Land tenure and economy of the boyars. Feudal system of Kievan Rus XI century

Factual material on the history of Ancient Rus testifies to the slave-owning nature of ancient Russian society both during the adoption of Christianity and after baptism, and there was a tendency towards an increase in the labor of slaves on the farms of slave owners. Besides the household, slaves were used in agriculture and handicrafts. Slaves in Ancient Russia were considered as a thing, they were bought and sold, fugitive slaves were looked for. Slaves were exploited in the princely household, in the households of the boyars and church ministers. The slaves hated their masters, cursed them ("... the slaves unanimously rekut: God forbid that wife be sick with haughty dryness that she does not protect us! God grant her that she can see over her children what she has done for us!" 59). Slaves experienced all kinds of oppression on the farms of the ancient Russian slave owners. In the household of prince Izyaslav, slaves "are often the same beems from the preceptor" 60. Unable to withstand the oppression, according to the Novgorod Chronicle, in 1068 the slaves strangled their master, the Novgorod bishop Stephen 61. The Kiev-Pechersk Patericon (XI-XIII centuries) contains repeated mentions of church and monastery slaves, of the slaves of other masters. Therefore, there is no basis for claims that Christianity hindered the development of slavery after the fall of Rome. Slavery existed in Europe not only after the fall of Rome, but also many centuries later. There is information that in the XII century Drutsk was the center of the slave trade on the territory of Belarus 62. As a way of working in the economy, slavery existed in Russia even in the 17th and early 18th centuries. 63. Slavery as a way of life existed for a long time and in medieval Europe... In the XV century. there was a market for the sale of slaves in the Balearic Islands 64. Biblical teaching justified slavery in 19th-century capitalist America.

In ancient Russia, after the construction of the first church in Kiev under Vladimir, a tithe was established in favor of its ministers, then it was extended to other church organizations. The church received the right to court for family, civil affairs, on cases of sacrilege, on inheritance, that is, the church resolved issues of social order, helped the prince in governing the state.

In the middle of the XI century. the Kiev-Pechersky Monastery was formed, and then monasteries appeared in other cities of Russia. They became the economic stronghold of the church, keepers of church traditions, and training centers for Christian personnel. The path to the rank of bishop went through the monastic rank. Monasteries became large landowners, on whose farms the labor of slaves was exploited. The first abbot of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery came from the family of a Kursk slave owner 65.

The constructions of V.O. Klyuchevsky, who discovered one paradoxical phenomenon in economics medieval Russia... He wrote: “The history of our society would have changed significantly if during eight or nine centuries the national economy had not been a historical contradiction to the nature of the country” Froyanov I.Ya. Kievan Rus. Essays on Russian historiography. L., 1990.S. 30 ..

The meeting of the Yaroslavichs - Izyaslav, Svyatoslav, Vsevolod and their husbands - at which issues related to the princely estate were considered, left us with material for judging the organization of the Old Russian estate. The meeting apparently took place after the death of Yaroslav, i.e. shortly after 1054 Grekov B.D. Kievan Rus. M., 1953.S. 143 ..

We can only speculate about the reasons for this meeting. The results are obvious. This is the so-called "Pravda" of the Yaroslavichs.

“One of the goals of the meeting can be traced in the Expanded Truth. It consisted in revising the punishment system and finally abolishing the dying revenge. This system has indeed been overhauled and vengeance has been officially eliminated. The rest, everything that was under Yaroslav, remained intact under his children. ”Ibid. S. 143-144 ..

Princes and boyars owned land property in the 10th century (undoubtedly even earlier). Consequently, Yaroslav found both in Novgorod and Kiev the princely estates already existing and, of course, somehow organized. Undoubtedly, for the management of the economy in the prince's estate there had to be people: the administration and direct producers of various specialties.

In the XI-XII centuries, according to S. V. Yushkov, “the administrative and economic center of the feudal seigneur - the village” arose and took shape. Social and political system and the law of the Kiev state. M., 1959.S. 130 ..

Since it is obvious that the patrimonial organization was formed over a fairly long time, there is no doubt that the data of the beginning of the 11th century may well characterize the structure of those princely estates of the 10th century, about which we have information in the annals, as well as those boyar estates, the presence of which is indicated by treaties with the Greeks of the beginning and the first half of the same, the 10th century, and therefore the 9th century.

However, Grekov restores the main features of the old Russian patrimony exclusively on the basis of the materials of Pravda by the Yaroslavichs.

The center of this patrimony is the "prince dvor" Kratkaya Russkaya Pravda. Article 38., Where, according to Grekov, one thinks, first of all, of the mansions in which the prince lives at times, the houses of his servants high rank, premises for secondary servants, dwellings of smerds, rank-and-file and serfs, various outbuildings - stables, cattle and poultry yards, a hunting house, etc. Grekov B.D. Kievan Rus. M., 1953. S. 144 .. B.A. Rybakov agrees with the characteristics of the fiefdom given by B.D. Grekov. Rybakov, even, in his work "Kievan Rus and the Russian principalities of the XII-XIII centuries." Rybakov B.A. Kievan Rus and Russian principalities of the XII - XIII centuries. M., 1982. quotes a fairly large excerpt from the work of Grekov Ibid. S. 422-423 ..

At the head of the prince's patrimony is the representative of the prince - the boyar of the fires. He is responsible for the entire course of the life of the patrimony and, in particular, the safety of the prince's patrimonial property. Under him, as Grekov believes, "is the collector of all kinds of income due to the prince -" the prince's driveway. " The fire-dweller has tiuns at his disposal. In Pravda, the "old groom" is also named, i.e. head of the princely stables and princely herds of horses "Grekov B.D. Kievan Rus. M., 1953. S. 145 .. All these persons are guarded by a double 80-hryvnia vira, which speaks of their privileged position. This is the highest administrative apparatus of the princely estate. Then there are the princely elders - "rural" and "ratayny". Their life is estimated at only 12 hryvnia. They are undoubtedly addicted people. We cannot say for sure how their functions are distributed, but their roles are largely determined by the content of the terms "rural" and "military". BD Grekov believed that “the village headman, apparently, performed the functions of monitoring the population of the patrimony, was the executor of orders of its higher administrative apparatus. As for the warden's headman, since a warden is a plowman, and a warden is a plowed field, we inevitably assume that the duty of a warden’s head is to oversee the arable land; and since we are talking about the prince's elder and the princely estate, it is natural to assume here the presence of princely arable land, i.e. princely lordly plowing Grekov B.D. Kievan Rus. M., 1953. S. 145 .. This assumption is confirmed by the fact that the same "Pravda" calls a boundary and assigns an exorbitantly high fine for its violation, following the killing of a person on the penalty grid: offense 12 hryvnia ". Such a high fine can hardly apply to a peasant border (for stealing a prince's horse - 3 hryvnia, for a "princely side" - 3 hryvnia). Then we have grounds to recognize the presence of princely arable land in the princely estate, BD Grekov adhered to the same opinion.

These observations are confirmed by the details that are scattered in different parts"Pravda" Yaroslavichi. Here they are called - a crate, a barn and a full, common in large agriculture, assortment of working, dairy and beef cattle and poultry common in such farms. There are: princely horses and stinks (peasant), oxen, cows, goats, sheep, pigs, chickens, pigeons, ducks, geese, swans and cranes.

According to B.D. Grekov, are not named, but they clearly mean meadows on which cattle, princely and peasant horses graze in the same place. S. 145 ..

Rybakov and Grekov are confident that the boards mentioned in the Russian Pravda are princely. Grekov writes: “Next to the agricultural sector, we also see here the boards, which are called“ princely ones ”:“ And in the prince, you have 3 hryvnias, you can burn it, you like it. ”Ibid. S. 146 ..

Some scientists saw the main branch of the economy of Kievan Rus in agriculture, and not in hunting and beekeeping. These scientists included M.S.Grushevsky, whose works contain numerous facts confirming the primacy of agriculture in the economic life of ancient Russian society. MN Pokrovsky says that the Slavs were farmers already before the division of Froyanov I.Ya. Kievan Rus. Essays on Russian historiography. L., 1990.S. 31 ..

ON THE. Rozhkov points out the important role of the mining industry in Russian national economy... He summarizes the facts related to hunting, beekeeping, fishing, salt production, draws attention to the growth in the XI and XII centuries. cattle breeding, and P.I. Lyashchenko pointed out that the basis of production of that time, especially in the southern regions of Russia, was agriculture. Along with it, hunting, hunting, fishing and beekeeping occupied a prominent place. They played an important role in the economy of more northern forest regions Ibid. S. 32 ..

Rybakov comes to the conclusion that the prince from time to time visits his fiefdom B.A. Rybakov. The first centuries of Russian history. M., 1964. S. 40 .. "This is evidenced by the presence of hunting dogs and accustomed to hunting hawks and falcons:" And if you steal something, if you like a hawk, if you like a falcon, then for an insult 3 hryvnia "Rybakov BA Kievan Rus and Russian principalities of the XII - XIII centuries. M., 1982. S. 423 .. Here, however, it is not said that these dog, falcon and hawk - belongings of the princely hunt, but we have the right to make such a conclusion, firstly, because in Pravda Yaroslavich basically we are talking about the princely estates, and secondly, because otherwise the height of the fine for stealing a dog, a hawk and a falcon becomes incomprehensible. In fact, this fine is equal to the fine for stealing a horse, with which a smerd works in the princely estate.

The prince in his fiefdom is portrayed by Pravda as a landowner-feudal lord who has certain feudal rights in relation to the population dependent on him as a patrimony. The entire administration of the patrimony and all of its population, dependent on the patrimony, is subject to his patrimonial jurisdiction. They can be judged only with the permission and knowledge of the landowner.

It is impossible not to note another very important circumstance concerning the prince's patrimony. It does not exist in an airless space, is not isolated from the outside world, but is in the world, directly and intimately connected with the rural community.

B.D. Grekov emphasizes the attitude of a large estate to the rural community Grekov B.D. A brief outline of the history of the Russian peasantry. M., 1958. P. 35 .. A large patrimony is not only locally connected with the rural community; the princely patrimonial administration has something to do with other communities that are not directly in contact with the patrimony. A fire-dweller can be fishing not only in the line that is associated with the patrimony, but also in other lines. Responsible for the murder of a fire-dweller - and, of course, not only him alone, but all representatives of the patrimonial administration - is the worm on the territory of which the body of the murdered was found (in case the killer is not found). This circumstance may indicate that fires, driveways, tiuns have a radius of action that goes beyond the boundaries of the fiefdom; this circumstance may indicate that representatives of the princely patrimonial administration have not only economic, but also political functions B.D. Grekov. Kievan Rus. M., 1953.S. 147 ..

The location of the princely estate surrounded by peasant worlds explains a lot to us in the content of Pravda by the Yaroslavichs. First, Pravda gave the old customs the form of a written law. Secondly, she emphasized the role of the state, i.e. superstructure necessary for the feudal lords to strengthen their positions.

The question of the mutual relations of the patrimonial estate and the rural community concerned the interests of not only the princes, but all the large landowners, and above all, of course, the boyars, as well as the Froyanov I.Ya. Kievan Rus. Essays on socio-economic history. L., 1980.S. 110 ..

It was not for nothing that the boyars accepted this law for leadership and implementation: the interests of all feudal lords-patrimonials were basically the same.

In the Extensive Pravda, it is no coincidence that in the margins against the list of the personnel of the princely estate (significantly expanded against Pravda by the Yaroslavichs), obviously, some lawyer wrote: imposed for the murder of the princely patrimonial servants, apply to the boyar estates.

However, B.A. Rybakov believes that the princely court was much richer than the boyar court and “if the princes greedily and unwisely exhausted the peasantry, then the boyars were more careful. First, the boyars did not have such military force, which would allow them to cross the line separating the usual extortion from the ruin of the peasants, and secondly, it was not only dangerous, but also not profitable for the boyars to ruin the economy of their fiefdom, which they were going to pass on to their children and grandchildren. ”Rybakov BA Kievan Rus and Russian principalities of the XII - XIII centuries. M., 1982.S. 428 ..

In the opinion of Grekov and Rybakov, the principally new Spatial Pravda gives almost nothing. The patrimony, the one depicted in Pravda by the Yaroslavichs, continues to live its long-established life in the 12th century. "Pravda" Extensive, strictly speaking, only clarifies and expands the information already at our disposal.

First of all, this "Pravda" increases the list of servants of the princely and boyar estates. In Art. 11-17 are called youths, groom, cook tiun fire and equestrian, rural tiun and warrior, ryadovich, artisan and artisan, smerd, servant, slave, breadwinner and nurse.

Grekov tries to add a system to this list, and says that it is possible to divide all this dependent population of the estate “into two main groups: 1) servants and 2) direct producers, the working population of the estate in the narrow sense of the word. The servants should include: youths, grooms, tiuns, breadwinners; to the working staff - ordinary men, smerds, slaves and artisans "Grekov B.D. Kievan Rus. M., 1953.S. 148 ..

Extensive "Pravda" pays Special attention purchase "role", i.e. agricultural worker. The articles mention not only his duties (guarding livestock or plowing the land), but also agricultural implements, or rather: a plow and a harrow, which testifies to the level of development of tools of labor.

Thus, the entire patrimony is called "home" in Pravda. In the center there is always a master's "yard" (in the prince's estate - "prince's yard"). The yard consists of the owner's dwelling house and all kinds of outbuildings. In the yard, the richer he is, the more various servants there are. Outside the courtyard are the huts of peasants-smerds, ranch-dwellers, and serfs. And the fields that are cultivated partly for the owner, partly for themselves by smerds, ryadovich-purchases and lackeys, stretch out longer.

The owner has a significant apparatus of patrimonial administration, the direct participation of the owner himself in the affairs of the patrimony is noticeable. Obviously, the master's economy is not very large. The products obtained on the farm are enough for the maintenance of the noble family and his servants. B.D. Grekov is convinced that “the gentlemen did not have any special incentives to expand their own patrimonial economy, since agricultural products had not yet become any noticeable commodity. Bread, at least in the market, has not yet played any significant role; the domestic market is still weak enough to compel landowners to expand their agricultural activities. ”Ibid. S. 149 ..

The picture of the organization of the patrimony will be incomplete if we do not note in it the presence of handicraft and sometimes wage labor. It is clear that the needs of the landowner went beyond agriculture; finally, agriculture itself needed the help of an artisan: neither the estate owner nor the peasant could do without a blacksmith. The landowner dressed, put on shoes, furnished his dwelling with the necessary utensils, sometimes even very exquisite, and did not do without the services of a tailor, shoemaker, carpenter, silversmith. Most often, the artisan was his own, from his own slaves. But not always. In some cases I had to turn to a freelance artisan who worked to order. For this, obviously, it was necessary to go to the city. Written monuments speak about this, albeit very sparingly. The oldest "Russkaya Pravda" knows the "bribe" to the healer, "Pravda" Yaroslavich calls payment "from the case" to carpenters ("bridge workers") for repairing the bridge.

INTRODUCTION

In the IX century. in the territory Eastern Slavs a single large Old Russian state was formed with its center in the city of Kiev. The formation of this state was facilitated by the development of crafts, land cultivation techniques, trade relations, which strengthened the ties between the existing state formations of individual Slavic tribes.

The moment of occurrence Old Russian state associated with the development of political formations into the early feudal state of the Eastern Slavs - the Old Russian Kiev state.

Old Russian state, formed in the IX century. It occupied a vast territory with a diverse population in terms of economic, ethnic and cultural characteristics.

Foreign trade, complicated political relations with Byzantium, the need to fight against the attacking tribes.

An important factor that stimulated the unification was a certain ethnic community of the Slavs, the similarity of pagan beliefs. However, the main thing was the fact that the Kiev prince, who had a lot of lands, slaves, dependent peasants, and therefore a strong squad, could protect those in power in the face of an acute class struggle, increasing class contradictions.

Ancient Russia was of great importance in the development of the three fraternal peoples (Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian), as it was the first stage in the history of the statehood of their common ancestor - the ancient Russian nationality.

1 BACKGROUND OF THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE STATE IN ORIENTAL SLAVS

The formation of the Kiev state is a long, complex process of uniting various tribes of the Eastern Slavs. The first written evidence of the Eastern Slavs dates back to the turn of the 1st millennium A.D. The Slavs are reported by Greek, Roman, Arab, Syrian historians. The Slavs then represented a single ethnic community. They lived east of the Germans: from the Elbe and Oder to the Donets, Oka and Upper Volga; from the Baltic Sea to the middle and lower reaches of the Danube and the Black Sea. Their settlement in the VI-VIII centuries. It went in three directions: south to the Balkan Peninsula, east and north along the East European Plain, and west to the middle Danube and the interfluve of the Oder and Elbe. The result was the division of the Slavs into three branches: southern, eastern and western.

In the VI century. there is a separation from a single Slavic community of the branch of the Eastern Slavs, on the basis of which the Old Russian nationality is formed. The Eastern Slavs lived in tribal unions, of which there were about a dozen and a half. Each union included separate tribes, of which there were 100-200 on the Russian plain. Each individual tribe, in turn, was divided into many clans.

Economic, social, internal and foreign policy factors contributed to the emergence as early as the 6th - early 7th century. political unions of Slavic tribes. They continued to successfully defend against enemies and defeat opponents. Talented and successful princes became the head of such unions.

The economic and social environment in which the East Slavic institutions of the prince and princely power were implemented, in the 7th - 9th centuries. changed significantly. Eastern tribes settled during this period from the Carpathian region, the Dnieper of the Southern Bug to the middle of the Oka, the upper reaches of the Seversky Donets and Don, from the Pskov-Ilmen inter-lake area to the middle Dnieper region. The tribes of Dulebs, Croats, Tivertsy, Ulitsy, Glades, Drevlyans, Dregovichi, Northerners, Radimichi, Krivichi and Slovenes settled on vast territories, separated by large tracts and swamps. Their settlements were located in nests with a distance between them from 30-40 to 100 km. And more. Such a system of settlement of the East Slavic tribes may indicate that they were unions of small tribes. This indicates evolutionary changes at this time in the structure of tribal governance: in vast territories, the people's assembly, as the main body of self-government, lost the ability to quickly gather tribesmen, which objectively led to an increase in the importance of the council of elders, consisting of the tribal nobility, as well as the prince, their collective and individual decisions ...

At the same time, material processes led to structural changes in East Slavic society. In the traditional for Indo-European and, in particular, Slavic peoples, arable agriculture, iron has become widely used for the manufacture of agricultural tools. In the X-XI centuries. A steam two- and three-field farming system was practiced with a crop rotation of spring and winter crops, with garden, legumes and industrial crops. Livestock raising, hunting, fishing and bee-keeping were still widespread. Iron production, metallurgy, blacksmithing and jewelry business, and ceramic production developed. This level of development of production made the small family, which previously existed autonomously as part of a large patriarchal family, economically independent. A small family could provide itself financially. Therefore, large patriarchal families with collective production and distribution of the product, with collective ownership within tribal landed property and with collective legal responsibility are disintegrating. The main types of family organization have become the small family and the undivided family, father and brother, that arose on its basis. As a result, a patriarchal large-family community is transformed into a neighboring community with individual, in rare cases, small-family legal responsibility.

As a result of these structural changes in society, the development of neighboring relations, the social division of labor in the IX-X centuries. among the eastern Slavs, trade develops, a monetary system is formed, cities appear - trade, handicraft, military-political and ideological centers - fortified and open settlements.

The cities had a significant impact on the rural districts. Gradually, elements of urban culture, to one degree or another, penetrated the environment of the agricultural population.

Cities were not only creators, carriers and distributors of a single ancient Russian culture, but also had an active impact on many aspects of the spiritual life of the Eastern Slavs. Cities became centers of education and literacy. In large cities, the all-Russian chronicle was kept, letters, acts and statutes were drawn up, business correspondence was conducted. The letters on birch bark, found already in eight ancient Russian cities, as well as bronze, iron and bone writings, found in many dozen urban settlements, speak of a relatively widespread prevalence of literacy in Russia. All this could not but contribute to the cultural and linguistic rapprochement of the Slavic population of the East European Plain.

In the formation of the ancient Russian state, the spread of the Christian religion among the Slavic population of Eastern Europe was of great importance. She directly or indirectly contributed to the unity of the culture and language of the Eastern Slavs. The Church made a certain contribution to the development of education, to the creation of literary values ​​and works of art and architecture. The role of Christianity in introducing Russia to the cultural riches of Byzantium and the entire Christian world is also unquestionable. Christian ideology, art and educational activities proved to be powerful unifying incentives for the Eastern Slavs. Monasteries, along with cities, were all-Russian centers of education and culture.

It should be emphasized that the named integration phenomena acted in a complex manner, in the closest interaction. Thus, the state power contributed to the development of cities and the construction of fortresses, and they, in turn, became active centers of strengthening statehood and the unity of the Eastern Slavs. The state and the cities were interested in the development of domestic and international trade, and together they eroded the elements of regional isolation dating back to the time of the development of the East European Plain by the Slavs. The spread of the Christian religion led to the consolidation state power, and together they became a more powerful unifying force.

2 PUBLIC STRUCTURE OF ANCIENT RUSSIA

The question of the nature of the social system in Ancient Russia remains one of the most controversial and confusing in domestic science.

Some historians believe that slaveholding relations developed there (V.I. Goremykina), others define this society as a transitional and pre-class society, in which there were several socio-economic structures, but the communal one prevailed (I.Ya. Froyanov).

Most agree that within the framework of Ancient Rus, there was a process of emergence of an early feudal society, which was still significantly different from mature feudalism.

So, in the early feudal society of Kievan Rus, the following social groups (strata) can be distinguished.

Slaves and servants. Not becoming the predominant mode of production, slavery in Russia became widespread only as a social order. There were reasons for that. The maintenance of a slave was too expensive; in the long Russian winter there was nothing to keep him busy. Climatic conditions unfavorable for the use of slave labor supplemented the decline of slavery in neighboring countries: there was no clear example for the borrowing and distribution of this institution in the Slavic lands. Its spread was also hindered by developed communal ties, the possibility of obtaining crops by the forces of free communes. Slavery in Russia was of a patriarchal nature.

The terms "slave", "servant", "servant" were used to denote a slave state. However, some historians believe that these terms are of different origins: servants and servants were from tribesmen, slaves were from prisoners of war. In addition to captivity, the source of slavery was the birth of a slave. Criminals and bankrupts also fell into slavery. A dependent person (purchase) could become a slave in the event of an unsuccessful escape from his master or theft. There were cases of self-sale into slavery.

The legal status of a slave has changed over time. Since the XI century. in Russian law, the principle began to operate according to which a slave could not be a subject of legal relations. He was the owner of the master, he did not have his own property. The owner was responsible for the criminal offenses committed by the slave, the material damage inflicted on him. For the murder of a slave, he received a compensation of 5-6 hryvnia.

Under the influence of Christianity, the plight of slaves was alleviated. Applied to the XI century. we can already talk about the protection of the personality of a slave for pragmatic reasons. A stratum of slaves appeared, who were promoted to the administrative service of the master and who had the right to command other categories of the dependent population on his behalf. The Church is stepping up the persecution for the murder of slaves. Slavery is being reborn into one of the forms of severe personal dependence, with the recognition of certain rights for slaves, primarily the right to life and property.

Feudal lords. The class of feudal lords took shape gradually. It included princes, boyars, warriors, local nobility, mayors, tiuns, etc. The feudal lords exercised civil administration and were responsible for the military organization. They were interconnected by a system of vassalage, collected tribute and court fines from the population, were in a privileged position compared to the rest of the population. Russkaya Pravda, for example, establishes a double virus of 80 hryvnia for the murder of princely servants, tiuns, grooms, firemen. But she is silent about the boyars and vigilantes themselves, from which we can conclude that the death penalty was most likely relied on for encroachment on their lives. The dominant class of ancient Russian society was called "boyars". Along with this, the most common name, there are others in the sources: the best people, deliberate men, princely men, firemen. There were two ways of forming the boyar class. First, the tribal nobility, which stood out in the process of the disintegration of the tribal system, became boyars. These were deliberate men, city elders, zemstvo boyars, speaking on behalf of their tribe. Together with the prince, they participated in military campaigns, enriching themselves at the expense of captured trophies. The second category was made up of the princely boyars - the Ognischane boyars, the princely men. As the power of the Kiev princes strengthened, the Zemstvo boyars received immunity letters from the hands of the prince, which assigned them as hereditary property (estates) the lands they had. In the future, the layer of zemstvo boyars completely merged with the princely boyars, the differences between them disappear.

The princely boyars, who were in the second category of boyars, were in the past the prince's vigilantes, and during military campaigns they became the core of the Russian army. Constantly being with the prince, the warriors carried out various tasks for governing the state, were the prince's advisers on internal and foreign policy... For this service to the prince, the warriors were given land and became boyars.

Clergy. Its legal position as a privileged social group took shape with the adoption of Christianity, which became an important factor in strengthening the national statehood in initial stage its development. The Christian denomination, which replaced paganism, brought with it the doctrine of the divine origin of the supreme state power, a humble attitude towards it. After the adoption of Christianity in 988, the princes began to widely practice the distribution of land to the highest representatives of the church hierarchy and monasteries. In the hands of the metropolitans and bishops was concentrated a large number of villages and cities, they had their own servants, servants and even an army. The church received the right to collect tithes for its maintenance. Over time, she was removed from the princely jurisdiction and began to judge her hierarchs herself, as well as to administer judgment over everyone who lived on her lands.

At the head of the church organization was the metropolitan, who was appointed by the Patriarch of Constantinople (the princes tried to achieve for themselves the right to appoint metropolitans, but did not achieve success during the period under review). Under the metropolitan, there was a council of bishops. The country's territory was divided into dioceses headed by bishops, who were appointed by the metropolitan. In their dioceses, the bishops managed church affairs jointly with a collegium of local priests - the kliros.

Urban population. Kievan Rus was a country not only of villages, but also of cities, of which there were up to three hundred. The cities were military strongholds, centers of struggle against foreign invasion, centers of craft and trade. There was an organization similar to the guilds and workshops of Western European cities. The entire urban population paid taxes. The church charter of Prince Vladimir speaks of the payment of duties on measures and weights; there was also a special city-wide tax - the town. Old Russian cities did not have their own self-government bodies, were under princely jurisdiction. Therefore, urban ("Magdeburg law") did not arise in Russia.

Free city dwellers enjoyed the legal protection of Russkaya Pravda, they were covered by all of its articles on the protection of honor, dignity and life. A special role in the life of cities was played by the merchants, who early began to unite in corporations (guilds), called hundreds. Usually the "merchant's hundred" operated under a church. "Ivanovskoe hundred" in Novgorod was one of the first merchant organizations in Europe.

Peasantry. The bulk of the population was made up of smerds. Some researchers believe that all villagers were called smerds. Others believe that the smerds are only a part of the peasantry, already enslaved by the feudal lords. Russkaya Pravda nowhere specifically indicates the restriction of the legal capacity of smerds, there are indications that they pay fines typical of free citizens. But in the testimonies of the smerds, their unequal position slips through their constant dependence on the princes who "favor" villages with smerds.

The Smerds lived in communities of ropes. The community in the Old Russian state was no longer consanguineous, but territorial, neighboring in nature. It was based on the principle of mutual responsibility and mutual assistance. The obligations of the peasant population in relation to the state were expressed in the payment of taxes (in the form of tribute) and quitrent fees, participation in armed protection in the event of hostilities.

The formation of the categories of dependent peasantry was based on "purchasing" - an agreement with the master, secured by the identity of the debtor himself. Zakup - an impoverished or ruined peasant who has fallen into a dependent position; he took inventory, a horse, and other property from the master and earned interest on the debt. The purchase retained partial legal capacity: he could act as a witness in some types of litigation, and his life was guarded by a vira of 40 hryvnias (like the life of a free person). He had the right to leave the owner to earn money, he could not be beaten without "guilt" the law protected his property. However, for escaping from the master, Zaku turned into a slave. Under Prince Vladimir Monomakh, the procurement situation was eased (limiting interest on the amount of debt, suppressing the unjustified sale of procurement to slaves, etc.).

3 STATE SYSTEM OF ANCIENT RUSSIA

Political systemKievan Rus can be defined as an early feudal monarchy. At the head was the Kiev Grand Duke... In his activities, he relied on the squad and the council of elders. Local administration was carried out by its governors (in cities) and volostels (in rural areas).

The relationship of suzerainty-vassalage put all the feudal lords subordinate to the prince in the position of service people. The most dependent on the prince were the younger squad and "servants under the court". Large feudal landowners enjoyed greater autonomy.

It was in the IX-X centuries. the most important formal legal feature of the early feudal monarchy was formed - the hereditary transfer of the table. Even in the presence of Oleg's regency under the minor Igor and Olga under the minor Svyatoslav, the transfer of power along the filial line is a fact that has happened. In the X century. and local tribal princes are replaced by the younger members of the Rurik family - the governors of the great Kiev prince. Already the sons of Vladimir Svyatoslavovich, and then the grandchildren, sat down at the local princely tables. True, the connection between the individual lands, which began to be called "destinies", was still purely mechanical, because a single Russian people in this state did not develop, reliable links were not yet developed, not only of an economic nature, but even of a psychological and moral character.

Already in the X century. Kiev princes, borrowing from their powerful neighbors - Byzantium and the Khazar Kaganate - the idea of ​​the greatness of the monarch's power, began to call themselves Kagans ("Khakan-Rus"). With the adoption of Christianity, the church, headed by the Greek metropolitans, began to transfer to the Russian prince the Byzantine concepts of a sovereign appointed by God.

The functions of the Kiev princes consisted, firstly, in organizing a squad (or hiring it) and military militias to fight external enemies, with internal strife, to collect tribute and foreign trade, and to spread power to new tribes. With the adoption of Christianity, the church began to form among the Russian princes the idea that they were placed not only for the external defense of the country, but also for the establishment and maintenance of internal social order. The regulatory function aimed at achieving social stability in society is gradually becoming one of the most important. The princes not only use military force during uprisings, but also try to extinguish conflicts by peaceful means: by distributing Money needy, the organization of free "tables", help to orphans and widows, legislative limitation of the arbitrariness of usurers and others.

Since the time of Vladimir I, sources have especially emphasized the importance of the prince's judicial function. The prince was the highest judicial authority available to the population, the highest justice in society. But he was also the organizer of the entire judicial system, which functioned on the basis of princely legislation ("statutes" and "lessons"). The princes imposed fines for misdemeanors and crimes in accordance with customary law, set the amount of remuneration for officials, and created the local administration.

Since ancient times, princes have performed another function - collecting taxes from the population under their control. The ancient way of collecting taxes in Russia was polyudye, a kind of military expeditions conducted by the princes, as a rule, twice a year - in spring and autumn. However, at first there was no strict order in this matter, and the princes visited for tribute more than twice a year, everything depended on their goodwill. After the death of Igor, who paid for his greed, Olga streamlined the collection of tribute, establishing graveyards - special places - and established special officials for tax collectors;and the time frame for collecting tribute, its size (lessons) were also regulated.

The unit of taxation is the courtyard (smoke), “encampments and traps”. (Froyanov)At the beginning of the XI century. Prince Vladimir established "tithe", i.e. tax in favor of the church, in the XII century. Prince Vladimir Monomakh introduced a charter on procurement, regulating bonded debt and debt relations. (Isaev)

Grand Duke was in contractual or suzerain-vassal relations with other princes. Local princes could be forced into service by force of arms. Strengthening of local feudal lords (XI-XII centuries) causes the emergence of a new form and a new authority - "snema", that is. Feudal Congress.At such congresses, issues of war and peace, division of lands, vassalage were resolved.

Local government was carried out by the prince's confidants, his sons and relied on military garrisons led by thousand, centurion and ten. During this period, the numerical or decimal control system continues to exist,which originated in the bowels of the squad organization, and then turned into a military-administrative system. Local governments received resources for their existence through the feeding system (fees from the local population).

The decimal system has not yet separated the central government from the local government. However, later such differentiation arises. In the central administration, the so-called palace-patrimonial system was formed. It grew out of the idea of ​​combining the management of the grand ducal palace with the government. In the grand prince's economy, there were all sorts of servants who were in charge of meeting certain vital needs: butlers, equestrians, etc. Over time, the princes entrust these persons with any spheres of government, one way or another related to their initial activities, provide them with the necessary funds for this. So the personal servant becomes statesman, by the administrator.

In his activities, the prince relied on the council, which consisted of boyars and "princely men". Individual functions or management of the branches of the princely palace economy were carried out by tiuns and elders.Over time, these palace rulers turn into managers of the branches of the princely (state) economy. At this moment, the decimal control system is replaced by the palace-fiefdom, in which political power belongs to the owner (boyar-votchinnik). There were two centers of power: the prince's palace and the boyar patrimony, this principle is established in the course of the further process feudal fragmentation.

In the early feudal monarchy, an important state and political function is performed by the people's assembly (veche),it was attended by all free and full citizens from among the residents of the city and the adjacent rural area.

Participation in veche events was not an obligation, but the right of citizens, which they could use at their discretion. This right was enjoyed not by all free residents, but only by the heads of large families, "men", as they are called by ancient Russian sources: at the Veche they made decisions for themselves and for their "children", who were physically quite adults, but had not yet achieved civil rights.

Veche resolutions were adopted by consensus, although this was often achieved in the course of a bitter struggle and clash of different opinions. No counting of individual votes cast in favor of a particular decision was made; the general consent of the veche was needed for the decision to take effect. It could not be otherwise, because with the underdevelopment of the apparatus of state coercion, which was characteristic of that time, any adopted resolution could be executed only if it agreed with it and supported by the overwhelming majority of ordinary citizens.

Community leaders-boyars played an important role in the veche debate, with the power of personal authority and the ability to convince or defend their innocence, and they carried away the rank-and-file vechels, appealing to the common interests of the land, in the minds of the ancient Russian people, who stood above any individual or group interests. At the same time, the final decision remained with the ordinary participants of the veche meeting, which indicates the democratic nature of the old Russian veche. The people took the most direct and active part both in inviting princes to reign, and in their expulsion from the volost.

The inhabitants of the suburbs obeyed the decision of the veche of the older city. Delegates from the suburbs sometimes arrived at the veche in the older city. The competence of the veche was not limited by anything, the citizens gathered there could consider and make decisions on any issue of social importance.

Veche was in charge of the issues of war and peace, disposed of the princely tables, financial and land resources of the volost, announced monetary collections from the volost population, entered into the discussion of legislation, removed objectionable representatives of the administration appointed by the princes.

The territorial community (rope) remained the organ of local peasant self-government.Its competence included land redistributions (redistribution of land allotments), police supervision, tax and financial issues related to taxation and distribution, the resolution of court disputes, the investigation of crimes and the execution of sentences.

CONCLUSION

The ancient Russian Kievan state was an important milestone in the history of the peoples of our country and its neighbors in Europe and Asia. Ancient Russia became the largest European state for its time. Its area was more than 1 million km2, and the population was 4.5 million people. Naturally, it had the strongest influence on the fate of the world historical process.

From the very beginning, Kievan Rus was a multiethnic state. The peoples who entered it then continued their development as part of other Slavic states that became the successors of Ancient Russia. Some of them assimilated, voluntarily lost their ethnic independence, while others have survived to this day.

In the Old Russian state, a form of early feudal monarchy took shape, which later survived among its successors for several centuries. The inevitable historical processes of the development of feudalism entail the withering away of the Old Russian state. The development of feudal relations, which gave birth to Ancient Russia, ultimately leads to its disintegration, the inevitable process of feudal fragmentation in the 12th century.

Transcript

1 HISTORY OF RUSSIA BASIC LEVEL 10 grade MOSCOW "VAKO"

2 UDC LBC K64 The publication is approved for use in the educational process on the basis of the order of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation from (as amended by). K64 Control and measuring materials. Russian history. A basic level of. Grade 10 / Comp. K.V. Volkova. M .: VAKO, p. (Control and measuring materials). ISBN The presented control and measuring materials (CMMs) for grade 10 are thematically grouped and correspond to the requirements of the school history curriculum. The use of KIMs will allow not only to assess the mastery of the material by students on each topic, but also to prepare them for the modern test form of knowledge testing, which will be useful when completing the tasks of the CT and the Unified State Exam. At the end of the edition, keys to all tests are offered. The manual is addressed to teachers, students and their parents. UDC BBK ISBN LLC "VAKO", 2013

3 Commentary for the teacher We offer you “Control and measuring materials for the textbooks of N. S. Borisov “History of Russia. From ancient times to the end of the 17th century ”and A.A. Lewandowski "History Russia XVIII XIX centuries ". A basic level of. Grade 10". The structure of the benefit is fully consistent with the federal component state standard secondary education and "Requirements for the level of training of students." Contrary to popular belief, test items allow one to objectively reveal not only the students' knowledge of history, but also educational skills at different levels of mastering the material. The manual contains tasks of basic and advanced levels of difficulty. They are arranged according to the principle from simple in part A to complicated in part B and complex, requiring a detailed answer and placed in the appendix (part C). 5-7 minutes are allotted for thematic tests, so the teacher can use them in each lesson, involving individual students or the whole class in checking the knowledge. Min. Part A contains basic level multi-choice assignments. With their help, knowledge of dates, facts, concepts and terms is checked, characteristic features historical phenomena, causes and consequences of events. Part B consists of tasks increased level difficulty with an open answer (word, date, combination of numbers). These tasks allow you to check, in addition 3

4 to the above elements of preparing students, the ability to classify and systematize facts. Part C contains tasks of a high level of complexity with an open, detailed answer. They are aimed at a comprehensive test of the knowledge and skills of students. Such tasks can be recommended for testing knowledge and skills in small groups during the current and final control. They can be used to compose assignments for Olympiads and intellectual marathons. Different assessment methods are used depending on the form of the assignment. There is a dichotomous system in which the question is scored one point if the answer is correct and zero if the answer is incorrect. This grading system can be used to check the items in Part A and those items in Part B that require a date or word. The maximum possible score for the test in this case will be equal to the number of correct answer options available in it. Part B also contains tasks to establish correct sequence and matching. These forms of assignments are assessed according to both the dichotomous and the political system. An example of a task from part B to establish the correct sequence B1. Arrange events in chronological order... Indicate the answer as a sequence letter designations selected items. A) the Battle of the Neva B) the battle on the Kalka River C) the raid of the "Nevruyeva rati" D) the congress of princes in the city of Lyubech Answer: GBAV. In a politomical system, the assessment of this task will look like this: Score Answer 3 GBAV 2 GBVA 1 Any combinations where the letter G is in the first place 0 Any other combinations except those indicated in Table 4

5 In part B of the manual, there are tasks with the choice of several correct answers. When evaluating this form of assignment, along with the dichotomous one, the political system can be used. In this case, points are awarded according to following scheme: completely correct specified characteristics 2 points; one correctly specified characteristic 1 point; lack of correct characteristics 0 points. Thus, the maximum possible score for the task will be equal to the number of correct answer options available in it. With a dichotomous system, the answer is assessed by 1 point if all the signs are correctly indicated, and 0 points if at least one mistake was made. Assessment of the fulfillment of the tasks of Part C is political. For each part of the assignment, the student receives points, which add up to the total score. In general, it is advisable to use the dichotomous assessment system in the final control of knowledge, as well as in those cases when it is necessary to manually check a large number of answer forms. Polytomical assignments can be used in all types of pedagogical control, especially in tests for thematic control, when the time to complete the test is short. Thus, the choice of the assessment system is dictated by the purpose of testing and the type of pedagogical control. The author of the manual proposes a flexible system of summing up test results, which allows the student the right to make mistakes: 80% of the maximum total points score "5"; 60 80% mark "4"; 40 60% mark "3"; 0 40% score "2". 5

6 6 Test 1. East Slavs in the VI IX centuries. Formation of the Old Russian state Option 1 A1. Geographical names: Constantinople, Dnieper, Lovat, Lake Ilmen, Baltic Sea are associated with: 1) the division of the Slavs into three branches 2) the trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks" 3) places of archaeological excavations 4) the formation of tribal unions of the Eastern Slavs A2. The consequence of the emergence of a neighboring community among the Eastern Slavs was the emergence of: 1) Varangians 2) bee farming 3) writing 4) social inequality A3. A detour by the prince and the squad of the lands for collecting tribute in the Old Russian state was called: 1) dragging 2) polyudy 3) undercutting 4) beekeeping A4. The reason for the formation of the Old Russian state: 1) the development of the economy 2) the appearance of written legislation 3) the transfer of the capital from Novgorod to Kiev 4) the presence of large unpopulated territories A5. Earlier than other princes from the Rurik dynasty ruled: 1) Kiy 3) Igor 2) Askold 4) Svyatoslav B1. When did the event referred to in the excerpt from the document occur? Brothers named Rurik, Sineus and Truvor, famous either by birth or by deeds, agreed to take power over people who, being able to fight for freedom, did not know how to use it. Answer:

7 Test 1. East Slavs in the VI IX centuries. Formation of the Old Russian state Option 2 A1. The main agricultural instrument of labor among the Slavs in the VI IX centuries. there was: 1) board 2) plow 3) drag 4) digging stick A2. The reason for the emergence of a neighboring community among the Eastern Slavs was: 1) the development of tools 2) the emergence of the state 3) the emergence of writing 4) the calling of the Varangians to Russia A3. Ancient and Arab historians of the 1st century n. e. called the Slavs: 1) Varangians 2) Wends 3) Great Russians 4) Indo-Europeans A4. The reason for the formation of the Old Russian state: 1) the adoption of Christianity 2) the existence of a tribal community 3) the emergence of social inequality 4) the end of the struggle with external enemies A5. The founder of the dynasty of Kiev princes was: 1) Kiy 3) Oleg 2) Rurik 4) Svyatoslav B1. When did the event referred to in the excerpt from the document occur? Having killed Askold and Dir, Oleg established himself in Kiev, made it his capital city; according to the chronicler, Oleg said that Kiev should be "the mother of Russian cities." Answer: 7

8 Test 2. Kievan Rus Variant 1 A1. The use of slave labor in the economy of the boyars and princes testified to the fact that the Old Russian state was: 1) democratic 2) early feudal 3) slaveholding 4) centralized A2. The ladder system is the system of: 1) princely inheritance 2) non-economic coercion 3) Old Russian legislation 4) defensive fortifications against the steppe dwellers A3. The adoption of Christianity by Russia led to: 1) the decline of culture 2) the uprising of the Drevlyans 3) the strengthening of the princely power 4) the deterioration of relations with Byzantium A4. Opponent of Russia in the southern direction: 1) Poland 2) Byzantium 3) Hungary 4) Scandinavia B1. Establish a correspondence between the ruler and the direction of his activities. One element of the left column corresponds to one element of the right one. Kiev prince / princess A) Vladimir B) Olga C) Yaroslav the Wise Direction of activity 1) the defeat of the Pechenegs 2) the baptism of Rus 3) the establishment of lessons and graveyards 4) limitation of usurious interest Answer: A B C 8

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ECONOMY OF ANCIENT RUSSIA IX-XII CENTURIES

Introduction

In the period from the 9th to the 12th century, the formation of the Old Russian state took place with its center in the city of Kiev. Formally, some consider the year 862 to be the date of the emergence of the Old Russian state - the year of the legendary vocation of Rurik, Sinius and Truvor to Novgorod to reign. The commemorative sign "Millennium of Rus", installed in Novgorod in 1862, is dedicated to this event. Other researchers prefer to trace the history of the Old Russian state from 882 - when Prince Oleg the Old conquered Kiev and made it the capital of the new state - Kievan Rus.

The initial period of the Old Russian state was very tense in its inner life and was important for the entire subsequent history of Russia. It was at this time that Russia declared itself as a large and strong state, capable of significantly influencing European and world politics; it was at this time that Prince Vladimir adopted Orthodoxy, Christianity of the Byzantine model; it is at this time that the seeds that will bear fruit during the period of feudal fragmentation will be sown.

Turning to the topic of the economy of the Old Russian state in the 9th-12th centuries, we will try to find an answer to several questions, the understanding of which is necessary to understand the main points of the history of Ancient Russia, namely: what economic basis was the basis for the formation of the Old Russian state? What role did the Old Russian state play in European economic relations? What changes did the economy of Ancient Russia undergo at the time of the maturation of feudal fragmentation?

The theme of the economic structure of Ancient Rus in historical science, in the language of historiographic images, was lucky. Even in the pre-revolutionary years, the works of V.O. Klyuchevsky, V.I. Sergeevich, A.I. Presnyakova, M.A. Dyakonov and many other outstanding researchers. The modern concept of the socio - economic structure of Ancient Rus' in its main features was formed in the 30s – 40s of the XX century. In its creation, the main role belongs to B.A. Grekov. However, already in the mid-50s L.V. Cherepnin, considering the position of various categories of the dependent population of Ancient Rus, noticed some static in the image of B.A. Grekov of the fate of the Russian peasantry, while all the phenomena of social and economic life must be studied not in statics, but in dynamics. "Not always in the works of these researchers," notes L.V. Cherepnin, "the relationship between individual categories of the peasantry, disclosed by sources related to Ancient Russia (IX-XII centuries), with those categories of peasants, about which the monuments of a later time speak. (XIII-XVI centuries). And for understanding the history of the peasantry, it is especially important to study the evolution and continuity of terms denoting various categories of the rural population ... ". In addition, they were prompted by notable successes in the field of archeology, ethnography, linguistics, as well as the discovery of new sources. Thus, the discovery of the notes of Abu Hamid al-Garnati, who visited Russia in the middle of the 12th century, showed that debt slavery in Russia at that time was an ordinary phenomenon.

The main source of our knowledge about the nature of economic relations in Kievan Rus is the oldest monument of Old Russian legislation - Russkaya Pravda. Russkaya Pravda is divided into the Short Truth, compiled by the great Kiev prince Yaroslav the Wise (XI century) and the Extensive Pravda (XII century) supplemented by the Truth of the Yaroslavichs and the Charter of Vladimir Monomakh.

The study of this source was given much attention in his lectures by the prominent Russian historian of the late 19th - early 20th centuries V.O. Klyuchevsky.

In addition, a great material for the study of the economy of Ancient Rus dates from the work of Soviet and Russian historians, as well as archaeological research.

1. Economy of the Eastern Slavs in the pre-state period

At the beginning of the first millennium of the new era, the territory of the East European Plain was settled by the Eastern Slavs. Since the 6th century, the eastern Slavs occupied the space from the Onega and Ladoga lakes in the north to the lower reaches of the Prut, Dniester, and Southern Bug rivers in the south, and from the Carpathian Mountains in the west to the Oka and Volga in the east. In eastern Europe, the Slavs met with the Finno-Ugric tribes that lived on its territory before the appearance of the Slavs. The settlement of the Slavs took place peacefully, so the population density of the Finno-Ugric tribes was very low. Gradually, the Finno-Ugric tribes were assimilated by the Slavs.

The climatic conditions of the Russian Plain contributed to the formation of successful economic activities of the Slavs: full-flowing rivers, fertile soils, dense forests with an abundance of birds and animals, a moderate, even climate. These conditions played a significant role in the development of the economy of the ancient Slavs. In the southern fertile lands, people were engaged in agriculture, in the southeastern steppes - nomadic herding, in the northern and northwestern regions - hunting, hunting for fur of valuable fur-bearing animals, beekeeping (collecting honey and wax of wild bees), fishing.

Rivers played an important role in the settlement and everyday life of the Slavs. “Recalling,” writes V.O. Klyuchevsky, “how the Tale of the Beginning of the Russian Land places Slavic tribes across our plain, it is easy to see that the mass of the Slavic population occupied its western half. The economic life of the population in this region was directed by one mighty stream, the Dnieper, which cuts through it from north to south.With the then importance of rivers as the most convenient routes of communication, the Dnieper was the main economic artery, a pillar trade road for the western strip of the plain: its upper reaches close to the Western Dvina and the basin of Lake Ilmen, that is, to two important roads to the Baltic Sea, and by its mouth connects the central Alaunskaya Upland with the northern coast of the Black Sea; tributaries of the Dnieper, stretching from afar to the right and left, like access roads of the main road, bring the Dnieper region closer to the Carpathian basins of the Dniester and Vistula on the other hand Volga and Don, that is, to the Caspian and Azov seas. Thus, the Dnieper region covers the entire western the hellish and partly the eastern half of the Russian plain. Thanks to this, from time immemorial, there has been a lively trade movement along the Dnieper, the impetus for which was given by the Greeks. "

Archaeological excavations of the settlements indicate that the main occupation of the Slavs was agriculture. They widely planted millet, rye (rye), wheat, flax and other crops. To cultivate the land, a ralo was used - a primitive wooden plow with an iron tip (headstock), a hoe, sickle, rake, scythe. Later, a plow with an iron share will appear.

Farming was carried out in the transfer (fallow) or slash-and-burn form. The relocation assumed the use of the same plots of land for several years in a row. After the depletion of the land, this site was abandoned for 20-30 years for the natural restoration of fertility, and the farmer himself moved to another site. Such a system existed mainly in the steppe and forest-steppe regions. In forest areas, a slash-and-burn system was formed in which a plot of land for arable land was freed from trees, which were chopped down and burned. The resulting ash served as a natural fertilizer. This system required high costs physical labor of people united in a tribal community.

People were united in clan patriarchal families, which lived in a separate settlement - a courtyard. In such a family there was collective ownership of land, tools and results of labor. The size of the land plots depended on how much such a family could cultivate the land.

The ubiquitous spread of the plow and the transition from matting to arable farming significantly increased the culture of agriculture and its productivity, although this increase took place extensively, due to an increase in the area of ​​arable land. Nevertheless, there were also signs of agricultural intensification. So, first there was a two-field, and then a three-field, that is, the annual alternation of various crops and steam to restore soil fertility. The soil was cultivated with the help of draft animals: oxen and horses. The development of factors of production and an increase in the product produced led to the decomposition of a consanguineous community and the transition in the 6th – 8th centuries to the neighboring community.

This transition meant that the separate family became the main economic unit. At the same time, the cultivation of the land could be carried out in small groups, which settled according to the principle of neighborhood, not kinship. The emergence of private ownership of the tools and results of labor meant the complete disintegration of the tribal community. The courtyard gives way to the village, and the village community itself began to be called the verv (mir).

And although in the neighboring community the main agricultural land was still in joint ownership, they were already divided into plots - allotments, which were transferred for limited private use to the community members for a certain period of time. Non-agricultural land (forest, water bodies, hayfields, pastures) remained communal. Various types of work were also preserved, the implementation of which required the united labor of all members of the community: paving roads, uprooting forests, and others.

The land plots were cultivated by members of a separate family with their own tools, the harvest also belonged to this family. Thus, the individual family no longer had to participate in the forced division of production and distribution of products in equal measure. This led to property stratification within the neighboring community, the emergence of more successful elders, tribal nobility, future large land owners - feudal lords.

At the last stage of the transition to feudalism among the Eastern Slavs, a type of relationship was formed that is characteristic of all peoples during the transition from primitive to class society - military democracy. During this period, the role of the supreme military leader - the prince, who was simultaneously the leader of the army and the head of the tribe or tribal union... Initially, the prince was elected at the veche as the leader of the squad. All free community members who participated in the people's militia could take part in the work of the veche. In addition to the people's militia, a professional squad also emerged. The squad fed at the expense of the prince's income, which consisted of booty during military campaigns and donations (taxes) collected from residents for protecting them from enemy raids. Gradually, the prince and his squad took a leading position in the tribe, assimilated the functions of the court, began to extend their rights to land as private property, to appropriate power over other members of the community and their income. All this meant a transition from a pre-class to a class society and a precondition for the emergence of the state. "The power of the collective was replaced by hereditary princely power. The princes, relying on their military formations, acquired such weight and influence in society that they essentially turned into a special force standing above the masses."

3. The emergence of the ancient Russian state

Changes in agriculture, an increase in the amount of the product produced, the transformation of a clan community into a neighboring one, the emergence of private ownership of land, tools and products, independent economic activity of individual families led to property inequality and the emergence of an economically strong tribal nobility. In ancient monuments, representatives of the noble strata were called "the best", "big", "oldest", "front" and "deliberate" men. The highest status among them was occupied by the zemstvo boyars, that is, representatives of the local tribal aristocracy, descendants of ancient tribal elders, as well as merchants who lived on the way "from the Varangians to the Greeks." Along with them, the supreme vigilantes also entered the upper social strata. During the IX-XII centuries, the process of rapprochement between the zemstvo and military aristocracy took place. They acquired large land holdings and became large landowners. In the possession of the prince, as the personification of the state, first of all, tribal lands of non-agricultural purposes were withdrawn, which were then settled by people dependent on the prince. “The existence of state land tenure in Ancient Rus,” writes I. Ya. Froyanov, “is a very real thing. Initially, it was collected from homeless, unoccupied lands. Subsequently, the state carried out measures to settle them. income, which poured into the state budget. The folding of the land fund subordinate to the state took place the more successfully, the faster and more confidently the process of formation of the state itself proceeded. "

As the state strengthened, the princes, tribal leaders, elders led an active attack on the community. They no longer wanted to return to joint ownership of their lands, which they received on an equal basis with other community members. Thus, a patrimony (fatherland, grandfather) arose, or large farms that were inherited from father to sons and were the full property of this family. On the other hand, these noble people began to gradually add to their land plots other members of the community, especially the impoverished ones, who could not pay off their debts with rich patrimonials. They also often annexed the lands of other ordinary members of the community, not only for debts, but also by force, forcing them to pay tribute in kind (tax) and perform certain duties in their favor. The process of turning the patrimonials into large landowners, and the impoverished community members into dependent ones, was called charming.

Large landowners, princes and boyars were interested in creating certain legal norms for the legal consolidation of such relations. The inviolability and execution of these norms could only be ensured by a strong state power. Thus, many socio - economic prerequisites objectively led to the creation of tribal unions first, and later - to state formations. The ancient chroniclers noted that the Glades, Drevlyans, Volhynians and other Slavic tribes had state associations headed by princely dynasties already in the VI-VIII centuries. So, near the glades in the middle reaches of the Dnieper, the clan of Kiya, the founder of Kiev, reigned. There was an endless struggle between individual princes for the annexation of near and distant lands, and above all for control over waterways. In the 9th century, in some territories on the way "from the Varangians to the Greeks", several principalities were formed, where the Varangian military leaders were princes: Rurik in Novgorod, Askold and Dir in Kiev, Rogvold in Polotsk and others.

In 882, Rurik's ally, Prince of Novgorod, Oleg Old, sailed along the Dnieper to Kiev with a retinue and, destroying the Kiev princes, united the Novgorod, Smolensk and Kiev principalities into the Old Russian state - Kievan Rus. Oleg himself proclaimed himself the Grand Duke of Kiev.

4. Tax system

In the 9th-12th centuries, the economy of the Old Russian state can be characterized as a period of early feudalism. At this time, the foundations of a solid system of relations between the state, landowners and the population regarding the production of goods, tax collection and military service were still just being laid. The Kiev princes of the Rurik dynasty during the 9th-10th centuries pursued an active policy of forcibly annexing the Eastern Slavs, which allowed them to turn Kievan Rus into one of the most powerful states of early medieval Europe.

The income of the Kiev prince consisted of military booty, tribute from the conquered lands, court fines, duties on trade traffic and internal tribute from their lands. In other lands, the population continued to pay tribute to their ancestral nobility, who personified and represented the Kiev prince in this land. Tribute was collected in kind, less often in money. According to the "Tale of Bygone Years," two-thirds of the tribute went to national needs, and a third - personally to the prince and his squad and representatives.

Having united under their rule a huge territory with the Slavic and Finno-Ugric tribes, the Kiev princes kept them under their control with the help of military force, while trying to organize economic management on these lands. It is enough just to remember Princess Olga, who cruelly took revenge on the murderers of her husband - the Drevlyans and, at the same time, with a firm hand thwarted the separatist attempts of this tribe to secede from the Kiev state. In parallel with this, Olga streamlined the process of collecting tribute, abolishing the hitherto existing polyudye and arranging graveyards, where the local population had to take the tribute and transfer it to specially appointed officials.

Initially, the great Kiev princes collected tribute from the territory under their control in the form of polyudyas - periodically bypassing them or sending there their governors - "posadniks" and "senior husbands" from among the vigilantes. The Byzantine emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus informs in his notes: "... When the month of November comes, their princes immediately leave Kiev with all the Russians and set off on a roundabout, and it is to the Slavic lands of the Drevlyans, Dregovichs, Krivichs, northerners and other Slavs who pay tribute to the Russians . Feeding there during whole winter, in April, when the ice on the Dnieper River melts, they return to Kiev ... They travel around them annually. If any of them has a daughter, the king takes one of her dresses a year; if any of them has a son, the king also takes one of his dresses a year. Whoever has neither a son nor a daughter, he gives one of the dresses of his wife or servant per year ... "This form of collecting tribute appeared in the 6th-8th centuries. It has survived in the Old Russian state. were determined in advance, but depended on the case.

In addition to polyudye, there was a wagon - the population of those lands where the prince and his governors could not or did not want to go, had to carry the tribute to Kiev or to specially arranged places - churchyards. For example, such graveyards were arranged by Princess Olga in the Drevlyan land. The collection of tribute was fixed, that is, "lessons" were established, the unit of taxation was "smoke" (yard, family) or "plow" ("ralo"). Gradually, the tribute took the form of a tax in favor of the state or the form of feudal rent - quitrent. During the polyudya, the prince or mayors, on behalf of the prince, administered judgment and reprisals on those complaints with which the population turned to the prince.

5. Agriculture

It is known that the basis of feudal land tenure is the complete ownership of the land by the feudal lord and the incomplete ownership of the land by the peasant. Lease relations arose between the feudal lord and the peasant. It should be noted that feudal relations were not decisive in Kievan Rus, and for a long time a strong patriarchal neighboring community persisted, which can be explained by various reasons, including the presence of a large number of free territories where the community members could have left.

Rural community members in Russia were called smerds, who were legally free for a long time. The community consisted of smerds, dependent only on the state, to which they paid taxes and served various duties, and smerds, dependent on the feudal lords. Gradually, the share of the latter increased, since their small-scale economy was economically unstable and depended heavily on natural and social factors. The process of ruining the smerds took place due to high taxes, endless military campaigns, raids of nomads, crop failures in dry and rainy years, and so on. The community members were forced to turn to the feudal lord for economic support and conclude a special contract with him - a series according to which they fulfilled their duty by performing various types of work. For this period of time, free smerds became ryadovichs, who, in turn, can be divided into purchases and delivery. If the ryadovich borrowed a loan (kupu), then for the period of working off this loan (money, cattle, grain), he settled on the land of the feudal lord with his inventory and became a role purchase (the role was arable land). After paying the coupon with interest, the purchase could again become a free smerd. Vdachi or izorniki are more impoverished, almost ruined, semi-free smerds. They fulfilled their duty on the land of the feudal lord with his tools and on terms of employment.

It should be noted that all the ryadovichs (purchases, delivery, izorniks), simultaneously with economic dependence, fell into legal dependence on the lender, who could deal with him at his own discretion. If the debtor was hiding from the payment of the kupa, then after the capture he could be made a slave. Gradually, it became more and more difficult for purchases and leases to give loans, and they became unpaid debtors, and temporary legal dependence turned into permanent. Smerds forever lost the position of free communes and became completely dependent on the feudal lord (serfs).

Even in the rural community there were so-called outcasts, orphans, who belonged to the most disadvantaged strata of society. Outcasts, in particular, were slaves who had been ransomed from captivity, ruined merchants, priests who had not learned to read and write, and therefore had no right to serve in the church, and so on.

Among the lowest, disenfranchised strata of the population were slaves or servants, in their position close to slaves. They performed heavy household work in the feudal estates, mainly in the fields (the so-called strangers). There were also full (full) slaves, slaves "in a row" who voluntarily renounced their personal freedom and entered the subordination of the feudal lord on the basis of a contract - a number.

Patriarchal slavery also existed in Russia, but it did not become the predominant form of management. Slaves, mainly from prisoners of war, eventually received land plots, were "adopted" by the community, since the full use of slaves was ineffective. Many pious people, before death, released some of their slaves to freedom or bequeathed them to the church. Such slaves, set free according to spiritual wills or bequeathed to the church "for the sake of the soul" were called "soulful people".

In the XI century, along with the princely, boyar estates began to form. This happened in two ways:

1) the prince granted to his warriors for a certain time the territory for collecting tribute - food. Over time, these lands became the hereditary possessions of the boyars.

2) the prince awarded vigilantes for service with state land;

3) the prince could give his entourage a part of his possessions.

The deaths living on these lands became personally dependent on the new owners. The boyars attacked the rural community using the same methods as the princes and with the support of the princes, through gradual economic and legal enslavement.

6. Crafts and cities

Cities arose on the site of small craft and trade settlements even before the formation of the Old Russian state. Cities most often appeared at trade crossroads and waterways. On the way "from the Varangians to the Greeks", that is, from Northern Europe to Byzantium, were located such ancient cities as Novgorod the Great, Smolensk, Chernigov, Kiev, Lyubech, Pskov, Polotsk, Vitebsk, and others. Later, the great Kiev princes began to build cities - fortresses on new lands in order to protect them from external enemies, for trade exchange with the conquered peoples: Yaroslavl, Rostov the Great, Vladimir, Suzdal, Murom, Ryazan. Cities could also arise on the site of large estates, where representatives of the princely administration were located.

Cities became administrative, trade, and craft centers, princes and boyars preferred to set up their courts in them. Western European travelers noted a large number of cities in Russia, they even called it "the country of the Gardariks". These cities gradually subjugated the surrounding lands and thus the first administrative and political division of Rus into city regions, or volosts, which already had almost no tribal origin, took place. So, in the Chernigov-Seversk volost were northerners, radimichi, vyatichi. As a result of this process, the tribal division of the territory of Rus fades into the background, giving way to the general state structure of the country.

The craft originally originated in patriarchal families as domestic crafts to provide themselves and their relatives with the simplest household items: fabrics, leather, dishes, shoes, metal products and others. These products did not go beyond the family and were not sold. In the process of further social division of labor, household crafts were separated into a separate branch of the national economy - handicraft production. Craftsmen gradually began to work not only for the internal consumption of the patriarchal family, but also for exchange. They were less and less engaged in agriculture and over time lost contact with agriculture, moving to urban settlements.

Families of the craftsmen settled in the cities in separate settlements, settlements, streets according to a certain industry characteristic: settlements of potters, blacksmiths, armourers, tanners, and so on. Handicraft settlements often adjoined fortified kremlins - Detinets, as, for example, the artisan pass near the Moscow Kremlin, later called China - a city.

Handicraft production reached its heyday during the 11th – 13th centuries, when there were several dozen specialties in Russia. Due to the high demand for iron products (tools for agriculture, metal armor, military weapons), the first place among the crafts was occupied by crafts related to iron processing (iron smelting, blacksmithing, metalworking and related jewelry). The work of gunsmiths, armors, goldsmiths, whose settlements in cities occupied a special and honorable place, was especially appreciated.

Carpentry skills were greatly developed, since church churches, houses of ordinary people, and boyar mansions were erected mainly from wood. The production of fabrics, especially from flax and wool, has reached a high quality. With the spread of Christianity, architects for the construction of stone churches and monasteries, as well as artists for the interior painting of temples, icon painters, mosaic masters began to enjoy special honor. Bricklayers and icon painters united in artels and moved from place to place in search of orders for construction and painting. Often the princes themselves recommended to each other as a sign of friendly relations the artels of famous builders and icon painters, which ensured artistic exchange between different lands. For example, builders sent there by the German emperor Frederick Barbarossa worked in the Galicia-Volyn principality. They brought with them the traditions of late Romanesque art style. The Galicia-Volyn principality was on friendly terms with the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, and through the artels of masons, some elements of the external decoration of the facades of the temples were transferred.

As is known from historical sources, in the XI-XII centuries literacy became widespread among the population of Kievan Rus. The country received works by foreign authors (primarily books of spiritual content), which were translated into Cyrillic, copied in many copies and distributed among the spiritual and secular nobility. For the translation and copying of books, a staff of translators, scribes and miniaturists was formed, who lived primarily in episcopal sees and large monasteries. There is information that the Kiev princes were fluent in foreign languages, including Latin, and that it is possible that some of the prince's sons studied at foreign universities.

7. Trade and money circulation

A fairly high level of development of agriculture, cattle breeding and handicrafts in Russia, the brisk construction of cities led to the formation of trade relations. But trade did not yet occupy a noticeable place in the national economy of Kievan Rus, which remained essentially natural. Even urban artisans worked, as a rule, to order, for which customers often paid with other products, that is, a natural exchange was carried out.

Nevertheless, Kievan Rus already had certain already established internal trade relations between very distant from each other ancient Russian cities where local markets were formed.

Traditionally, trade was called a guest, the merchants or merchants themselves were guests, and the places of trade were churchyards. Later, after the adoption of Christianity, temples began to be built at the churchyards, around which cemeteries were arranged. In the stone cellars of churches, merchants often kept their goods, various trade documents and certificates for security purposes, and for this the church had its own income. In Novgorod, the clerics of the St. Sophia Cathedral kept the standards of weights. Thus, the church partly performed the functions of standardization and treasure banks.

Merchants - guests were traditionally revered, the population and the state highly appreciated their work. In the XI-XII centuries, a fine of 12 hryvnias of silver was supposed to be paid for the murder of a merchant. Under the agreements with the Byzantine princes Oleg the Old and Igor, Russian merchants were granted some rights of extraterritoriality, that is, independence from the local Byzantine authorities.

As a result of the development of trade in Russia, money appeared. Money as a means of exchange among the Eastern Slavs existed for a long time, long before the formation of the Kiev state. In ancient times, the southern Slavs used livestock as money in exchange, so later metal money began to be called "cattle", and the prince's treasury began to be called "cowgirl". In the northern regions, where the population was engaged in hunting, the fur of valuable animals, in particular marten, was used as money. Hence the name of the monetary unit - kuna. Over time, this name was transferred to metal money. During the period of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, the distorted Turkic name "money" from "tanga" was fixed for banknotes.

Due to the lack of its own mining and production of metal in Kievan Rus, money was practically not minted, and in foreign trade mainly Arab and Byzantine gold and silver coins were used. Silver and copper ingots were much more widespread within the country. So, since the XI century, the hryvnia currency has been known - a 1 pound silver bar. The hryvnia, if necessary, was cut in half, and each half of the hryvnia was called a ruble or ruble hryvnia. The ingots were stamped with a princely stamp indicating the weight. Further, the ruble was divided into two parts - two half rubles, which, in turn, were divided into quarters. For a long time, the names of small monetary units retained echoes of the so-called "fur money": carving, skora (skin), bela (squirrel), ears, muzzles, and others.

Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich tried to mint his own coin. " gold coin Prince Vladimir was a repetition of the Arab dinar and was called the spool, that is, simply gold (compare the Polish "zloty"). The Russian hryvnia corresponded to 96 spools. It was both a weight and a monetary unit (1 hryvnia = 1 pound). When minting a silver coin, Prince Vladimir also followed the Arabs, minting 144 silversmiths from the hryvnia. "The hryvnia formed the basis of the Old Russian monetary and weight system." It was in these hryvnias that the most ancient penalties of the "Russian Truth" were originally laid out in the 9th-10th centuries. At the same time, 1 hryvnia was equal to 51, 16 g of gold.

It should be noted that in "Russkaya Pravda" there is a lot of evidence that credit relations were already sufficiently developed in Kievan Rus in the 11th century. In the text of the document, there are such concepts as "a favor for friendship", "giving money in growth", "interest", "credit", "profit" (profit). Also, the same document determined the procedure for collecting debts, distinguished the debtor's insolvency (bankruptcy), malicious and as a result of an accident, and so on.

8. Foreign trade

During the 9th-10th centuries the Kievan princes pursued an active policy of conquest, which made it possible to turn Kievan Rus into one of the most powerful states of early medieval Europe. Having united under their rule a huge territory with Slavic and Finno-Ugric tribes, the Kiev princes kept them under their control with the help of military force (for example, Princess Olga's threefold revenge on the Drevlyans), while trying to organize administrative and economic management on these lands.

Having become a powerful political "player", Kievan Rus actively developed foreign trade. Russian merchants traded with Byzantium, Central Europe, Scandinavia, Central Asia, Arab countries. In addition to the well-known route "from the Varangians to the Greeks", merchants used the Danube as a traditional artery for trade with Europe. The struggle for the Danube delta and the opportunity to bring the European trade with Byzantium under control of the Kiev princes through Bulgaria through Bulgaria triggered the conquest campaigns of Prince Svyatoslav in the 70s of the 10th century.

Also, the Russian merchants sailed in the Baltic, Azov, Caspian, Black and Mediterranean seas. Foreign merchants also came to Russia, who left historically valuable notes about the everyday life of the Slavs. The Arabs from the Caspian Sea ascended to Bulgaria, the extreme northern point of their trade, where they entered into trade relations with the New Towns. Did Russian merchants also trade in the capital of Khazaria - Itil? Those who came there along the Volga.

The largest centers of international trade were the cities of Kiev and Novgorod. A special role here belongs to Novgorod, which may well be called the first "window to Europe" for the whole of Kievan Rus. The entire economic life of Novgorod was built on foreign trade itself. The city is located in the zone of risky agriculture and therefore the main activity was foreign trade in Baltic Sea... Grain, which is not capable of growing in the Novgorod lands, was historically imported from the Vladimir opolye through Novy Torg (the modern city of Torzhok, Tver region). Such dependence of Novgorod on imported grain will become one of the key factors, first of Tver, and then of Moscow princes in the struggle against the Novgorod freemen. If necessary, the trade routes for the delivery of grain were blocked and Novgorod was forced to accept the conditions imposed on it.

The main export commodities were furs, wax, honey, flax, leather, hemp, jewelry, weapons, chain mail and others. It should be noted that metals were practically not mined in Russia during this period of time (the extraction of bog ores was extremely small) and all metals were imported from Europe. Imports were metals, luxury goods for the nobility: silk fabrics, brocade, velvet, spices, jewelry, wines, precious stones.

Relations with Scandinavia and Byzantium were of great importance for the early Russian history, although Kievan Rus had no common borders with them. Scandinavia had a significant impact on the formation of the political and military system, and Byzantium - on the development of economy, trade, culture, religion.

9. The meaning of Christianity

As the Old Russian state strengthened and tribal disunity was overcome, it became more and more necessary to adopt an ideology that could support the process of unification of the Eastern Slavs around Kiev. Moreover, paganism no longer contributed to the integration trend in Russia, since it had nothing to do with the development of a strong centralized state. Back in 980, the Grand Duke Vladimir tried to carry out a religious reform to create a single pantheon of pagan gods, placing them in a harmonious system headed by Perun, but this reform failed.

According to the chronicle, Vladimir turned to various religions, studied their basic principles, but in the end he opted for Christianity, which by that time was already widespread in Europe. It is known that the princely nobility in Kiev had long been familiar with Christianity: Princess Olga converted to Christianity in the 950s, but was not supported in this by her subjects. In 988, Christianity was finally recognized as the state religion - the Baptism of Rus. Christianity in Russia took root fairly quickly, within about a hundred years, while in many Western European countries this process took from one and a half to two and a half centuries.

The adoption of Christianity was of great importance for Russia, not only in the ideological aspect. This meant a radical change in many other aspects of life. So, since the Christian religion categorically excludes polygamy, which was widespread during pagan times, then in economic plan the first place was taken by the monogamous family. From now on, all inherited property passed only to children born in a marriage consecrated by the church. The strengthening of Christianity as the dominant religion contributed to the further strengthening of statehood, since a broad basis was created for the formation of a single ancient Russian people on the basis of common spiritual and moral foundations, and tribal differences were eliminated.

The baptism of Rus increased its international prestige, as it put it on a par with other European powers. Kievan Rus began to consider itself a full-fledged component of the Christian world, sought to play a prominent role in it, always compared itself with Western Europe... Kiev princes could now participate in dynastic European marriages, which were accompanied by the conclusion of political and economic agreements. In addition, Christianity has rendered big influence on the development of the culture of Russia.

After the adoption of Christianity in Russia, churches and monasteries also became large landowners. The process of enslavement, characteristic of the feudal landowners, also took place in the church estates. The church accepted royal grants, accepted estates and the smerds living in them according to wills, and so on.

Around the monasteries, cities and fairs could arise, contributing to the development of handicrafts and trade exchange of goods produced in different localities.

10. Reasons for feudal fragmentation

Feudal fragmentation is an objective process that practically no European state has escaped. Through the formation of small independent states, united by the understanding of consanguinity (as in Russia), or vassal dependence (as in France), lay the path to a powerful centralized state in which the head rose at an inaccessible height above the whole of society. Feudal fragmentation is a progressive phenomenon for a certain era, since during this period feudal relations matured, the social division of labor deepened, agriculture, cities, and crafts developed. It was during this period that the national consciousness of peoples began to wake up, the formation of a single national idea began.

One of the reasons for the feudal fragmentation was the division of the Old Russian state between the heirs of the Great Kiev prince Yaroslov the Wise, who died in 1054, and the subsequent internecine struggle of the princes for the Kiev great reign. But this fact is hardly the main reason. After all, the first partition of the Kiev lands began long before 1054, even during the reign of Vladimir Svyatoslavovich, the Red Sun, whose sons already at the beginning of the 11th century started endless strife. Civil strife in the Kievan state, as in any early feudal state formation, were commonplace, but they did not lead to the complete disintegration of the state.

In an effort to overcome civil strife, Prince Vladimir Monomakh in 1097 gathers all the princes for a princely congress in Lubich, which decides: "Let Kiyzhdo keep his patrimony." By this resolution, the congress prohibited the princes from transferring to reign from principality to principality, but did not eliminate the reasons for the coming feudal fragmentation. Now the princes were attached to their principalities and began to wage wars for the annexation of new lands to their principalities.

Among other reasons, one can name the deeply natural character of the ancient Russian economy, since there were very few truly economic ties between separate principalities in it.

The natural economy is a collection of very closed economic units that are little involved in trade and other economic relations. These units were self-sufficient, self-sustaining, practically excluding external factors of development. But all this does not fully explain the growing processes of state fragmentation. The economy of Russia had a natural character even later, during the formation of a single centralized state in the XIV-XV centuries, but the natural economy did not interfere with the unification of Russian lands around Moscow.

One of the most important reasons for the feudal fragmentation in Russia is the growth of boyar estates. By the 12th century, the estates became stronger and more independent, which allowed the boyars, sometimes independently, without the support of the princely power, to continue their attack on the communal lands. There was the enslavement of free smerds - communes, an increase in the size of the quitrent and duties, which were carried out in favor of the feudal lord by dependent smerds. Local feudal lords strove to gain more power in order to punish the smerds, to receive fines from them - viras. Large landowners more and more often declared their independence from the grand dukes in Kiev, demanded confirmation of the feudal immunity proclaimed by "Russian Pravda", that is, the Grand Duke's non-interference in the affairs of the patrimony. But the Kiev princes did not agree to confirm their status and continued to intervene in judicial, tax and other problems of the boyar patrimony.

The great Kiev princes, as before, forced the boyars to appear in Kiev with their warriors and participate in numerous military campaigns, which did not always coincide with the interests of the boyars, who often refused to serve the grand duke. All this led to conflicts, the desire of the boyars to quickly gain political and economic independence. The boyars more and more often agreed to support the local prince, since they hoped to receive help and protection from him, for example, in difficult relations with smerds, townspeople, and foreign conquerors.

The growth and strengthening of cities in the XI-XII centuries also accelerated the process of disintegration of the Old Russian state. The cities gradually began to demand the provision of economic and political independence, which allowed them to become the centers of various principalities with their strong princes, who were supported by local boyars. In many cities, the role of city people's assemblies - veche, which expressed the ideas of decentralization, independent local authorities from Kiev, increased.

Consequently, among the internal reasons for the decline of Kievan Rus, one can name the absence of a truly unified state - centralized or federal. And although the Orthodox Church had a great unifying force, and the Russian language had already become the same for all Slavic tribes, politically, Kievan Rus was a fragile state formation.

One should not forget such an important reason for the fragmentation of Kievan Rus, as the loss of the importance of the path "from the Varangians to the Greeks." Already in the XI-XII centuries, during the Crusades, the main trade and transport routes moved to the Mediterranean Sea. Venice and Genoa began to play the main role as a trade intermediary between Europe and Asia. Gradually Kiev lost its status as a major international trade center, and less and less income from foreign trade, which largely supported the economic well-being of the urban population. Kiev had less and less funds to maintain a strong centralized power, to maintain the administrative apparatus and a single army.

As a result of the action centrifugal forces In the middle of the 12th century, the Old Russian state split into 14 principalities, in each of which the boyars strove to become a sovereign master. In turn, these 14 principalities, for the same reasons, continued to split into smaller ones and by the beginning of the 13th century there were about 50 of them, and by the end of the 13th century there were about 350 principalities. Separate from them was Novgorod, where a republican form of government was established. Of all the principalities, the three most powerful principalities emerged. Which became a kind of centers of gravity for numerous small principalities: Vladimir-Suzdal, Galicia-Volynskoe and Novgorod. All these three principalities could well become the nucleus for the emergence of a single centralized Russian state.

conclusions

The study of the economic development of Ancient Russia is associated with an understanding of the general genesis of feudalism in the 9th – 12th centuries. The establishment of princely power over the Vervue is not yet feudalism. It appears when power is combined with land ownership.

In addition, at this time, the formation of the state takes place and the main sources of income for the state budget are laid.

At the beginning of this work, three questions were posed, to which we tried to find an answer. Briefly summarizes the conclusions that we were able to come to:

1. What economic basis was the foundation of the formation of the Old Russian state?

The foundation of the formation of the Old Russian state was, on the one hand, the evolutionary development of the Vervi - a community from consanguineous to neighboring. And on the other hand - the property stratification of the community itself and the separation of the nobility. The land belonging to the Vervi can be conditionally divided into two categories: agricultural and non-agricultural. In the process of the decomposition of the tribe into clans, and clans into families, agricultural lands were assigned to each family or clan. Non-agricultural land remained in the use of the entire tribe, and the princely power and its representatives, the boyars, were initially extended to them. In an effort to increase their incomes, the princes and boyars began to populate the vacant land with slaves and dependent ryadovychs and slaves on a lease basis. As the state strengthened, the agricultural lands of the black smerds began to be drawn into the process of encroaching on and enchanting lands. Moreover, this retraction took place through the establishment of debt dependence (the land acted as collateral for the loan) and through the lease when the family moved to a new land plot.

The process of formation was also beneficial to the Vervi itself, which received military protection and court from the prince or boyar, but in turn was forced to give part of the product it produced in the form of tax - tribute.

2. What role did the Old Russian state play in European economic relations?

From the moment of its inception, the Old Russian state took the place of the central link in trade relations between the West and the East. This trade went along two paths: a) Dneprovsky ("from the Varangians to the Greeks") and b) Volzhsky - Western Europe - the Caspian Sea - Iran and the countries of the Arab East. For the third trade route along the Danube Svyatoslav and partly other princes fought for a long time, but to no avail. Bulgaria managed to maintain its control over the Danube estuary.

The interest of Western Europe in the trade routes controlled by Russia is confirmed primarily in the desire to spread Christianity to Russia and thereby facilitate the trade process. The German emperor Otto also tried to spread Christianity in Russia, who negotiated with Olga and Yaropolk Svyatoslavovich, and Byzantium, which in 988 gave baptism to Prince Vladimir and thus included Russia in the Byzantine oecumene.

Realizing its intermediary position in foreign trade, Russian money was equalized with Arab, Byzantine and Western European money. This was done to facilitate external settlements and transfer funds from one unit to another. In turn, Russia in such an equalization was not original. Similar processes took place in other early feudal states of Europe, where the generally recognized and widely known monetary units of Rome, Byzantium and the Arab Caliphate were placed in the basis of local monetary units.

3. What changes did the economy of Ancient Russia undergo at the time of the maturation of feudal fragmentation?

The economy of Ancient Russia was natural. The economy was based on agriculture. Trade and handicraft did not yet play a predominant role and therefore could not stand in the way of the ripening of the causes of feudal fragmentation. The prosperity of the prince and the state personified in him directly depended on the size of the land and the number of taxable population living on it.

By the 12th century, early feudal states were disintegrating in Europe. The Crusades disrupt old trade routes and pave new ones. Now trade between Europe and Byzantium and the Arab world is conducted without intermediaries in the Mediterranean Sea through the trade ports of Italy. All this leads to a decrease in the role of the Dnieper route "from the Varangians to the Greeks", which, in turn, reduces the economic and strategic importance of Kiev. Novgorod remains a major trading city, conducting trade along the Baltic Sea with the Hanseatic League. But Novgorod quickly manages to secede from Kiev and establish the regime of a feudal republic. The regime of the feudal republic, on the one hand, allowed Novgorod to defend its independence, but, on the other hand, did not allow it to become the center of the unification of Russian lands.

Within the Old Russian state itself, unity was supported by the desire of the brothers - princes to occupy the great reign of Kiev according to the system of Yaroslav the Wise. But this same system led to fratricidal wars due to the desire of the younger princes to accelerate the natural replacement of princes in Kiev and, accordingly, to bring their advance closer to Kiev.

With the loss of its commercial importance by Kiev, it becomes unattractive for the princes. And the Lyubesky Congress of Princes in 1097 makes adjustments to the system of succession to the throne, created by Yaroslav the Wise. Now each prince must stay in his principality, and Kiev joins the princely land. The Lyubesky Congress actually gave rise to feudal fragmentation. This is clearly seen in the example of the Vladimir-Suzdal princes. If Yuri Dolgoruky actively fought for Kiev, then his son, Andrei Yuryevich Bogolyubsky, already completely abandons the fight for Kiev and concentrates all his efforts on strengthening his principality, he is already fully independent both economically and ideologically from Kiev.

The gradual attack on the community, the enslavement of the smerds, the seizure of communal lands - all this led to an increase in the resistance of the farmers. They fled from the feudal lords to the "wasteland", that is, to free lands, raised spontaneous riots, killed representatives of the patrimonial administration, and organized massive thefts of the property of the feudal lords. All this forced the Great Kiev princes to pay attention to the development of legal norms of domestic life. From this era, many documents have come down to us: statutes on church courts, helmsman books, princely statutes, and others. Among them was Russkaya Pravda, the most important set of norms of Old Russian legislation. These documents determined responsibility for theft and damage to property, livestock, for attacks on representatives of the patrimonial administration.

Literature

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