at the same time, a narrow specialization developed in blacksmithing (carnations, locksmiths, and others).

A variety of metal jewelry: bracelets, rings, brooches, pendants, beads - were made by highly skilled jewelers. Determined that most of jewelry found during excavations in Novgorod is a product of local production. This is confirmed by the finds of jewelry workshops, tools and semi-finished products. Master jewelers mastered a number of complex techniques: casting, free forging, drawing, rolling, embossing, embossing, engraving, soldering, gilding, champlevé enamel, heat treatment copper and bronze.

A huge amount of remnants of leather shoes and scraps of leather is evidence of the widespread use of shoemaking in Novgorod.

Pottery was also developed. The most frequent finds during excavations are numerous fragments of pottery.

Weaving was greatly developed in ancient Novgorod. During excavations in all layers, many scraps of various fabrics were found. Based on the study of textile samples, it was established that until the middle of the 13th century, the vertical loom served as the main production tool, but a more productive horizontal loom was also known in Novgorod, as evidenced by the finds of its details. Weavers made fabrics from ready-made yarn, linen and wool. Spinning in Novgorod was known from the earliest times (during the excavations, a lot of wooden spindles, flax, ruffled, whorls, spinning wheels were found).

Craftsmen engaged in woodworking also made up a very large group of Novgorod craftsmen. A huge variety of wooden products found during excavations (spoons, ladles, bowls, carved vessels, disks, dishes) indicates a high level of development of woodworking craft. In addition to turning tools, parts were found lathe. Often there are blanks of spoons, unfinished and damaged wooden ladles, bowls, tops.

Most often, combs, knife handles, various decorations, punctures, checkers, chess pieces, buttons and more. Processed pieces of bone, sawn pieces of horn, semi-finished combs were found in all Novgorod layers. The bone processing technique was high, as evidenced by the finds of both high-quality bone products themselves and the tools with which they were made.

A large group of finds in Novgorod are glass items, and, first of all, fragments of glass bracelets. Until recently, it was believed that the vast majority of bracelets were made in the workshops of ancient Kyiv, from where they were distributed throughout Russia. The existence of local production of bracelets in Novgorod, Smolensk, Polotsk and other cities was only assumed.

Using the data of archaeological excavations, the researchers found that Novgorod had its own bracelet production (in addition to the Kyiv import) and that it appeared in pre-Mongolian times. It was also found that initially Novgorod bracelets were made of lead-silica glass, which in its composition did not differ from the glass known in other cities, but antimony oxide was always present in it as a microimpurity. Appearance own production bracelets in Novgorod is associated with the resettlement of bracelet makers from Kyiv, who could not stand the competition in their homeland. The first bracelets appeared in Novgorod around the middle of the 12th century. In addition, bracelets made of potassium-lead-silica glass were found during excavations.

At the turn of the 12th and 13th centuries, there were already two glassmaking schools in Novgorod. Glassmakers of the first school brewed lead-silica glass and made green, yellow and brown bracelets from it. Masters of the second school brewed potassium-lead-silica glass and made from it bracelets of all colors known in Russia, while producing mainly turquoise, purple and blue bracelets, which their competitors, glassmakers of the first school, could not make. This indicates a well-known specialization in bracelet production.

Some handicraft professions have to be judged only by insignificant material finds. A number of specialties did not leave archaeological traces at all.

These include bakers, kalachniks, various specialties of tailors, which we can learn about from the scribe books of the 16th century and which obviously existed in an earlier time, since the need for their products existed even earlier.

Trade.

Trade played an important role in the economy of ancient Russian cities. Russian merchants traded with the Baltic and the Arab East, with Byzantium and the countries of Western Europe. Even in pre-Mongolian times, a number of large craft and trade centers were formed in Russia, of which Novgorod stood out in the north. Handicraft products had to find markets, and not only in the city itself, but also in nearby districts, and in more remote places. If at first the artisan was at the same time a merchant, then later a special class of merchants emerged. Merchants specialized in trade, so the emergence of this class contributed to the development of external and internal trade relations.

Trade relations within Novgorod land undoubtedly existed for a long time, and they arose earlier than foreign trade relations, but it is rather difficult to trace them due to the extreme scarcity of chronicles. The village was of little interest to the urban chronicler, and he mentioned other cities only in connection with some important political events. Archaeologically, these links are also almost impossible to trace, since it is impossible to distinguish between many locally produced items made in different cities Novgorod land, for example, with iron knives made in Novgorod, Pskov or Russa.

One can only distinguish objects made by rural artisans from those of highly skilled urban craftsmen.

In Novgorod, as in the ancient Russian village in general, subsistence farming dominated. The basic needs of the rural population were satisfied within their own household, and they received the things necessary for household and everyday life, as a rule, from rural artisans. Only high-quality steel tools, weapons, some types of jewelry, jewelry had to be purchased in the city. Exchange in rural areas most likely took place in simplest form when a blacksmith (or other rural artisan) received meat, grain, fish, etc. for his products.

From the village, agricultural products came to the city for sale, which were sold for money. Purchase and sale took place "" at the market," the city market, which was in every city. It was here that prices for goods were usually set, fluctuating depending on various circumstances, mainly depending on harvests and crop failures. The chronicle repeatedly points to a rise in prices, mainly for bread, in famine years.

Sometimes frosts or rains, which caused another crop failure, did not cover the entire territory of the Novgorod land. In such cases, Novgorod received bread from Torzhok or from other regions of the Novgorod Republic. The political situation often influenced the supply of bread. So, in the lean year of 1215, Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich sat in Torzhok, who was in conflict with the Novgorodians, who "do not let no cart into the city." The price of bread at the Novgorod market, of course, went up.

During the famine years, bread was so expensive that many were simply not able to buy it. Part of the population, fleeing from hunger, left Novgorod for other lands.

Residents of Novgorod bred cattle, which were also traded.

Numerous products of highly skilled urban blacksmiths were also sold at the auction. Knives, keys, locks, axes were in constant demand among the population. Thus, the activities of Novgorod artisans were primarily aimed at meeting the needs of the inhabitants of Novgorod itself and the surrounding regions.

Foreign trade relations of Novgorod were extensive. They can be judged by both archaeological and written sources. Several documents characterizing the trade relations of Novgorod with the West have survived to this day. One of these documents is the treaty charter of Novgorod with the Goth coast, Lübeck and German cities (1139 - 1199).

Novgorod's main partners in western trade in the 12th-13th centuries were Gotland, Denmark and Lubeck.

In the middle of the XII century. in Novgorod there already existed a trading yard of Gotland merchants with the church of St. Olaf.

Russian merchants in Gotland also had their own courtyards and a church, which was apparently built by the Novgorodians. This is evidenced by the frescoes of the Gotland church, which are almost completely similar to the frescoes of one of the Novgorod churches.

The city of Visby on Gotland in the 12th century was the center of trading activity throughout the Baltic basin. He was nominally dependent on Sweden. In 1170 - 1270, when a colony of German merchants, immigrants from Westphalia, firmly settled there, Visby reached its peak.

And although the merchants of Gotland in this period were also Germans, in order to distinguish them from the German merchants from the mainland German cities, the Russians called them Goths or Varangians. The Germans mentioned in the annals under 1188 (this is their first mention) should be considered Swedes: since we are talking about Swedish cities, their inhabitants must obviously be Swedes. Usually the Swedes were called "Svei".

In the late 80s of the XII century, Novgorod established trade relations with Lubeck. Having appeared in Novgorod, the German merchants also created their own courtyard and built the church of St. Peter. In 1187 Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa granted Lübeck a charter granting Russians and other merchants the right to trade duty-free in Lübeck. This suggests the existence of a permanent Russian (most likely, Novgorod) colony in Lübeck. Trade with Lübeck and German cities developed very intensively and at the end of the 13th century. acquired paramount importance, the Danes and Goths were pushed into the background.

The composition of imports from Western Europe to Novgorod is not easy to establish. We don't know much about written sources. Of the archaeological materials, only amber can be named with certainty. Amber products in Novgorod are very numerous (more than 2000 items). Amber was brought to Novgorod most often in raw form and processed here by local artisans. Smallest number amber finds are collected in the layers of the XIII century.

Moreover, amber was imported to Novgorod not only from the Baltic states, but also from the Dnieper region, where there were also its deposits. A sharp reduction in the import of amber in the XIII century. due to the fact that as a result of the Tatar-Mongol invasion, the delivery of goods to Novgorod along the Dnieper route was stopped. Amber was also not imported from the Baltic at that time, since throughout the 13th century Novgorod was in hostile relations with the Teutonic Order. In the early 40s, there was a war between them, during which trade relations with the Baltic states were completely stopped.

Among the items imported from the West are jewelry (however, very few).

Certain types of fabrics were also imported to Novgorod, primarily cloth. It has been established that in the 12th century, high-quality English fabrics prevailed in Novgorod imports. However, in the 13th century, Flemish fabrics also appeared, which later completely captured the local market. In addition to cloth, expensive Byzantine fabrics, pavoloka, were also imported to Novgorod. Under 1228, pavoloka is mentioned among the gifts that the Novgorod prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich brought to Pskov.

In the XII-XIII centuries, jewelry craft reached a high level in Novgorod. In a number of workshops, a large amount of copper was found in the form of finished products, semi-finished products, production waste, ingots and just pieces of shallow. It is known that copper was not mined on the territory of the Novgorod land. Therefore, it had to be imported from abroad. Metal in the form of raw materials was supplied to Novgorod by Gothic and German (Lübeck) merchants, independent of the Teutonic Order. The trade in non-ferrous metals was not hindered by the hostile relations between Novgorod and the Order.

In the first half of the XIII century. in the north of Europe, in the Baltic region, salt trade began to develop. Novgorod participated in it as a buyer. Of all imported goods, salt was the subject of the most massive consumption. It was not only a necessary food product, but also in in large numbers used in the leather business.

Foreign trade of the Novgorod Republic was not limited western direction, it was carried out with southern countries. Archaeological data suggest that in the XII - XIII centuries. Novgorod was connected by trade relations with North Caucasus, Central Asia, Iran and, perhaps, with Byzantium. Findings of clearly southern origin testify to this. Walnut shells were found during excavations in different layers of different times. Largest number finds falls on the XII century, and starting from the 40s of the XIII century. walnut shells are rare. Findings of almonds are rare. Both walnuts and almonds could be imported from Byzantium, the Crimea or the Caucasus.

Products from boxwood are imported. Boxwood - southern tree, it still grows on Black Sea coast Caucasus. It was imported to Novgorod, obviously, by the Volga or Dnieper route. Boxwood combs, which existed in Novgorod for five centuries, are found during excavations, most often in the layers of the 13th century. and very rarely - in the layers of the XII century. At this time, the struggle between the Russian principalities and the Polovtsy intensified, which made it difficult for merchants to move along the Volga trade route. Boxwood was brought to Novgorod in its raw form, and combs were made by local artisans. This conclusion was made on the basis of the absolute similarity of boxwood combs in shape and size with some types of bone combs of local Novgorod production. In addition, the technique for cutting teeth on many wooden and bone combs is absolutely identical. Not only combs were made from boxwood. In the layers of the XIII century. a small round boxwood box was found, in which the inner cavity has not yet been carved. Obviously, this is a semi-finished product, for some reason not processed to the end, thrown away or lost by the Novgorod master. The frequent finds of boxwood combs in Novgorod testify that they were ordinary household items that any resident of the city could buy, and not luxury items available only to wealthy people.

In general, it was luxury items that were most often imported from distant countries to Russia. In the pre-Mongolian layers of ancient Novgorod, fragments of expensive imported glazed utensils were found. It was in use only among the wealthy circles of Novgorod society.

At the end of the XII - beginning of the XIII century. In the 18th century, white-clay faience dishes with white opaque glaze and painting with cobalt (blue) and manganese (lilac-violet) were brought to Novgorod. These were, as a rule, bowls and dishes decorated with plot ornament combined with geometry. At the bottom with inside birds were often depicted, and the walls near the rim were decorated with oblique wide parallel lines. In the layer of the second half of the XII century. part of a chandelier dish with an Arabic inscription was found.

Iran was the center for the production of glazed faience ceramics with chandelier and cobalt painting. The Novgorod specimens are also, undoubtedly, of Iranian origin. The latest finds of such dishes date back to 1240. Since the middle of the 13th century, only Golden Horde glazed ceramics have been found. This suggests that since the time of the Tatar-Mongol invasion, the import of Iranian dishes to Russia has ceased, since the state of the Tatar-Mongols formed on the Volga - the Golden Horde - began to control the Volga trade route, the value of which fell.

One of the articles of Russian imports has long been various spices, which were in great demand. Wine was also imported from the West and the East. Findings of Greek sponges testify to connections with the Mediterranean.

Russia exported its goods to various countries. Unfortunately, we have almost no sources that testify to the composition of Novgorod's exports. Chronicles sometimes tell of the adventures of Novgorod merchants returning “from across the sea”. It is obvious that they did not go for overseas goods empty-handed, but also brought their own goods, which they traded “overseas”.

What were these goods? First of all, fur. Novgorod land has long been famous for its hunting grounds. Furs were highly valued abroad, both in the East and in Europe, and were the most important article of Russian export. According to Arab writers, Russia supplied the furs of beavers, black foxes, sables, squirrels and other fur-bearing animals.

Furs came to Novgorod in the form of tribute, which the Novgorodians took from the northern tribes subject to them.

Among the goods exported from Novgorod abroad is wax. Candles were made from it, the demand for which was great in Christian countries. In addition, wax was widely used in crafts, in particular in jewelry (casting on a wax model). Wax began to be exported back in pre-Mongolian times - a corporation of wax merchants existed in Novgorod, apparently already in the 12th century. In the Novgorod land itself, beekeeping was less developed than in North-Eastern Russia, so Novgorod, although it traded in its own wax, primarily played the role of a transit center in the trade in wax imported from neighboring principalities.