The reign of Catherine II: domestic and foreign policy. Domestic and foreign policy of Catherine II briefly

Russia during the reign of Catherine II.

Origin

Catherine 2, whose biography was so amazing and unusual, was born on May 2 (April 21), 1729 in Stettin, Germany. Her full name is Sophia Augusta Frederick, Princess of Anhalt-Zerbst. Her parents were Prince Christian-August of Anhalt-Zerbst and his equal in title Johanna-Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp, who was related to such royal houses as English, Swedish and Prussian. The future Russian empress was educated at home. She was taught theology, music, dance, the basics of geography and history, and, in addition to her native German, she also knew French. Already in early childhood, she showed her independent character, perseverance and curiosity, preferred lively and outdoor games.

Marriage

In 1744, Empress Elizaveta Petrovna invited the Princess of Anhalt-Zerbst to come to Russia with her mother. Here the girl was baptized according to the Orthodox custom and began to be called Ekaterina Alekseevna. From that moment on, she received the status of the official bride of Prince Peter Fedorovich, the future Emperor Peter 3. So, the exciting story of Catherine 2 in Russia began with their wedding, which took place on August 21, 1745. After this event, she received the title Grand Duchess. As you know, her marriage was unhappy initially. Her husband Peter was at that time still an immature youth who played with soldiers instead of spending his time in the company of his wife. Therefore, the future empress was forced to entertain herself: she read for a long time, and also invented various amusements.

Domestic politics

The Empress chose three postulates on which her activities were based: consistency, gradualness and consideration of public sentiments. Catherine was in words a supporter of the abolition of serfdom, but pursued a policy of supporting the nobles. She set the number of population in each province (the inhabitants should not be more than 400 thousand), and in the county (up to 30 thousand). In connection with this division, many cities were built. A number of government agencies were organized in each provincial center. These are such as the main provincial institution - the Office - headed by the governor, the Criminal and Civil Chambers, the financial management body (Treasury Chamber). Also were established: the Upper Zemstvo Court, the Provincial Magistrate and the Upper Massacre. They played the role of a court for different estates and consisted of chairmen and assessors. A body was created for the peaceful resolution of conflicts, which was called the Constituent Court. Cases of insane criminals were also dealt with here. The problems of organizing schools, shelters and almshouses were dealt with by the Order of Public Charity.
Political reforms in counties

The internal policy of Catherine II also influenced the cities. Here, too, a number of boards appeared. Thus, the Lower Zemstvo Court was responsible for the activities of the police and administration. The district court was subordinate to the Upper Zemstvo Court and considered the cases of the nobles. The place in which the townspeople tried was the City Magistrate. To solve the problems of the peasants, the Lower Massacre was created. Control over the correct implementation of the law was assigned to the provincial prosecutor and two solicitors. The governor-general monitored the activities of several provinces and could directly address the empress. The internal policy of Catherine 2, the table of estates are described in many historical books.

Judicial reform

In 1775 it was established new system for resolving disputes. In each estate, the problem was solved by its own judicial body. All courts, except for the Lower Punishment, were elected. The Upper Zemstvo dealt with the affairs of the landowners, and the Upper and Lower reprisals dealt with peasant strife (if the peasant was a state one). The disputes of the serfs were sorted out by the landowner. As for the clergy, they could only be judged by bishops in provincial consistories. The Senate became the Supreme Judiciary.

municipal reform

The empress strove to create local organizations for each estate, granting them the right to self-government. In 1766, Catherine II presented the Manifesto on the formation of a commission to resolve local issues. Under the leadership of the chairman of the society of nobles and the elected head for the city, deputies were elected, as well as the transfer of orders to them. As a result, a number of legislative acts appeared, which fixed separate rules of local self-government. The nobility was endowed with the right to elect the county and provincial chairmen, secretary, county judge and assessors and other managers. Two Dumas were engaged in the management of the city economy: the General and the Six-Glass. The first had the right to issue orders in this area. The mayor was the chairman. The general council met as needed. The six-vowel met every day. It was the executive body and consisted of six representatives of each estate and the mayor. There was also the City Duma, which met every three years. This body had the right to elect the Six-voice Duma. The internal policy of Catherine 2 did not ignore the police. In 1782, she created a decree that regulated the structure of law enforcement agencies, the direction of their activities, as well as the system of punishments.

The life of the nobility

The internal policy of Catherine 2 legally confirmed by a number of documents vantage point of this class. It was possible to execute a nobleman or take away his property only after he had committed a serious crime. The court verdict was necessarily coordinated with the empress. The nobleman could not be subjected to physical punishment. In addition to managing the fate of the peasants and the affairs of the estate, a representative of the estate could freely travel abroad, direct his complaints immediately to the governor-general. The foreign and domestic policy of Catherine II was based on the interests of the class. The rights of the poor representatives were slightly infringed. So, an individual with a certain property qualification could take part in the provincial noble assemblies. This also applied to approval for a position, in which case the additional income should be at least 100 rubles per year.

Foreign policy

Catherine II did not forget about improving ties with other states. The Empress achieved the following results:

1. Thanks to the annexation of the Kuban region, Crimea, Lithuanian provinces, Western Russia, the Duchy of Courland, the borders of the state expanded noticeably.

2. The Treaty of St. George was signed, which indicated the role of Russia's protectorate over Georgia (Kartli-Kakheti).

3. A war for territories with Sweden was unleashed. But after the signing of the peace treaty, the borders of the states remained the same.

4. Exploration of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands.

5. As a result of the Russian-Turkish war, part of the territory of Poland was divided between Austria, Prussia and Russia.

6. Greek project. The purpose of the doctrine was to restore Byzantine Empire centered in Constantinople. According to the plan, the grandson of Catherine II, Prince Konstantin, was to head the state.

7. In the late 80s, the Russian-Turkish war and the struggle with Sweden began. The Peace of Jassy, ​​concluded in 1792, consolidated the influence of the Russian Empire in Transcaucasia and Bessarabia, and also confirmed the annexation of Crimea.

Foreign and domestic policy of Catherine 2. Results

The great Russian Empress left an indelible mark on the history of Russia. Having overthrown her husband from the throne, she carried out a number of activities, many of which significantly improved the life of the people. Summing up the results of the domestic policy of Catherine II, one cannot fail to note the special position of nobles and favorites at court. The Empress strongly supported this estate and her beloved associates. The domestic policy of Catherine 2, briefly describing it, has the following main aspects. Thanks to the decisive actions of the Empress, the territory of the Russian Empire increased significantly. The population in the country began to strive for education. The first schools for peasants appeared. Issues related to the administration of counties and provinces were resolved. The Empress helped Russia to become one of the great European states.

Catherine II - All-Russian Empress, who ruled the state from 1762 to 1796. The era of her reign is the strengthening of serfdom tendencies, the comprehensive expansion of the privileges of the nobility, active transformational activities and an active foreign policy aimed at the implementation and completion of some plans.

In contact with

Foreign Policy Goals of Catherine II

The Empress pursued two main foreign policy goals:

• strengthening the influence of the state in the international arena;
• expansion of the territory.

These goals were quite achievable in the geopolitical conditions of the second half of XIX century. The main rivals of Russia at that time were: Great Britain, France, Prussia in the West and Ottoman Empire in the East. The empress adhered to the policy of "armed neutrality and alliances", concluding profitable alliances and terminating them when necessary. The Empress never followed in the wake of someone else's foreign policy, always trying to follow an independent course.

The main directions of the foreign policy of Catherine II

Tasks of foreign policy of Catherine II (briefly)

The main foreign policy objectives that required a solution were:

• conclusion of a final peace with Prussia (after the Seven Years' War)
• maintaining the positions of the Russian Empire in the Baltic;
• solution of the Polish question (preservation or partition of the Commonwealth);
• expansion of the territories of the Russian Empire in the South (annexation of the Crimea, the territories of the Black Sea region and the North Caucasus);
• exit and full consolidation of the Russian navy in the Black Sea;
• creation of the Northern System, an alliance against Austria and France.

The main directions of the foreign policy of Catherine 2

Thus, the main directions of foreign policy were:

• western direction (Western Europe);
• east direction (Ottoman Empire, Georgia, Persia)

Some historians also point out

• the northwestern direction of foreign policy, that is, relations with Sweden and the situation in the Baltic;
• Balkan direction, referring to the famous Greek project.

Implementation of foreign policy goals and objectives

The implementation of foreign policy goals and objectives can be presented in the form of the following tables.

Table. "Western direction of foreign policy of Catherine II"

foreign policy event	Chronology	Results
Prussian-Russian alliance	1764	The beginning of the formation of the Northern System (allied relations with England, Prussia, Sweden)
The first division of the Commonwealth	1772	Accession of the eastern part of Belarus and part of the Latvian lands (part of Livonia)
Austro-Prussian conflict	1778-1779	Russia took the position of an arbiter and actually insisted on the conclusion of the Teshen peace by the warring powers; Catherine set her own conditions, by accepting which the warring countries restored neutral relations in Europe
"Armed neutrality" with respect to the newly formed USA	1780	Russia did not support either side in the Anglo-American conflict
Anti-French coalition	1790	The beginning of the formation by Catherine of the second Anti-French coalition; rupture of diplomatic relations with revolutionary France
Second division of the Commonwealth	1793	Empire ceded part of Central Belarus with Minsk and Novorossiya (eastern part of modern Ukraine)
Third Section of the Commonwealth	1795	Accession of Lithuania, Courland, Volhynia and Western Belarus

Attention! Historians suggest that the formation of the Anti-French Coalition was undertaken by the Empress, as they say, "to divert eyes." She did not want Austria and Prussia to pay close attention to the Polish question.

Second anti-French coalition

Table. "North-Western Direction of Foreign Policy"

Table. "Balkan Direction of Foreign Policy"

The Balkans are becoming the object of close attention of Russian rulers, starting precisely with Catherine II. Catherine, like her allies in Austria, sought to limit the influence of the Ottoman Empire in Europe. To do this, it was necessary to deprive her of strategic territories in the region of Wallachia, Moldavia and Bessarabia.

Attention! The Empress planned the Greek project even before the birth of her second grandson, Constantine (hence the choice of name).

He has not been implemented due to:

• changes in Austria's plans;
• independent conquest by the Russian Empire of a large part of the Turkish possessions in the Balkans.

Greek project of Catherine II

Table. "The Eastern Direction of the Foreign Policy of Catherine II"

East direction foreign policy of Catherine II was a priority. She understood the need to consolidate Russia on the Black Sea, and also understood that it was necessary to weaken the position of the Ottoman Empire in this region.

foreign policy event	Chronology	Results
Russo-Turkish War (declared by Turkey to Russia)	1768-1774	A series of significant victories brought Russia into some of the strongest in the military plan of the European powers (Kozludzhi, Larga, Cahul, Ryabaya Grave, Chesmen). The Kuchuk-Kainarji peace treaty, signed in 1774, formalized the annexation of the Azov, Black Sea, Kuban and Kabarda regions to Russia. The Crimean Khanate became autonomous from Turkey. Russia received the right to keep the navy on the Black Sea.
Accession of the territory of modern Crimea	1783	The protege of the Empire, Shahin Giray, became the Crimean Khan, the territory of the modern Crimean peninsula became part of Russia.
"Patronage" over Georgia	1783	After the conclusion of the Treaty of Georgievsk, Georgia officially received the protection and patronage of the Russian Empire. She needed this to strengthen the defense (attacks from Turkey or Persia)
Russian-Turkish war (unleashed by Turkey)	1787-1791	After a series of significant victories (Fokshany, Rymnik, Kinburn, Ochakov, Izmail), Russia forced Turkey to sign the Treaty of Jassy, ​​according to which the latter recognized the transfer of Crimea to Russia, recognized the Treaty of St. George. Russia also crossed territories between the Bug and Dniester rivers.
Russo-Persian War	1795-1796	Russia has significantly strengthened its positions in the Transcaucasus. Gained control over Derbent, Baku, Shemakha and Ganja.
Persian campaign (continuation of the Greek project)	1796	Plans for a large-scale campaign against Persia and the Balkans was not destined to come true. In 1796 the empress Catherine II died. But, it should be noted that the beginning of the campaign was quite successful. Commander Valerian Zubov managed to capture a number of Persian territories.

Attention! The successes of the state in the East were associated, first of all, with the activities of outstanding commanders and naval commanders, "Catherine's eagles": Rumyantsev, Orlov, Ushakov, Potemkin and Suvorov. These generals and admirals raised the prestige of the Russian army and Russian weapons to an unattainable height.

It should be noted that a number of Catherine's contemporaries, including the illustrious commander Frederick of Prussia, believed that the successes of her generals in the East were merely a consequence of the weakening of the Ottoman Empire, the decomposition of its army and navy. But, even if this is true, no other power, except Russia, could boast of such achievements.

Russo-Persian War

The results of Catherine II's foreign policy in the second half of the 18th century

Everything foreign policy goals and objectives Catherine were brilliantly executed:

• The Russian Empire entrenched itself in the Black and Azov Seas;
• confirmed and secured the northwestern border, fortified in the Baltic;
• expanded territorial possessions in the West after the three partitions of Poland, returning all the lands of Black Russia;
• expanded possessions in the south, annexing the Crimean peninsula;
• weakened the Ottoman Empire;
• gained a foothold in the North Caucasus, expanding its influence in this region (traditionally British);
• having created the Northern System, strengthened its position in the international diplomatic field.

Attention! When Ekaterina Alekseevna was on the throne, the gradual colonization of the northern territories began: the Aleutian Islands and Alaska (the geopolitical map of that period of time changed very quickly).

Results of foreign policy

Evaluation of the reign of the empress

Contemporaries and historians assessed the results of Catherine II's foreign policy in different ways. Thus, the division of Poland was perceived by some historians as a "barbarian action" that ran counter to the principles of humanism and enlightenment that the Empress preached. The historian V. O. Klyuchevsky said that Catherine created the prerequisites for the strengthening of Prussia and Austria. In the future, the country had to fight with these large countries that directly bordered the Russian Empire.

Receivers of the Empress, and, criticized the policy his mother and grandmother. The only constant direction over the next few decades remained anti-French. Although the same Paul, having conducted several successful military campaigns in Europe against Napoleon, sought an alliance with France against England.

Foreign policy of Catherine II

Foreign policy of Catherine II

Conclusion

The foreign policy of Catherine II corresponded to the spirit of the Epoch. Almost all of her contemporaries, including Maria Theresa, Frederick of Prussia, Louis XVI, tried to strengthen the influence of their states and expand their territories through diplomatic intrigues and conspiracies.

The reign of Catherine II the Great is one of the most complex topics in history. This is probably because it takes most second half of the 18th century. This post will briefly describe the domestic policy of Catherine 2. This topic simply needs to be studied in order to be well versed in history when completing exam tasks.

The most important thing

Few understand why historical events are poorly remembered. In fact, everything is perfectly remembered, if you keep in mind the most important thing. The most important thing is the concept of this or that government or the driving contradiction. Having marked these things, it is easy to remember them, as well as the entire outline of events.

The concept of the reign of Catherine the Great was Enlightened absolutism - a European concept popular in the 18th century, which, in a nutshell, consisted in recognizing the leading role in the history and development of states for an enlightened monarch. Such a monarch, a sage on the throne, a philosopher will be able to lead society to progress and enlightenment. The main ideas of the Enlightenment can be found in the work of Charles Louis Monetskyo "On the Spirit of the Laws" and in the writings of other enlighteners.

These ideas are generally simple: they included observance of laws by the people, the idea that people are naturally good, and the state should awaken this goodness in people through enlightenment.

Sophia Augusta Frederica Anhalt of Zerbskaya (real name of the Empress) learned these principles as a young educated girl. And when she became empress, she tried to implement them in Russia.

However, the main contradiction of her reign was that this was not possible. The first blow was dealt to her mood by the Legislative Commission, in which the entire color of society gathered. And not a single estate wanted to put an end to serfdom. On the contrary, everyone was looking for benefits for themselves in the slave position of 90 percent of the population of the state.

Nevertheless, something was realized, at least in the first half of the reign of the empress - before the uprising of Yemelyan Pugachev. His uprising became, as it were, a watershed between the empress of liberal views and the conservative ruler.

reforms

Within the framework of one post, it is impossible to consider in detail the entire domestic policy of Catherine, but it can be done briefly. I’ll tell you where to find out everything in detail at the end of the post.

Secularization of church lands in 1764

This reform was actually started by Peter the Third. But it was already Catherine the Great who realized it. All church and monastery lands were now transferred to the state, and the peasants were transferred to the category of economic peasants. The state could give these lands to whoever it wanted.

The secularization of the lands meant the end of the centuries-old rivalry between ecclesiastical and secular authorities, which peaked during the reigns of Alexei Mikhailovich and Peter the Great.

Convocation of the Legislative Commission

• Reason: the need to adopt a new code of laws, a new Code, because the Cathedral Code of 1649 has long been outdated.
• Dates of the meeting: from June 1767 to December 1768
• Results: the new code of laws was never adopted. The task of codifying Russian legislation will only be realized under Nicholas the First. The reason for the dissolution is the beginning of the Russian-Turkish war.

The uprising of Yemelyan Pugachev

A serious event in the field of domestic politics, since it showed all the inconsistency of serfdom, on the one hand, and the crisis in relations between the authorities and the Cossacks, on the other.

Results: the suppression of the uprising. The consequences of this uprising was the provincial reform of Catherine the Great.

Provincial reform

In November 1775, the Empress publishes the "Institution for the Administration of the Provinces of the Russian Empire". the main objective: change the state-territorial structure in favor of better tax collection, as well as strengthen the power of governors so that they can more effectively resist peasant uprisings.

As a result, the provinces began to be divided only into counties (previously they were divided into provinces), and they themselves were disaggregated: there were more of them.

The entire structure of state authorities has also changed. You can see the most important of these changes in this table:

As you can see, the empress, despite the fact that the entire reform was pro-noble, tried to implement the principle of separation of powers, albeit in a truncated version. This system of authorities will continue until the bourgeois reforms of Alexander the Second Liberator

A charter to the nobility and cities of 1785

Parsing letters of commendation is a serious educational task. It cannot be solved within the scope of this post. But I am attaching links to full texts these important documents:

• Complaint to the nobility
• Complaint letter to cities

Results

Main question for the results: why do we put this empress on a par with Ivan the Third, Peter the Great and call it great? Because this empress completed most of the domestic and foreign policy processes.

In the field of domestic policy, the process of formation of authorities was completed absolute monarchy, the system is put in order government controlled; the nobility reached the peak of its rights and its power, the “third estate” was more or less formed - the townspeople, who were given excellent rights under the Charter to the cities. The only trouble is that this layer was very small and could not become the backbone of the state.

In the field of foreign policy: Russia annexed the Crimea (1783), Eastern Georgia (1783), all the old Russian lands during the three partitions of Poland, and reached its natural boundaries. The issue of access to the Black Sea was resolved. Actually a lot has been done.

But the main thing has not been done: a new code of laws has not been adopted, and serfdom. Could this have been achieved? I think no.

The Golden Age, the age of Catherine, the Great Kingdom, the heyday of absolutism in Russia - this is how historians designate and designate the reign of Russia by Empress Catherine II (1729-1796)

“Her reign was successful. As a conscientious German, Catherine worked diligently for the country that gave her such a good and profitable position. She naturally saw the happiness of Russia in the greatest possible expansion of the boundaries of the Russian state. By nature, she was smart and cunning, well versed in the intrigues of European diplomacy. Cunning and flexibility were the basis of what in Europe, depending on the circumstances, was called the policy of Northern Semiramis or the crimes of Moscow Messalina. (M. Aldanov "Devil's Bridge")

Years of reign of Russia by Catherine the Great 1762-1796

The real name of Catherine II was Sophia Augusta Frederick of Anhalt-Zerbstsk. She was the daughter of Prince Anhalt-Zerbst, who represented “a side line of one of the eight branches of the Anhalst house,” the commandant of the city of Stettin, which was in Pomerania, an area subject to the kingdom of Prussia (today the Polish city of Szczecin).

“In 1742, the Prussian king Frederick II, wanting to annoy the Saxon court, who expected to marry his princess Maria Anna to the heir to the Russian throne, Peter Karl Ulrich of Holstein, who suddenly became Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich, began to hastily look for another bride for the Grand Duke.

The Prussian king had three German princesses in mind for this purpose: two of Hesse-Darmstadt and one of Zerbst. The latter was the most suitable for age, but Friedrich knew nothing about the fifteen-year-old bride herself. They only said that her mother, Johanna-Elisabeth, led a very frivolous lifestyle and that little Fike was hardly really the daughter of the Zerbst prince Christian-August, who served as governor in Stetin ”

How long, short, but in the end, the Russian Empress Elizaveta Petrovna chose little Fike as a wife for her nephew Karl-Ulrich, who became Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich in Russia, the future Emperor Peter the Third.

Biography of Catherine II. Briefly

• 1729, April 21 (old style) - Catherine II was born
• 1742, December 27 - on the advice of Frederick II, the mother of Princess Fikkhen (Fike) sent a letter to Elizabeth with congratulations for the New Year
• 1743, January - kind letter in return
• 1743, December 21 - Johanna-Elizabeth and Fikchen received a letter from Brumner, the tutor of Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich, with an invitation to come to Russia

“Your Grace,” Brummer wrote pointedly, “are too enlightened not to understand the true meaning of the impatience with which Her Imperial Majesty wishes to see you here as soon as possible, as well as your princess, your daughter, about whom rumor has told us so much good”

• December 21, 1743 - on the same day a letter from Frederick II was received in Zerbst. The Prussian king ... strongly advised to go and keep the trip a strict secret (so that the Saxons would not find out ahead of time)
• 1744, February 3 - German princesses arrived in St. Petersburg
• 1744, February 9 - the future Catherine the Great and her mother arrived in Moscow, where at that moment there was a courtyard
• 1744, February 18 - Johanna-Elizabeth sent a letter to her husband with the news that their daughter was the bride of the future Russian Tsar
• 1745, June 28 - Sophia Augusta Frederica adopted Orthodoxy and the new name Catherine
• 1745, August 21 - marriage and Catherine
• 1754, September 20 - Catherine gave birth to a son, heir to the throne of Paul
• 1757, December 9 - Catherine had a daughter, Anna, who died 3 months later
• 1761, December 25 - Elizaveta Petrovna died. Peter III became king

"Peter the Third was the son of the daughter of Peter I and the grandson of his sister Charles XII. Elizabeth, having ascended the Russian throne and wishing to secure it beyond her father's line, sent Major Korf on a mission to take her nephew from Kiel at all costs and bring him to Petersburg. Here the Duke of Holstein, Karl-Peter-Ulrich, was transformed into Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich and forced to study the Russian language and the Orthodox catechism. But nature was not as favorable to him as fate .... He was born and grew up as a frail child, poorly endowed with abilities. Early becoming an orphan, Peter in Holstein received a worthless upbringing under the guidance of an ignorant courtier.

Humiliated and embarrassed in everything, he acquired bad tastes and habits, became irritable, quarrelsome, stubborn and false, acquired a sad tendency to lie ...., and in Russia he also learned to get drunk. In Holstein, he was taught so badly that he came to Russia as a 14-year-old ignoramus and even struck Empress Elizabeth with his ignorance. The rapid change of circumstances and educational programs completely confused his already fragile head. Forced to study this and that without connection and order, Peter ended up learning nothing, and the dissimilarity between the Holstein and Russian situation, the senselessness of Kiel and St. Petersburg impressions completely weaned him from understanding his surroundings. ... He was fond of military glory and the strategic genius of Frederick II ... " (V. O. Klyuchevsky "Course of Russian History")

• 1761, April 13 - Peter made peace with Frederick. All the lands captured by Russia from Prussia in the course were returned to the Germans
• 1761, May 29 - the union treaty of Prussia and Russia. Russian troops were placed at the disposal of Frederick, which caused sharp discontent among the guards.

(The flag of the guard) “became the empress. The emperor lived badly with his wife, threatened to divorce her and even imprison her in a monastery, and put in her place a person close to him, the niece of Chancellor Count Vorontsov. Catherine kept aloof for a long time, patiently enduring her position and not entering into direct relations with the dissatisfied. (Klyuchevsky)

• 1761, June 9 - at a ceremonial dinner on the occasion of the confirmation of this peace treaty, the emperor proclaimed a toast to the imperial family. Ekaterina drank her glass while sitting. When asked by Peter why she did not get up, she replied that she did not consider it necessary, since the imperial family consists of the emperor, herself and their son, the heir to the throne. “And my uncles, the Holstein princes?” - Peter objected and ordered Adjutant General Gudovich, who was standing behind his chair, to approach Catherine and say an abusive word to her. But, fearing that Gudovich would soften this impolite word during the transmission, Pyotr himself shouted it across the table aloud.

  The Empress wept. That same evening she was ordered to arrest her, which, however, was not carried out at the request of one of Peter's uncles, the unwitting culprits of this scene. Since that time, Catherine began to listen more carefully to the proposals of her friends, which were made to her, starting from the very death of Elizabeth. The enterprise was sympathized with many persons of high Petersburg society, for the most part personally offended by Peter

• 1761, June 28 -. Catherine is proclaimed empress
• 1761, June 29 - Peter the Third abdicated
• 1761, July 6 - killed in prison
• 1761, September 2 - Coronation of Catherine II in Moscow
• 1787, January 2-July 1 -
• 1796, November 6 - death of Catherine the Great

Domestic policy of Catherine II

- Change in central government: in 1763 streamlining the structure and powers of the Senate
- Liquidation of the autonomy of Ukraine: liquidation of the hetmanate (1764), liquidation of the Zaporozhian Sich (1775), serfdom of the peasantry (1783)
- Further subordination of the church to the state: secularization of church and monastery lands, 900 thousand church serfs became state serfs (1764)
- Improving legislation: a decree on tolerance for schismatics (1764), the right of landowners to exile peasants to hard labor (1765), the introduction of a noble monopoly on distillation (1765), a ban on peasants to file complaints against landowners (1768), the creation of separate courts for nobles, townspeople and peasants (1775), etc.
- Perfection administrative system Russia: division of Russia into 50 provinces instead of 20, division of provinces into counties, division of power in the provinces according to functions (administrative, judicial, financial) (1775);
- Strengthening the position of the nobility (1785):

• confirmation of all class rights and privileges of the nobility: exemption from compulsory service, from poll tax, corporal punishment; the right to unlimited disposal of the estate and land together with the peasants;
• the creation of noble class institutions: county and provincial noble assemblies, which met every three years and elected county and provincial marshals of the nobility;
• conferring the title of "noble" on the nobility.

“Catherine II was well aware that she could stay on the throne, only in every possible way pleasing the nobility and officers, in order to prevent or at least reduce the danger of a new palace conspiracy. This is what Catherine did. Her entire internal policy was to ensure that the life of officers at her court and in the guards was as profitable and pleasant as possible.

- Economic innovations: the establishment of a financial commission for the unification of money; establishment of a commission on commerce (1763); a manifesto on the conduct of a general demarcation to fix land plots; the establishment of the Free Economic Society to help noble entrepreneurship (1765); financial reform: an introduction paper money— banknotes (1769), creation of two banknotes (1768), issue of the first Russian foreign loan (1769); establishment of a postal department (1781); permission to start printing houses for private individuals (1783)

Foreign policy of Catherine II

• 1764 - Treaty with Prussia
• 1768-1774 - Russian-Turkish war
• 1778 - Restoration of the alliance with Prussia
• 1780 - Union of Russia, Denmark. and Sweden to protect navigation during the American War of Independence
• 1780 - Defensive alliance of Russia and Austria
• 1783, April 8 -
• 1783, August 4 - the establishment of a Russian protectorate over Georgia
• 1787-1791 —
• 1786, December 31 - trade agreement with France
• 1788 June - August - war with Sweden
• 1792 - rupture of relations with France
• 1793, March 14 - treaty of friendship with England
• 1772, 1193, 1795 - participation together with Prussia and Austria in the partitions of Poland
• 1796 - war in Persia in response to the Persian invasion of Georgia

Personal life of Catherine II. Briefly

“Catherine, by her nature, was neither evil nor cruel ... and excessively power-hungry: all her life she was invariably under the influence of successive favorites, to whom she gladly ceded her power, interfering in their orders with the country only when they very clearly showed their inexperience, inability or stupidity: she was smarter and more experienced in business than all her lovers, with the exception of Prince Potemkin.
There was nothing excessive in Catherine's nature, except for a strange mixture of the most rude and ever-increasing sensuality over the years with purely German, practical sentimentality. At sixty-five, she fell in love like a girl with twenty-year-old officers and sincerely believed that they were also in love with her. In her seventies, she cried bitter tears when it seemed to her that Platon Zubov was more restrained with her than usual.(Mark Aldanov)

Ministry of Education and Science Russian Federation

Federal Agency for Education

FSEI HPE "Siberian Federal University"

Humanitarian Institute

Faculty of History and Philosophy

Department of Philosophy

History abstract:

Foreign and domestic policy of CatherineII

Completed:

1st year student, Department of Philosophy

Kirienko Pavel Andreevich

Checked:

M.G. Tarasov

Krasnoyarsk 2010

1. Introduction

2.1 South direction

2.2 Western direction

2.3 Other destinations

3.1 Enlightened absolutism

3.2 Protective absolutism

3.3 Enlightened despotism

Conclusion

Bibliography

1. Introduction

Catherine II was a subtle psychologist and an excellent connoisseur of people, she skillfully selected her assistants, not being afraid of bright and talented people. That is why Catherine's time is marked by the appearance of a whole galaxy of outstanding statesmen, generals, writers, artists and musicians. In dealing with subjects, Catherine II was, as a rule, restrained, patient, and tactful. She was an excellent conversationalist, able to listen carefully to everyone.

During the entire reign of Catherine II, there were practically no noisy resignations, none of the nobles was disgraced, exiled, let alone executed. Therefore, there was an idea of ​​​​Catherine's reign as the "golden age" of the Russian nobility. At the same time, Catherine was very vain and valued her power more than anything in the world.

The way of her government can be described in one expression: Catherine ruled with "carrot and stick".

For myself, in my work, I set the following tasks:

ü To study and demonstrate the foreign policy of Catherine II;

ü To study and demonstrate the domestic policy of Catherine II.

2. Foreign policy of Catherine II

Following Peter I, Catherine believed that Russia should take an active position on the world stage and pursue an offensive policy.

My foreign policy activities Catherine II began by returning home Russian troops who were abroad, confirmed peace with Prussia, but rejected the military alliance concluded with her by Peter III.

Catherine II successfully continued and triumphantly completed the creation of the Russian Empire begun by Peter I as a great world power. The foreign policy results of Catherine's 34-year stay on the throne were significant territorial acquisitions and the final consolidation of the status of a great power for Russia.

The country began to play one of the leading roles in world politics, which made it possible to influence in its own interests on the solution of almost any international issue.

2.1 South direction

In the southern direction, for a long time the dream of the rulers of Russia was access to the shores of the warm Black Sea.

For such a dream, the first war was the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774.

In 1768, Turkey declared war on Russia; the campaign of 1769 did not bring success to Russia. However, in 1770 Rumyantsev launched an offensive towards the Danube. In the battle on the Largi River, the Russian army put the Turkish troops to flight. On the Katu River - Rumyantsev, with only 27 thousand soldiers - defeated the 150 thousandth Turkish army. And the Baltic fleet under the command of Admiral Sviridov defeated the superior forces of the Turks in the Chesme Bay. In 1774, the Kyuchuk-Kainarji peace treaty was signed, according to which Russia received access to the Black Sea, the right to have a Black Sea fleet. The Crimean Khanate became independent from Turkey. Russia also received land between the Dnieper and the Bug, and from the North Caucasus to the Kuban. However, in 1783 the Crimea was included in Russia, and fortress towns began to be built there. In the same year, the Treaty of Georgievsk was signed, according to which Georgia came under the protectorate (protection) of Russia. Therefore, the second Russian-Turkish war begins.

The next war with Turkey took place in 1787-1792 and was an unsuccessful attempt by the Ottoman Empire to regain the lands that had gone to Russia during the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774, including Crimea. Here, too, the Russians won a number of important victories, both on land - the Kinburn battle, the Battle of Rymnik, the capture of Ochakov, the capture of Izmail, the battle of Focsani, the Turkish campaigns against Bendery and Ackerman, etc., and the sea ones - the battle of Fidonisi (1788), Kerch naval battle(1790), the Battle of Cape Tendra (1790) and the Battle of Kaliakria (1791). As a result, the Ottoman Empire in 1791 was forced to sign the Iasi Peace Treaty, which secured the Crimea and Ochakov for Russia, and also pushed the border between the two empires to the Dniester.

The Russian Empire, which needed access to the Black Sea, solved this problem through two Russian-Turkish wars.

2.2 Western direction

Here there is a desire of Russia to unite, into the Empire, all the lands inhabited by closely related Russian peoples - Ukrainians and Belarusians. In the second half of the XVIII century. Poland is a weak state, with many internal problems, which was going through about the same difficult times as the Ottoman Empire. Catherine II wanted to have in Poland - a weak state with her protege. However, Russia's allies, Austria and Prussia, were in favor of the division of Poland. As a result, there are three divisions of Poland:

1) 1772 - Russia received eastern Belarus and Latvian lands.

2) 1793 - Russia receives the center of Belarus, with Minsk and right-bank Ukraine.

3) 1795 - Russia receives western Belarus, Lithuania, Courland, Volyn.

On October 13, 1795, a conference of three powers was held on the fall of the Polish state, it lost its statehood and sovereignty.

2.3 Other destinations

In 1764, relations between Russia and Prussia normalized, as a result of which a union treaty was concluded between the countries. This treaty served as the basis for the formation of the "Northern System" - the union of Russia, Prussia, England, Sweden, Denmark and the Commonwealth against France and Austria. Russian-Prussian-English cooperation continued further.

One of Catherine's grandiose plans in the foreign policy arena was the so-called Greek project - the joint plans of Russia and Austria to divide Turkish lands, expel Turks from Europe, revive the Byzantine Empire and proclaim Catherine's grandson, Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich, as emperor. According to the plans, the buffer state of Dacia is being created on the site of Bessarabia, Moldavia and Wallachia, and the western part Balkan Peninsula handed over to Austria. The project was developed in the early 1780s, but was not implemented due to the contradictions of the allies and the reconquest of significant Turkish territories by Russia on its own.

In the third quarter of the XVIII century. There was a struggle of the North American colonies for independence from England - the bourgeois revolution led to the creation of the United States. In 1780, the Russian government adopted the "Declaration of Armed Neutrality", supported by most European countries (ships of neutral countries had the right to armed protection when attacked by the fleet of a belligerent country).

After the French Revolution, Catherine was one of the initiators of the anti-French coalition and the establishment of the principle of legitimism. She said: “The weakening of the monarchical power in France endangers all other monarchies. For my part, I am ready to resist with all my might. It's time to act and take up arms." However, in reality, she abstained from participating in hostilities against France. According to popular belief, one of the real reasons for the formation of the anti-French coalition was to divert the attention of Prussia and Austria from Polish affairs. At the same time, Catherine refused all treaties concluded with France, ordered the expulsion of all suspected sympathizers for the French Revolution from Russia, and in 1790 issued a decree on the return of all Russians from France.

3. Domestic policy of Catherine II

Catherine II came to the throne, having a well-defined political program, based, on the one hand, on the ideas of the Enlightenment and, on the other, taking into account the peculiarities historical development Russia. The most important principles for the implementation of this program were gradualness, consistency, and consideration of public sentiments.

Under Catherine, the autocracy was strengthened, the bureaucracy was strengthened, the country was centralized and the system of government was unified. Their main idea was to criticize the outgoing feudal society. They defended the idea that every person is born free, and advocated the elimination of medieval forms of exploitation and despotic forms of government.

In domestic politics Catherine II, the following three periods can be distinguished: enlightened absolutism, protective absolutism, enlightened despotism.

3.1 Enlightened absolutism

Enlightened absolutism - the period of Catherine II's passion for the ideas of enlightenment (all people are free and equal by nature). This is a period of reforms driven by concern for the "public good" and attempts to improve legislation. At this time, in order to improve central administration, in 1763 the Senate was divided into 6 departments. Each of which had a strictly defined range of duties and powers. In 1764, Catherine II appointed a governor-general (Rumyantsev) to Ukraine instead of a hetman, finally destroying Ukrainian autonomy. 1763-1764 - Secularization was carried out. Catherine II considered herself a student of European enlighteners (Voltaire, Diderot) and was in correspondence with them. Catherine II dreamed of a state capable of ensuring the well-being of her subjects. In Russia, the adopted in 1649 continues to operate. Cathedral Code».

Then Catherine II decided to call elections, representatives from each estate and instruct them to work out a new provision, taking into account the interests of the population. For the deputies, the empress issued an order (to condemn the cruelty of punishments; to proclaim responsibility to subjects and non-subjects; to condemn excessive exactions from peasants, etc.). In 1767, the "Laid Commission" was convened. The Legislative Commission included more than 500 deputies. However, the Legislative Commission did not justify the hopes of Catherine, because. each estate thought only of its own interests, and as a result the commission was dissolved.

3.2 Protective absolutism

Protective absolutism is a period of long internal reforms, but in a different way. At this time, state control over order, “keeping silence” in the state (from Pugachev to the French Revolution) is being strengthened.

After the Pugachev uprising, Catherine II came to the conclusion that it was necessary to strengthen local government. In 1775 - the provincial reform, according to which the number of provinces increased from 8 to 50. The provinces were divided into counties. Under the governor, there was a provincial administration that supervised activities and officials.

And the Treasury was engaged in finance and economic affairs. Judicial institutions were separated from administrative ones.

Thus, there is an official separation of the judicial and financial areas.

In 1785, the "Charter of the Nobility" appeared - it finally secured the rights of the nobility (exemption from compulsory service; exemption from corporal punishment; exemption from poll tax; the right to property over peasants; the right to own land; engage in business and trade). In 1785, the “Letter of Letters to Cities” also appeared (it divided all citizens into 6 categories, their rights and privileges depended on belonging to the category and on their property status).

3.3 Enlightened despotism

Enlightened despotism is a period of strict censorship. Punitive measures against freethinking. Confiscation of French literature (after the French Revolution). The decree of 1783 on free printing houses was undoubtedly a progressive document for those times. In Russia there were other conditions in comparison with England, and with France, and the American states. The decree provided the society with new opportunities that were immediately used: big number new printing houses and publications. Events in France significantly influenced Catherine II. She was frightened by the possible spread of the ideas of the French Revolution in Russian state. May 20, 1792 Prince A.A. Prozorovsky wrote to her about the need to “put limits on foreign booksellers and take away the ability to import books like this at the borders and ports, and even more so from France, which is now upset, serving only to deceive and debauch people who are not based on the rules of honesty.”

To restrict the import of foreign literature from abroad, Catherine II issues a decree on the creation of "censorship ... in each place of three persons: spiritual, civil and scientific." We can say that from that time the official "formulation" of censorship began.

Conclusion

In my opinion, the reign of Catherine II in the XVIII century is the brightest for Russian Empire. Even before accession to the throne, being the wife of the emperor Peter III, Catherine was already carried away by the writings of the French philosopher-enlightener, Voltaire, which later, in my opinion, greatly influenced her form of government. Her reign cannot be underestimated. The expansion of borders begun by Peter I and the consolidation of the title of "Great Power" for Russia, Catherine II brilliantly completed. It was during her reign that a much-needed outlet to the Black Sea was obtained, as a result of two Russian-Turkish wars. As a result of the division of Poland, Russia regains the territories of Ukraine and Belarus. With such a foreign policy, as it would seem at first glance, lawlessness and devastation should have reigned in the state. But even here the merits of Catherine II do not end there. In the state, she carried out many reforms, such as a charter to nobles and cities, a decree on free printing houses and on the introduction of censorship, etc. She managed to systematize the authorities, dividing the Senate into 6 departments, and perfectly differentiate the territory of the Russian Empire, as a result of the provincial reform. In my opinion, Catherine II is the most outstanding empress in the history of our state. At least history does not know the name of the woman who did just as much and necessary during the reign.

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