Russia in the period of feudal fragmentation. Feudal fragmentation in Russia: its causes and consequences

Decor elements 14.10.2019

Decor elements

Feudal fragmentation is most often understood as the political and economic decentralization of the state, the creation on the territory of one state of practically independent from each other, independent state entities that formally had a common supreme ruler (in Russia, the period of the 12th - 15th centuries).

Already in the word "fragmentation" the political processes of this period are fixed. By the middle of the XII century, there were approximately 15 principalities. By the beginning of the XIII century - about 50. By the XIV century - about 250.

How to evaluate this process? But is there a problem here? The unified state broke up and was relatively easily conquered by the Mongols-Tatars. And before that, there were bloody strife between princes, from which ordinary people, peasants and artisans suffered.

Indeed, approximately such a stereotype was formed until recently when reading scientific and journalistic literature, and even some scientific works. True, these works also spoke of the pattern of fragmentation of Russian lands, the growth of cities, the development of trade and handicrafts. All this is true, however, the smoke of the conflagrations in which Russian cities disappeared during the years of the Batu invasion, and today many people obscure their eyes. But can the significance of one event be measured by the tragic consequences of another? "If not for the invasion, Russia would have survived."

But after all, the Mongol-Tatars also conquered huge empires, such as, for example, China. The battle with the countless armies of Batu was a much more difficult undertaking than the victorious campaign against Constantinople, the defeat of Khazaria, or the successful military operations of the Russian princes in the Polovtsian steppes. For example, the forces of only one of the Russian lands - Novgorod - turned out to be enough to defeat the German, Swedish and Danish invaders by Alexander Nevsky. In the face of the Mongol-Tatars, there was a collision with a qualitatively different enemy. So if we put the question in the subjunctive mood, we can ask in another way: could the Russian early feudal state resist the Tatars? Who dares to answer it in the affirmative? And the most important thing. The success of the invasion cannot be attributed to fragmentation.

There is no direct causal relationship between them. Fragmentation is the result of the progressive internal development of Ancient Russia. The invasion is an external influence that is tragic in its consequences. Therefore, to say: "Fragmentation is bad because the Mongols conquered Russia" - it makes no sense.

It is also wrong to exaggerate the role of feudal strife. In the joint work of N. I. Pavlenko, V. B. Kobrin and V. A. Fedorov "History of the USSR from ancient times to 1861" they write: "You cannot imagine feudal fragmentation as some kind of feudal anarchy. Moreover, princely strife in a single state, when it came to the struggle for power, for the throne of the grand duke, or those or other rich principalities and cities, were sometimes more bloody than in the period feudal fragmentation. What happened was not the collapse of the ancient Russian state, but its transformation into a kind of federation of principalities headed by the Grand Duke of Kyiv, although his power was weakening all the time and was rather nominal ... The goal of strife during the period of fragmentation was already different than in a single state: not to seize power in country, but strengthening their own principality, expanding its borders at the expense of neighbors.

Thus, fragmentation differs from the times of state unity not by the presence of strife, but by fundamentally different goals of the warring parties.

The main dates of the period of feudal fragmentation in Russia:

1097 year - Lyubechsky Congress of Princes.

1132 year - The death of Mstislav I the Great and the political collapse of Kievan Rus.

1169 year - The capture of Kyiv by Andrei Bogolyubsky and the plunder of the city by his troops, which testified to the socio-political and ethno-cultural isolation of certain lands of Kievan Rus.

1212 year - Death of Vsevolod " Big Nest"- the last autocrat of Kievan Rus.

1240 year - The defeat of the Mongol-Tatars of Kyiv.

1252 year - Presentation of the label for the great reign of Alexander Nevsky.

1328 year - Presentation of a label for a great reign to the Moscow prince Ivan Kalita.

1389 year - Battle of Kulikovo.

1471 year - Ivan III's campaign against Novgorod the Great.

1478 year - Inclusion of Novgorod into the Moscow state.

1485 year - The inclusion of the Tver principality in the Muscovy.

1510 year - The inclusion of the Pskov land in the Moscow state.

1521 year - The inclusion of the Ryazan principality in the Moscow state.

Causes of feudal fragmentation.

The formation of feudal landownership: the old tribal nobility, once pushed into the shadow of the capital's military service nobility, turned into zemstvo boyars and formed a corporation of landowners together with other categories of feudal lords (boyar landownership was formed). Gradually, the tables turn into hereditary ones. princely families(princely landownership). "Settling" on the ground, the ability to do without the help of Kyiv led to the desire to "arrangement" on the ground.

Development of agriculture: 40 types of rural agricultural and fishing equipment. Steam (two- and three-field) crop rotation system. The practice of fertilizing the earth with manure. The peasant population often moves to "free" (free lands). The bulk of the peasants are personally free, they farm on the lands of the princes. The decisive role in the enslavement of the peasants was played by the direct violence of the feudal lords. Along with this, economic enslavement was also used: mainly food rent, and to a lesser extent, working off.

Development of crafts and cities. In the middle of the XIII century, according to the chronicles in Kievan Rus, there were over 300 cities, in which there were almost 60 handicraft specialties. The degree of specialization in the field of metal processing technology was especially high. In Kievan Rus, the formation of an internal market is taking place, but the priority still remains with the external market. "Detintsy" - trade and craft settlements from runaway serfs. The bulk of the urban population - smaller people, bonded "hiremen" and declassed "wretched people", servants who lived in the courtyards of the feudal lords. The urban feudal nobility also lives in the cities and a trade and craft elite is formed. XII - XIII centuries. in Russia - this is the heyday of veche meetings.

main reason feudal fragmentation is a change in the nature of relations between the Grand Duke and his combatants as a result of the latter settling on the ground. In the first century and a half of the existence of Kievan Rus, the squad was completely supported by the prince. The prince, as well as his state apparatus, collected tribute and other requisitions. As the combatants received land and received from the prince the right to collect taxes and duties themselves, they came to the conclusion that the income from military robbery was less reliable than fees from peasants and townspeople. In the XI century, the process of "settlement" of the squad on the ground intensified. And from the first half of the XII century in Kievan Rus, the votchina became the predominant form of ownership, the owner of which could dispose of it at his own discretion. And although the possession of a patrimony imposed on the feudal lord the obligation to bear military service, his economic dependence on the Grand Duke significantly weakened. The incomes of the former combatants-feudal lords depended more on the mercy of the prince. They made their own existence. With the weakening of economic dependence on the Grand Duke, political dependence also weakens.

A significant role in the process of feudal fragmentation in Russia was played by the developing institution of feudal immunity, which provides for a certain level of sovereignty of the feudal lord within the boundaries of his fiefdom. In this territory, the feudal lord had the rights of the head of state. The Grand Duke and his authorities did not have the right to act in this territory. The feudal lord himself collected taxes, duties, and administered court. As a result, a state apparatus, a squad, courts, prisons, etc., are formed in independent principalities-patrimonies, and specific princes begin to dispose of communal lands, transfer them on their own behalf to boyars and monasteries. Thus, local princely dynasties are formed, and local feudal lords make up the court and squad of this dynasty. Of great importance in this process was the introduction of the institution of heredity on the earth and the people inhabiting it. Under the influence of all these processes, the nature of relations between the local principalities and Kyiv also changed. Service dependence is being replaced by relations of political partners, sometimes in the form of equal allies, sometimes suzerain and vassal.

All these economic and political processes in political terms meant the fragmentation of power, the collapse of the former centralized statehood of Kievan Rus. This decay, as it were in Western Europe accompanied by internecine wars. Three most influential states were formed on the territory of Kievan Rus: Vladimir- Suzdal Principality(North-Eastern Russia), Galicia-Volyn principality (South-Western Russia) and Novgorod land (North-Western Russia). Both within these principalities and between them, fierce clashes, destructive wars took place for a long time, which weakened the power of Russia, led to the destruction of cities and villages.

The boyars were the main divisive force. Based on his power, the local princes managed to establish their power in every land. However, later between the strong boyars and the local princes, contradictions and a struggle for power arose. Causes of feudal fragmentation

Domestic political. A single Russian state did not already exist under the sons of Yaroslav the Wise, and unity was supported rather by family ties and common interests in defense against the steppe nomads. The movement of the princes through the cities along the "Row of Yaroslav" created instability. The decision of the Lyubech Congress eliminated this established rule, finally fragmenting the state. The descendants of Yaroslav were more interested not in the struggle for seniority, but in increasing their own possessions at the expense of their neighbors. Foreign policy. The Polovtsian raids on Russia contributed in many respects to the consolidation of the Russian princes to repel external danger. The weakening of the onslaught from the south broke the alliance of the Russian princes, who, in civil strife, themselves more than once brought Polovtsian troops to Russia. Economic. Marxist historiography brought economic causes to the fore. The period of feudal fragmentation was seen as a natural stage in the development of feudalism. The dominance of natural economy did not contribute to the establishment of strong economic ties between the regions and led to isolation. The emergence of a feudal patrimony with the exploitation of a dependent population required strong power in the localities, and not in the center. The growth of cities, the colonization and development of new lands led to the emergence of new large centers of Russia, loosely connected with Kyiv.

Conclusion.

During the period of feudal fragmentation, Russia, remaining a large European country, did not have a single state power which would conduct a common foreign policy for the whole country. In the middle of the XII century. Russian princes entered into allied relations with states that were part of mutually hostile coalitions.

Nevertheless, the largest Russian principalities had a significant impact on the fate of neighboring countries. Back in 1091, when Byzantium was looking everywhere for help against the Seljuk and Pecheneg Turks, it received military support from the Prince of Galicia Vasilko. In general, the Russian princes occupied a much more independent position in relation to the church center of Orthodoxy - Byzantium, than other European states in relation to the center of Catholicism, Rome.

The papal curia sought to draw Russia into the orbit of its policy, but the most far-sighted papal emissaries already then saw the unfulfillment of these hopes. So, at the request of one of the ideologists of militant Catholicism - Bernard of Clairvaux on the possibility of introducing Catholicism in Russia, Bishop Matthew of Krakow in the middle of the 12th century. wrote that "the Russian people, with their multiplicity similar to the stars, does not want to conform to either the Latin or the Greek Church."

Russian princes actively intervened in the international relations of their time. The Vladimir-Suzdal and Galician princes allied to them maintained diplomatic relations with Byzantium, and their opponents, the Volyn princes, maintained diplomatic relations with Hungary. The army of the Galician princes contributed to the strengthening of the Second Bulgarian Kingdom and helped at the beginning of the XIII century. return the throne to the Bulgarian Tsar Ivan Asen II. The Russian princes contributed to the strengthening of the position of the Mazovian princes in Poland. Later, the princes of Mazovia were for some time in vassal dependence on Russia.

Separate principalities of Russia had significant armed forces, which managed to repulse, and partially subjugate the Polovtsians. The rulers of Byzantium, Hungary, Poland, Germany and other countries sought dynastic ties with the Russian princes, especially with the strongest of them - Vladimir-Suzdal and Galicia-Volyn. Rumors about the treasures of Russia struck the imagination of medieval chroniclers in France, Germany and England.

Russian travelers visited different countries. So, the Novgorod boyar Dobrynya Yadreykovich visited at the beginning of the 13th century. Byzantium. He left interesting description attractions of the country. Hegumen Daniel of Chernigov visited Palestine and also described his journey shortly after the first crusade. Chronicles and other monuments show that Russian people are well aware of a number of countries in Europe and Asia.

However international position Russia during the period of feudal fragmentation deteriorated significantly. This was noted by contemporaries-publicists. The “Word on the Destruction of the Russian Land”, created in the first half of the 13th century, describes the beauty and wealth of Russia and at the same time speaks with concern about the weakening of its international significance. Gone are the days when the sovereigns of neighboring countries trembled at the mere name of Russia, when the Byzantine emperor, fearing the Grand Duke of Kyiv, “sent great gifts to him”, when the German knights rejoiced that they were far “beyond the blue sea”.

The weakening of the foreign policy position of Russia, the reduction of its territory was facilitated by the feudal strife of the princes, which did not stop even when enemies invaded the country. The nomadic Polovtsians, having occupied the Northern Black Sea region, made devastating raids on the southern Russian lands, took away the Russian population into captivity and sold it into slavery. They undermined the trade and political ties of Russia with the Black Sea region and the countries of the East. This led to the loss of Russia's possessions in the North Caucasus, as well as the loss of the Taman Peninsula and part of the Crimea, captured by Byzantium. In the west, the Hungarian feudal lords captured Carpathian Rus. In the Baltic states, the lands of the Latvians and Estonians came under attack from the German and Danish feudal lords, while the lands of the Finns and Karelians came under attack from the Swedish. In the XIII century. the Mongol invasion led to the conquest, ruin and dismemberment of Russia itself.

Bibliography:

1) V. K. Gubarev,

2) Saracheva T.G.

3) Gumilyov L.N. From Russia to Russia L.N. / Gumilyov. : Thought, 1992. - 589 p.

4) History government controlled in Russia: textbook / ed. ed. R. G. Pikhoi. - M. : Publishing house of the RAGS, 2006. - 414 p.

5) Kobrin V. B. "History of the USSR from ancient times to 1861" , M., 1989

6) Aleksandrov I.N. , Kropotkina Yu.L. History of the Russian State M.: ESKMO, 2007

7) "History of the Fatherland: people, ideas, solutions.",

tt. 1-2. M., 1991

8) Karamzin N. M. "History of the Russian state.", M., 1991

9) Syrov S.N. "Pages of history.", M.: Russian language, 1977

The feudal fragmentation of Russia is a natural result of the development of early feudal Russian society.
The reasons for feudal fragmentation in Russia can be called economic and political.
The economic ones consisted in the spread of subsistence farming for that period, and, consequently, in the possibility of separating from the state, because. production was carried out not for sale, but "for oneself." The emergence and development of crafts led to the enrichment of the patrimony. The prince's warriors turned into landowners and "settled" on their lands. The number of dependent slaves who had to be kept in check grew, and this required the presence of a police apparatus, but without state intervention. The development of production led to economic and political isolation. Local boyars were not going to share their income with the great Kyiv prince and actively supported their rulers in the struggle for independence and strengthening their own principality.
The political ones were that all the princes and estates were relatives and considered themselves equal to each other. Outwardly, the collapse was a division of territories between representatives of the princely family, which had grown during this time.
stages of decay.
The first attempts to separate from were made after his death in 1052. But the prince united the Russian lands by force and cunning. In 1097, an attempt was made to unite the Russian lands by treaty. The Russian princes Svyatopolk, Vladimir, Davyd Svyatoslavich, Davyd Igorevich, Oleg and Vasilko gathered in Lyubech for a congress, where two issues were resolved:
1) who where to rule;
2) on what conditions to maintain a single state.
Kyiv was recognized as the capital, where tribute is paid - no matter how much it is a pity. Depending on the amount of tribute, help comes from Kyiv.
But already on the way from Kyiv to their lands, two princes kill Prince Vasilko in order to divide his lands. Only the one who reigned from 1113 to 1125 could restore order. in Kyiv, but after his death it became impossible to stop the decay.
In the second quarter of the 12th century, the Polovtsians were completely defeated, the number of nomadic raids on Russian lands decreased sharply, unification became unnecessary, and, starting from the 12th century, the Kiev principality was gradually fading away.
The consequences of feudal fragmentation in Russia consisted in the fact that out of 12 principalities 250 were formed, as a result of which the Russian land became very vulnerable, but at the same time feudal fragmentation contributed to the development of feudal relations. land - the principality and the Principality of Galicia-Volyn were the three most large lands after the collapse. Two names for the land - Vladimir-Suzdal was explained by the fact that it had two rulers: in Vladimir - the prince, in Suzdal - the boyar council. In these lands, the common traditions and principles of management, culture, which had developed during the period of the existence of a single state, continued to be preserved and developed. But along with this, different lands there were peculiarities of development, so the process of formation of local art schools in architecture, painting, literature, there were differences in management.
Novgorod feudal republic
The main governing body in the Novgorod Republic was a veche-meeting of adult men, later - representatives of clans, regardless of social origin. The 200 golden belts (200 boyars) played a leading role in the veche; they constituted the boyar council. Veche was collected only on important occasions, the rest of the time the boyar council ruled, headed by the archbishop. The functions of the archbishop were to keep the state seal, control the issue of coins and control the treasury (he had the keys to the treasury), measures of weight, length and volume (this was important for trade). In addition, he was the supreme judge.
The veche elected the posadnik and the thousandth, who helped the archbishop.
Posadnik - a person who leads foreign policy, monitors the implementation of court decisions, is the head of the militia. The posadnik was chosen from trading people, because foreign policy is primarily trade.
Tysyatsky - the executor of punishments, deputy mayor, he monitored the collection of taxes.
The prince was invited from the Vladimir-Suzdal land in case of war or rebellion. He was entrusted with defense, and after that he was expelled.
The symbol of Novgorod's freedom was the veche bell, which rang until the end of the 16th century. After the conquest of Novgorod by the Moscow princes, the bell was "torn out of its tongue, beaten with whips and exiled to Siberia." From that moment, the existence of the Novgorod land ceased.
Vladimir-Suzdal principality.
The Vladimir-Suzdal principality occupied the interfluve of the Oka and Volga. The sovereign ruler of the principality was the prince. Vladimir princes built the principality as an eastern state, on the principles of despotism, i.e. the prince led the whole life of society.
It was in the Vladimir-Suzdal principality that the Muscovite dynasty was formed. The first of the famous Vladimir princes was one of the younger sons of Vladimir Monomakh, he ruled in Vladimir at the beginning of the 12th century, united a number of lands into a single Vladimir-Suzdal principality, went to Kyiv and burned it.
The son of Yuri - (1157-1174) for the first time began the struggle with the boyars for sole power and at the same time relied on the nobles. The difference between the boyars and the nobles was that the boyars had a fiefdom, and the nobles did not have land, they were the warriors of the prince, to whom the prince gave land for service.
During his reign, Andrei managed to separate the power of the prince from the boyar council, for which the boyars poisoned him.
After his death, Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176-1212) ascended the throne. He was nicknamed so because he had 17 children, and all boys (according to some historical estimates). After his death, enmity and strife began.

Galicia-Volyn principality
Galicia-Volyn principality - the westernmost principality, bordered on Poland and Hungary. The Volyn princes did not have such rights and privileges as the Vladimir princes.
The system of government in this principality was close to European (vassalage). The prince's feudal lords were independent of him. The prince shared power with the boyar Duma, and the boyars had the right to remove the prince. The economy depended on trade relations with Europe, the main commodity was bread.
In addition, the slave trade was developed in the principality, because. it was close to the Mediterranean Sea, and a slave market was developed in the Mediterranean.
The collapse of the Galicia-Volyn principality began in the 14th century, when Volhynia was captured by Lithuania, and the Galician land - by Poland.

All lands had three development paths: republic, despotism or monarchy. Because of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, despotism began to dominate.
Feudal fragmentation in Russia existed until the end of the 15th century, when most of the territory of the former Kyiv principality became part of Moscow.

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Strengthening of individual principalities, the rulers of which no longer want to obey the Kyiv prince. Constant strife.

Unlike Medieval Europe, there was no generally recognized political center (capital) in Russia. The throne of Kyiv quickly fell into decay. At the beginning of the XIII century, Vladimir princes began to be called Great.

When the process of unification of Russian lands begins, these features will lead to a tense struggle between individual principalities for the status of the capital of a single state. In most other European countries, the question of choosing a capital was not raised (France - Paris, England - London, etc.).

First of all, this is the ancient land of the Krivichi and Vyatichi, located in the north-east of Russia. Due to the low fertility of the lands, the colonization of these areas began only at the end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th centuries, when people moved here from the south, fleeing the raids of nomads and the oppression of the boyars-patrimonials. Late colonization also led to a later charm (in the middle of the 12th century), therefore, in Northeast Russia before the beginning of fragmentation, a strong boyar opposition had formed. In this region, the Vladimir-Suzdal (Rostov-Suzdal) state arose with a strong princely power.

1132 – 1157 gg. - the reign of the son of Vladimir Monomakh Yuri Dolgoruky. Remaining a prince of the old school, he continued the struggle for the throne of the grand duke, clearly overestimating its importance. He managed to conquer Kyiv twice in 1153 and 1155. Poisoned by Kievan boyars. In connection with his name, Tula (1146) and Moscow ( 1147 G.)

1157 – 1174 gg. - the reign of the son of Yuri Andrei Bogolyubsky. He abandoned the struggle for the throne of Kyiv and waged active internecine wars. 1164 - campaign in Bulgaria. In honor of the victory and in memory of his son, he built the Cathedral of the Intercession on the Nerl ( 1165g

1176 – 1212 gg. - the reign of Andrei Bogolyubsky's brother Vsevolod Yuryevich Big Nest. The common ancestor of almost all future princes - hence the nickname. Under him, the state reached its peak, but collapsed shortly after his death. It was under Vsevolod that the throne of Vladimir acquired the status of a grand prince (1212), later the metropolitan's headquarters was transferred to Vladimir. Known for his great prestige among his contemporaries. Author of "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" ( 1187

In completely different conditions was the southwestern, Galicia-Volyn Rus. The mild climate and fertile lands have always attracted a mass of agricultural population here. At the same time, this flourishing land was constantly subjected to raids by neighbors - Poles, Hungarians, nomadic steppe dwellers. In addition, due to early charm, a strong boyar opposition formed early here.

Initially, the Galician and Volyn principalities existed as independent states. In an effort to stop the boyar strife, the rulers of these lands, especially Yaroslav Osmomysl Galitsky, more than once tried to unite them. This problem has only been solved in 1199 Volyn prince Roman Mstislavich. After his death in 1205, the boyars seized power in the principality, for a long time turning it into a series of small, hostile destinies. Only in 1238 was the son and heir of Roman Daniel ( Daniel Galitsky

To the north of the Vladimir-Suzdal land was the vast Novgorod land. The climate and soils here were even less suitable for agriculture than in the northeast. But the ancient center of these lands - Novgorod - was located at the beginning of one of the most important trade routes of that time - "from the Varangians to the Greeks" (ie from Scandinavia to Byzantium). The ancient trade route went like this: from the Baltic - to the Neva, then - to Lake Ladoga, then - along the Volkhov River (through Novgorod), - to Ilmen Lake, from there - to the Lovat River, then - by drag, to the Dnieper, and from there - to the Black Sea. The proximity of the trade route turned Novgorod into one of the most important shopping centers Medieval Europe.

. The date of the beginning of the republican period of its history is considered to be 1136 g. - the uprising of the Novgorodians against the grandson of Monomakh Vsevolod Mstislavich. The main role in this state was played by a layer of Novgorod boyars. Unlike the boyars in other lands, the Novgorod ones were not related to the squad, but were descendants of the tribal nobility of the Ilmen Slavs.

posadnik thousandth masters archimandrite- the head of the black clergy. The prince was called to Novgorod. The functions of the prince were limited: the city needed him as a commander of a squad and a formal recipient of tribute from the Novgorod lands. Any attempt by the prince to interfere in the internal affairs of Novgorod inevitably ended in his exile.

Old Russian culture was the result of a complex synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic spiritual traditions. Slavic culture has its roots in the ancient pagan era. Paganism - a complex of primitive beliefs and rituals - had its own history. At first, the Slavs, obviously, animated various elements, worshiped the spirits of forests, water sources, the sun, thunderstorms, etc. Gradually, Rod, an agricultural deity, the god of fertility in general, and goddesses of fertility closely related to him, women in childbirth, acquired great importance. With the formation of state relations, the cult of Perun, the princely retinue god of war, came to the fore (originally revered as the god of thunder and rain). Veles, the god of cattle breeding, and Svarog, the god of the sun and light, were also revered.

In the X-XI centuries. develops epic epic

annals: in addition to weather records of major events, the annals included poetic legends and traditions: about the calling of the Varangians, the campaign of Prince Oleg against Constantinople, etc. The most significant monument is the Tale of Bygone Years, compiled around 1113 by Nestor, a monk of the Kiev Caves Monastery. As Russia fragmented, chronicle writing lost its all-Russian character, breaking up into Vladimir-Suzdal, Galicia-Volyn chronicles, etc.

"A Word on Law and Grace"(1049) the future Metropolitan Hilarion. In 1073, by order of Svyatoslav Yaroslavich, the first Izbornik was compiled - a collection of texts of religious and secular content, intended for reading. Lives of saints played a big role in ancient literature; Princes Boris and Gleb, the sons of Vladimir, who were killed by their half-brother Svyatopolk, were especially revered in Russia. Their lives were written by Nestor, the author of The Tale of Bygone Years. A brilliant example of secular literature was Vladimir Monomakh's "Instruction" (late 11th - early 12th century) - a story about his life as a wise statesman who fought for the unity of Russia. The idea of uniting the forces of Russia to fight the Steppe permeates "The Word of Igor's Campaign". (1187 G.). Interesting "Prayer"

miniatures

plinth- A type of brick. From Byzantium as a model was borrowed cross-domed type of temple (four vaults, grouped in the center of the temple, gave a cruciform structure in plan), but in Russia it received a peculiar development. So, the most grandiose architectural monument of Kievan Rus - the 13-domed St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv (1037) had a pronounced stepped-pyramidal composition, which, like many-domed, was unusual for Byzantine churches. Somewhat simplified Kyiv Sofia Sophia cathedrals were built in Novgorod and Polotsk (XI century). Gradually, Russian architecture receives an increasing variety of forms. In Novgorod in the XII-XIII centuries. many churches are being created - Boris and Gleb in Detinets, Spas-Nereditsa, Paraskeva Pyatnitsa, etc., which, despite their small size and maximum simplicity of decoration, have amazing beauty and majesty. In the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, a peculiar type of architecture was taking shape, distinguished by the elegance of proportions and the elegance of decor, in particular, white stone carvings: the Assumption and Demetrius Cathedrals in Vladimir, the Church of the Intercession of the Blessed Virgin Mary on the Nerl.

mosaic and fresco. In Kyiv's Sophia, mosaics covered the dome (Christ the Pantocrator) and the altar (Our Lady of Oranta); the rest of the temple was covered with frescoes - scenes from the life of Christ, saints, images of preachers, as well as secular subjects: group portraits of Yaroslav the Wise with his family, episodes court life. Of the later examples of monumental painting, the most famous are the frescoes of the Church of the Savior-Nereditsa and the St. Demetrius Cathedral. Original Russian works of icon painting are known only from the 12th century. the Novgorod school (the Savior Not Made by Hands, the Assumption, the Angel of Golden Hair) gained great fame at that time.

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historical portraits

Rurik - Varangian king, leader of the Rus tribe, Prince of Novgorod (862-879), supporters of the Norman theory call him the founder of the state of Russia. Perhaps it is Rorik the Danish, mentioned in the Western chronicles in connection with raids on European cities.

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The period of specific fragmentation in Russia: causes and consequences.

Following the heyday under Yaroslav the Wise, the gradual decline of the Old Russian state begins. The era of fragmentation in Russia is traditionally dated from the middle of the 12th to the middle of the 16th century, when the Moscow centralized state had already formed.

The main reason for the fragmentation was the intricate succession to the throne ( ladder right- succession to the throne medieval Russia when power is transferred to the senior representative of the dynasty). The inconvenience of the ladder system was that the princes constantly had to hit the road, along with his yard and squad. Such a system led to the fact that all the princes began to constantly fight for the grand prince's throne, they wanted to ensure at least some stability for themselves.

As a result, already in the XII century, another system appeared - Specific- a system of transfer of power, in which the prince, during his lifetime, divided his state into several possessions, each of which went to a certain son. The unity of the city began to decrease, at first it was divided into 9 principalities, then this number increased until it reached several.

tens. The process of disintegration of Kievan Rus began as early as 1054, when the Grand Duke died Yaroslav the Wise. (978 - 1054). In 1132, the Kyiv prince Mstislav Vladimirovich the Great (1076-1132), whose authority was recognized by everyone, died.

His successor, Yaropolk, did not have diplomatic qualities, nor any specific talents for ruling, and therefore power began to pass from hand to hand.

For a hundred years after the death of Mstislav, more than 30 princes were replaced on the Kiev throne. Exactly 1132. officially considered the date of the beginning of feudal fragmentation. The main problem was that few people were interested in maintaining Mr.'s political unity.

It was more profitable for each prince to get his inheritance and build cities there and develop the economy. Besides, economic development also did not depend in any way on the unity of individual principalities, tk. they did not trade with each other.

The main reasons for the feudal fragmentation of Russia:

1. Confusing system of succession.

2. The existence of a large number of large cities, each of which had its own political interests and could influence the princes who ruled this city.

3. Lack of economic unity in the Russian lands.

But in the era of feudal

irritating There are both positive and negative. sides - Feud. irritating significantly influenced Russia culturally, as they got the opportunity develop individual small towns away from Kyiv.

There are also many new cities, some of the cat. subsequently become the centers of large principalities (Tver, Moscow). The territories became much more manageable, as the specific princes reacted to the events much faster, due to the relatively small territory of the principality.

But the lack of political unity affected the fall of the country's defense and already in the XIII century.

Russia faced numerous Tatar-Mongol hordes. To resist them in the absence of political. units Russia failed successfully.

Forms of dependence and influence on the development of the Russian principalities of the domination of the Golden Horde.

In the XII-XIII centuries, the Unified Old Russian state broke up into several principalities, which weakened it in the face of external dangers. Meanwhile, in the east, in the steppes north of China, a new powerful state of the Mongols was being formed, it was headed by Khan Timuchin (Genghis Khan).

In 1223

on the river Kalka, a battle took place between the Mongols and detachments of Russians and Polovtsians, as a result of which Russian army and 3 princes Mstislav were defeated. However, having won a victory on the Kalka, the Mongols did not continue their campaign north to Kyiv, but turned east against the Volga Bulgaria.

Meanwhile, the Mongol state was divided into several uluses, western ulus went to the grandson of Genghis Khan - Khan Batu, it was he who would gather an army for a campaign to the west.

In 1235 this campaign will begin. The first city to take the blow of the Tatar-Mongolian army was the city of Ryazan, the city was burned down. Further, the Mongol-Tatars begin to move towards the territories of the possessions of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality.

March 4, 1237 on the river. City- Yuri Vsevolodovich died. Then Rostov, Suzdal, Moscow, Kolomna fell.

1238 - a series of raids on the Chernigov principality. 1239- a large army under the leadership of Batu is moving south, in 1240 g Batu's troops took and plundered Kyiv. Russia was defeated, many cities were destroyed, trade and craft froze. A number of crafts simply disappeared; thousands of icons and books were destroyed in fires. Traditional political and trade ties with other countries were disrupted.

Ruined by the Mongols, the Russian lands were forced to recognize vassal dependence on the Golden Horde.

Control over Russian lands was exercised Basque governors- leaders of the punitive detachments of the Mongol-Tatars.

In 1257, the Mongol-Tatars undertook a census in order to facilitate the collection of tribute. In total there were 14 types of tribute in favor of the Tatars ("Tsar's tribute" = 1300 kg of silver per year).

State positions were distributed in the Horde. Russian princes and the metropolitan were approved by special khan's letters-labels.

Golden Horde yoke:

Formal independence of the Russian principalities from the Horde

Relations of vassalage (a system of relations of personal dependence of some feudal lords on others)

Reigning under the label of the Horde (powers)

Managing methods of terror

Participation of Russian princes in the military campaigns of the Mongols

Reasons for the defeat of Russia:

Fragmentation and strife of Russian princes

Numerical superiority of nomads

Mobility of the Mongolian army (cavalry)

The consequences of the defeat of Russia:

Decline of cities

The decline of many crafts and trade (foreign and domestic)

The decline of culture (Russian lands fell under the rule of the Horde, which increased the isolation of Russia from Western Europe)

Change in the social composition of the squads and their relationship with the prince.

Vigilantes are no longer comrades-in-arms, but subjects of princes → The death of most princes and professional warriors, vigilantes; strengthening of princely power

Formation of the Russian centralized state.

The role of Ivan III.

Fight for overthrow Tatar-Mongol yoke in the XIV - XV centuries. was the main national goal Russian people. At the same time, the rod political life this period becomes the unification process of Russian lands and the formation of a centralized state. The main territory of the Russian state, which took shape in the 15th century, was Vladimir-Suzdal, Novgorod-Pskov, Smolensk, Muromo-Ryazan lands and part of the Chernigov principality.

territorial core formation of the Russian people and the Russian state becomes Vladimir-Suzdal land, in which gradually rises Moscow, turning into the center of the political unification of the Russian lands.

The first mention of Moscow (1147) is contained in the annals, which tells about the meeting of Yuri Dolgoruky with the Chernigov prince Svyatoslav.

Reasons for the rise of Moscow:

Profitable geographical position.

According to V.O. Klyuchevsky, Moscow was in “Russian Mesopotamia” - i.e. in the interfluve of the Volga and Oka.

This geographical position guaranteed her security: from the northwest of Lithuania, it was covered by the Principality of Tver, and from the east and southeast of the Golden Horde - by other Russian lands, which contributed to the influx of residents and an increase in population density. Being at the junction of trade routes, Moscow becomes the center of economic ties.

Church support

The Russian Church was the bearer of the Orthodox ideology, which played an important role in the unification of Russia. Moscow in 1326, under Ivan Kalita, became the seat of the metropolitan, i.e. turns into an ecclesiastical capital.

3. Active policy of Moscow princes

The main rival of the Moscow principality in the struggle for leadership was Tver Principality, the strongest in Russia. Therefore, the outcome of the confrontation largely depended on the smart and flexible policy of the representatives of the Moscow dynasty.

The ancestor of this dynasty is the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky Daniel (1276 - 1303).

Under him, the rapid growth of the Moscow principality began. In three years, his principality has almost doubled in size, becoming one of the largest and strongest in North-Eastern Russia.

In 1303, the reign passed to the eldest son of Daniil Yuri, who for a long time fought against Prince Mikhail Yaroslavovich of Tver.

Prince Yuri Danilovich, thanks to his flexible policy with the Golden Horde, achieved significant political success: he enlisted the support of Khan Uzbek by marrying his sister Konchaka (Agafya), received a label for a great reign in 1319. But already in 1325, Yuri was killed by the son of the Prince of Tver , and the label passed into the hands of the Tver princes.

In the reign Ivan Danilovich Kalita (1325 - 1340) The Moscow principality was finally strengthened as the largest and strongest in North-Eastern Russia.

Ivan Danilovich was a smart, consistent, albeit cruel politician. In his relations with the Horde, he continued the line of external observance of vassal obedience to the khans, the regular payment of tribute, begun by Alexander Nevsky, in order not to give them reasons for new invasions of Russia, which almost completely stopped during his reign.

From the second half of the XIV century. second stage begins unification process, the main content of which was the defeat by Moscow in the 60s - 70s. its main political rivals and the transition from asserting Moscow's political supremacy in Russia.

By the time of the reign of Dmitry Ivanovich (1359 - 1389) Golden Horde entered a period of weakening and protracted strife between the feudal nobility. Relations between the Horde and the Russian principalities became more and more tense.

At the end of the 70s. Mamai came to power in the Horde, who, having stopped the disintegration of the Horde, began preparations for a campaign against Russia. The struggle to overthrow the yoke and ensure security from external aggression became essential condition completion of the state-political unification of Russia begun by Moscow.

the Battle of Kulikovo took place - one of the largest battles of the Middle Ages, which decided the fate of states and peoples. Thanks to the Battle of Kulikovo, reduced amount of tribute. In the Horde, the political supremacy of Moscow among the rest of the Russian lands was finally recognized.

For personal bravery in battle and military merits Dmitry got a nickname Donskoy.

Before his death, Dmitry Donskoy handed over the great reign of Vladimir to his son Basil I (1389 - 1425), no longer asking for the right to a label in the Horde.

Completion of the unification of Russian lands

At the end of the fourteenth century

in the Moscow principality, several specific possessions were formed that belonged to the sons of Dmitry Donskoy. After the death of Vasily I in 1425, his sons Vasily II and Yuri (the youngest son of Dmitry Donskoy) began the struggle for the grand prince's throne, and after the death of Yuri, his sons Vasily Kosoy and Dmitry Shemyaka. It was a real medieval struggle for the throne, when blinding, poisoning, conspiracies and deceptions were used (blinded by opponents, Vasily II was nicknamed the Dark One).

In fact, it was the largest clash between supporters and opponents of centralization. The completion of the process of unification of Russian lands around Moscow into a centralized state falls on the years of government

Ivan III (1462 - 1505) and Vasily III (1505 - 1533).

For 150 years before Ivan III, there was a gathering of Russian lands and the concentration of power in the hands of the Moscow princes.

Under Ivan III, the Grand Duke rises above the rest of the princes not only in the amount of power and possessions, but also in the amount of power. Not by chance a new title "sovereign" appears. The double-headed eagle becomes the symbol of the state when in 1472 Ivan III marries the niece of the last Byzantine emperor Sophia Paleolog. Ivan III, after the annexation of Tver, received the honorary title "By God's grace of the sovereign of All Russia, Grand Duke of Vladimir and Moscow, Novgorod and Pskov, and Tver, and Yugra, and Perm, and Bulgaria, and other lands.

✔Since 1485

Prince of Moscow began to be called the Sovereign of All Russia.

Ivan III faces new tasks - the formalization of legal relations in the expanded Muscovy and the return of lands occupied by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland during the period of the Horde yoke.

The princes in the annexed lands became the boyars of the Moscow sovereign.

These principalities were now called uyezds and were ruled by governors from Moscow. Localism is the right to occupy one or another position in the state, depending on the nobility and official position of the ancestors, their merits to the Grand Duke of Moscow.

A centralized administration began to take shape.

Boyar Duma consisted of 5-12 boyars and no more than 12 okolnichi (boyars and okolnichi - the two highest ranks in the state). The Boyar Duma had advisory functions on "the affairs of the land." In order to centralize and unify the procedure for judicial and administrative activities throughout the state, Ivan III in 1497

Sudebnik was compiled.

The right of peasants to move from one landowner to another a week before and a week after St. George's Day (November 26) with the payment of the elderly.

In 1480 the Tatar-Mongol yoke was finally overthrown. This happened after the clash of Moscow and Mongol-Tatar troops on river Ugra.

Formation of the Russian centralized state

At the end of the XV - beginning of the XVI centuries.

part Russian state entered Chernigov-Seversky lands. In 1510 was included in the state and Pskov land. In 1514 the Russian ancient city became part of the Moscow Grand Duchy Smolensk. And finally in In 1521, the Ryazan principality also ceased to exist. It was during this period that the unification of the Russian lands was basically completed.

A huge power was formed - one of the largest states in Europe. Within the framework of this state, the Russian people were united. This is a natural process of historical development.

From the end of the XV century.

Feudal fragmentation

the term "Russia" began to be used.

The beginning of feudal fragmentation in Russia

The separation of the Russian principalities, which began in the second half of the 11th century, ended after the death of Mstislav Vladimirovich. From the second third of the XII century. Russia entered the stage of feudal fragmentation. Its climax came in the 12th-13th centuries. In the fourteenth century, with the strengthening of the Moscow principality, the political decentralization of Russia gradually weakened and by the second half of the fifteenth century.

The history of homeland. Authors: Yuferova S.V., Trigub G.Ya., editor: Ilyin A.A.

finally outlives itself.

“And the whole Russian Land was irritated,” the Tale of Bygone Years reports under the entry of 1132. “The human eyelids shrunk” and “the life of Dazhbog's grandson perished,” exclaims the author of “The Tale of Igor's Campaign.”

“The death of the Russian Land” is called by contemporaries the “non-loneliness” of Russian princes.

Feudal fragmentation was not feudal anarchy.

Statehood in Russia did not stop, it changed its forms. The painfulness of this turning point reflected the literary consciousness of the era. Russia actually turned into a confederation of principalities, the political head of which was first the great Kievan, and later - the great Vladimir princes. The purpose of internecine struggle has also changed. Now she pursued not the seizure of power throughout the country, but the expansion of the borders of her own principality at the expense of her neighbors.

The prince-earner, seeking to grab a piece of foreign land, and with luck - to take the all-Russian table, is a typical figure of his time. It is not for nothing that a saying has developed in the princely environment: "the place does not go to the head, but the head to the place." And yet, the contractual principle in interprincely relations, although violated, formed the basis political system Russia in the era of fragmentation.

The separation of principalities on the territory of the Kievan state took place everywhere.

It was a nationwide process. It cannot be considered as a consequence of the desolation of the Dnieper region, which began later and was caused by the action of special conditions. The fragmentation of Kievan Rus was due to the formation of stable local associations of the military service nobility, who were fed by income from state taxes. It was also caused by the growth of patrimonial property: princely, boyar, church and monastic land holdings.

The process of gradual settling of the squad to the ground forced the prince to be less mobile, developed in him the desire to strengthen his possessions, and not move to new tables. The political decentralization of Russia was due to the flourishing of cities and the economic rise of individual lands.

In the cities by that time, small-scale handicraft production had already taken shape and local trade had arisen. The orientation of more or less significant feudal estates to regional markets made them extremely independent. political formations, and the larger they were, the more self-sufficient.

Thus, the political reasons for the decentralization of the Kievan state were rooted in the conditions of its socio-economic development.

Large independent principalities, formed during the political fragmentation of Kievan Rus, began to be called lands.

The principalities that were part of them were called volosts. Thus, the structure of the Kievan state was reproduced at the regional level. In the lands, the processes of economic isolation and political fragmentation were repeated with the same regularity as on the all-Russian scale.

Each land gradually turned into a system of small semi-independent principalities with its own ruling dynasty, its senior and junior lines, with a main capital and minor residences. The number of principalities was not stable. In the course of family divisions, new ones were formed. Only in rare cases did neighboring principalities unite. The rule was the reduction of principalities, not without reason there was a saying: "seven princes have one warrior."

There were 12 large lands assigned to the branches of the Rurik family: Kyiv, Pereyaslav, Chernigov-Seversk, Galicia and Volyn (united into Galicia-Volyn), Smolensk, Polotsk, Turov-Pinsk, Rostov-Suzdal (later - Vladimir-Suzdal), Murom, Ryazan, Novgorod and the Pskov land separated from it.

The strongest and most stable formations were the Novgorod land, Rostov-Suzdal and Galicia-Volyn principality. Until the invasion of Batu, Kyiv continued to be considered the all-Russian table. But the prince of Kyiv was not always the oldest, not only in the family, but even in his branch. The nominal nature of the all-Russian rule caused the need for a special title to reinforce political supremacy. So the title was revived Grand Duke, ceased to be used in Russia from the 11th century.

The consistent use of the title is associated with the name of Vsevolod the Big Nest.

In the era of fragmentation, Russian lands became subjects of international relations.

They independently entered into alliances with foreign states. The practice of military alliances between principalities and foreigners was widespread. In the struggle for the Kyiv table (40-70s.

XII century) and the Principality of Galicia (first half of the XIII century) involved Hungarians, Poles and Polovtsy. In the middle of the XII century. Polovtsian raids became frequent again, but starting from the 90s of the 12th century. their intensity began to subside due to the transition of the Polovtsy to settled life. However, until they were completely defeated by the Mongol-Tatars, they continued to participate in the internecine wars of the Russian princes, without committing, however, independent actions. Russian-Byzantine relations developed mainly along the line of the church, since in 1204

The Byzantine Empire temporarily ceased to exist after the capture of Constantinople by the crusaders.

The Russian lands also faced the aggression of the Crusaders in the first half of the 13th century.

The Baltic States became the prey of the German Order of the Sword, whose expansion was accompanied by the distribution of land to German feudal lords and the forced conversion of the population to Catholicism. The Russian colonization of this region was fundamentally different from the actions of the Crusaders. Russian princes were content with receiving tribute. The unification of the sword-bearers with the Teutonic Order in 1237 set before the peoples of this region the task of confronting the order's aggression, which was most successfully solved by Lithuania, Novgorod and Pskov.

The military successes of the Russian city-republics were determined by the nature of their political system. They were not deeply entangled in princely strife, since they had the right to invite princes from Russian lands at their discretion. The most talented militarily were valued: the Novgorodians - Mstislav the Brave, his son Mstislav the Udaly, Alexander Nevsky, the Pskovites - the Lithuanian prince Dovmont.

Other Russian lands became hostages of the political "non-loneliness" of their princes, whom the new powerful enemy, the Mongol-Tatars, defeated one by one, first on the Kalka River, and later during the Batu invasion of Russia.

Among the new forms of feudal relations were landownership, the institution of pawning and palace patrimonies, feudal immunities in the form of charters. The dominant form of land ownership remained patrimonial, which was formed, as in Kyiv period, due to the seizure of communal lands by boyars and princes (the process of beating), the expropriation of the free agricultural population and its subsequent enslavement.

Despite the fact that the estates of spiritual and secular feudal lords in the XII-XIII centuries.

became stronger and more independent, the first estates appeared. Princes, boyars and monasteries most often invited people to military service, i.е. large estates. These, as a rule, were younger princely or boyar children, as well as ruined feudal lords. They made up the court of a prince or boyar, therefore they began to be called nobles, and their plots were called estates (hence the word "landowner" will subsequently come from).

However, the landowner could not arbitrarily dispose of the land, although he acquired the rights of the feudal lord over the population living on this land.

The immunities of feudal lords, which were formalized in Russia as letters of commendation, were closely connected with the institution of pawning. The privileges of the boyars, granted to them by the princes, helped to attract rural residents to the patrimonial lands.

Benefits reflected such feudal holdings from the arbitrariness of volosts-feeders, princely tiuns and other administrative persons of the principalities. The nature of the acquisition of the patrimony determined their name: princely, ancestral, purchased, granted.

Palace agriculture, like patrimonial agriculture, expanded through purchases, seizure, transfer by will, donation, exchange, etc.

The palace economy was under the jurisdiction of the butlers, who were in charge of the lands and people, and the palace routes: falconers, stables, stewards, bedding, etc.

Section 2. Feudal fragmentation in Russia

Causes of feudal fragmentation in Russia:

The dominance of subsistence farming and, as a result, weak economic ties between the regions of the state.
Strengthening of individual principalities, the rulers of which no longer want to obey the Kyiv prince.
Constant strife.
The strengthening of feudal estates and the growth of boyar separatism.
The strengthening of trading cities that did not want to pay tribute to a single ruler.
The absence of strong external enemies, which would require a united army led by a single ruler to fight.
Motley ethnic composition Kievan Rus.

The meaning of feudal fragmentation:

Conditions have been created for the original socio-economic and political development of certain regions of the country.
There is a flourishing of cities, confirming the name given to Russia in Western Europe - Gardarika - the country of cities.
The formation of the three great East Slavic peoples begins - Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian. The Old Russian language has existed since the 13th century.
The defense capability of the Russian lands sharply weakened.
There is an increase in princely strife.

Features of feudal fragmentation:

Unlike Medieval Europe, there was no generally recognized political center (capital) in Russia.
The throne of Kyiv quickly fell into decay. At the beginning of the XIII century, Vladimir princes began to be called Great.
The rulers in all the lands of Russia belonged to the same dynasty.

When the process of unification of Russian lands begins, these features will lead to a tense struggle between individual principalities for the status of the capital of a single state.

In most other European countries, the question of choosing a capital was not raised (France - Paris, England - London, etc.).

During the period of feudal fragmentation, against the backdrop of numerous, constantly diminishing destinies, several lands acquired a very special significance.

Late colonization also led to a later charm (in the middle of the 12th century), therefore, in North-Eastern Russia, a strong boyar opposition did not have time to form by the beginning of fragmentation. In this region, the Vladimir-Suzdal (Rostov-Suzdal) state arose with a strong princely power.

1132 – 1157 gg.

- the reign of the son of Vladimir Monomakh Yuri Dolgoruky. Remaining a prince of the old school, he continued the struggle for the throne of the grand duke, clearly overestimating its importance. He managed to conquer Kyiv twice in 1153 and 1155. Poisoned by Kievan boyars. In connection with his name, Tula (1146) and Moscow ( 1147 G.)

1157 – 1174 gg.

- the reign of the son of Yuri Andrei Bogolyubsky. He abandoned the struggle for the throne of Kyiv and waged active internecine wars. 1164 - campaign in Bulgaria. In honor of the victory and in memory of his son, he built the Cathedral of the Intercession on the Nerl ( 1165g.). In 1169, he took Kyiv, but he did not rule there, but subjected him to demonstrative ruin. Moved the capital from Suzdal to Vladimir. He was distinguished by suspicion and cruelty, for which he was killed by servants.

From 1174 to 1176 - the reign of Mikhail Yurievich.

1176 – 1212 gg.

- the reign of Andrei Bogolyubsky's brother Vsevolod Yuryevich Big Nest.

Feudal fragmentation in Russia - causes and consequences

The common ancestor of almost all future princes - hence the nickname. Under him, the state reached its peak, but collapsed shortly after his death. It was under Vsevolod that the throne of Vladimir acquired the status of a grand prince (1212), later the metropolitan's headquarters was transferred to Vladimir. Known for his great prestige among his contemporaries. Author of "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" ( 1187 d.) wrote about Vsevolod that his squad could "scoop out the Don with helmets, and splash the Volga with oars."

In completely different conditions was the southwestern, Galicia-Volyn Rus.

The mild climate and fertile lands have always attracted a mass of agricultural population here. At the same time, this flourishing land was constantly subjected to raids by neighbors - Poles, Hungarians, nomadic steppe dwellers. In addition, due to early charm, a strong boyar opposition formed early here.

Initially, the Galician and Volyn principalities existed as independent states.

In an effort to stop the boyar strife, the rulers of these lands, especially Yaroslav Osmomysl Galitsky, more than once tried to unite them. This problem has only been solved in 1199 Volyn prince Roman Mstislavich. After his death in 1205

boyars seized power in the principality, for a long time turning it into a series of small, hostile destinies. Only in 1238 was the son and heir of Roman Daniel ( Daniel Galitsky) returned power and became one of the most powerful Russian princes - Daniel became the only prince in Russia to whom the Pope sent the royal crown.

To the north of the Vladimir-Suzdal land was the vast Novgorod land.

The climate and soils here were even less suitable for agriculture than in the northeast. But the ancient center of these lands - Novgorod - was located at the beginning of one of the most important trade routes of that time - "from the Varangians to the Greeks" (i.e.

from Scandinavia to Byzantium). The ancient trade route went like this: from the Baltic - to the Neva, then - to Lake Ladoga, then - along the Volkhov River (through Novgorod), - to Ilmen Lake, from there - to the Lovat River, then - by drag, to the Dnieper, and from there - to the Black Sea. The proximity of the trade route turned Novgorod into one of the most important trading centers of Medieval Europe.

Successful trade and the absence of strong external enemies (and, therefore, the absence of the need for their own princely dynasty) led to the formation of a special state system in Novgorod - feudal (aristocratic) republic.

The date of the beginning of the republican period of its history is considered to be 1136 g. - the uprising of the Novgorodians against the grandson of Monomakh Vsevolod Mstislavich.

The main role in this state was played by a layer of Novgorod boyars. Unlike the boyars in other lands, the Novgorod ones were not related to the squad, but were descendants of the tribal nobility of the Ilmen Slavs.

The supreme body of power in Novgorod was the veche - an assembly of the richest boyars (“three hundred golden belts”), which resolved the most important issues and elected senior officials: posadnik who judged and ruled Novgorod, thousandth, who headed the tax system and the militia; masters y - bishop (later - archbishop) - who led the white clergy, was in charge of the treasury and foreign policy, as well as archimandrite- the head of the black clergy.

The prince was called to Novgorod. The functions of the prince were limited: the city needed him as a commander of a squad and a formal recipient of tribute from the Novgorod lands. Any attempt by the prince to interfere in the internal affairs of Novgorod inevitably ended in his exile.

Culture of the Old Russian state (IX - 3O-s of the XII century)

Old Russian culture was the result of a complex synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic spiritual traditions. Slavic culture has its roots in the ancient pagan era.

Paganism - a complex of primitive beliefs and rituals - had its own history. At first, the Slavs, obviously, animated various elements, worshiped the spirits of forests, water sources, the sun, thunderstorms, etc. Gradually, Rod, an agricultural deity, the god of fertility in general, and goddesses of fertility closely related to him, women in childbirth, acquired great importance.

With the formation of state relations, the cult of Perun, the princely retinue god of war, came to the fore (originally revered as the god of thunder and rain).

Veles, the god of cattle breeding, and Svarog, the god of the sun and light, were also revered.

In the X-XI centuries. develops epic epic associated with the formation of the Kievan state, protecting it from enemies. In the tenth century writing penetrates into Russia - the Cyrillic alphabet, created by the Byzantine missionaries Cyril and Methodius.

played an important role in Russian literature annals: in addition to weather records about the most important events, the annals included poetic legends and traditions: about the calling of the Varangians, the campaign of Prince Oleg against Constantinople, etc.

The most significant monument is the "Tale of Bygone Years" compiled around 1113 by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery Nestor.

As Russia fragmented, chronicle writing lost its all-Russian character, breaking up into Vladimir-Suzdal, Galicia-Volyn chronicles, etc.

The adoption of Christianity gave a powerful impetus to the development of culture. The 11th century is the time of the birth of ancient Russian literature. The oldest work known to us "A Word on Law and Grace"(1049) the future Metropolitan Hilarion. In 1073, by order of Svyatoslav Yaroslavich, the first Izbornik was compiled - a collection of texts of religious and secular content, intended for reading.

Lives of saints played a big role in ancient literature; Princes Boris and Gleb, the sons of Vladimir, who were killed by their half-brother Svyatopolk, were especially revered in Russia. Their lives were written by Nestor, the author of The Tale of Bygone Years. A brilliant example of secular literature was Vladimir Monomakh's "Instruction" (late 11th - early 12th century) - a story about his life as a wise statesman who fought for the unity of Russia.

The idea of uniting the forces of Russia to fight the Steppe permeates "The Word of Igor's Campaign". (1187 G.). Interesting "Prayer" Daniil Zatochnik (beginning of the 12th century), an impoverished petty feudal lord who complains to the prince about boyar arbitrariness and asks him for mercy.

Whatever genre a literary work belongs to, its text is always supplied with colorful miniatures- illustrations in handwritten books.

In Kievan Rus, jewelry technologies reach their peak:

Filigree (finift) - finishing the product with a pattern of twisted wire, wire lace.
Grain - the finest pattern is formed by soldering thousands of tiny balls.
Niello - creating a pattern on jewelry by etching.
Enamel (cloisonne enamel) - obtaining a pattern by applying a glassy mass to the metal.
Engraving is a carved image on metal.

With the adoption of Christianity, stone, primarily church, architecture was developed. Used as the main building material plinth- A type of brick.

From Byzantium as a model was borrowed cross-domed type of temple (four vaults, grouped in the center of the temple, gave a cruciform structure in plan), but in Russia it received a peculiar development. So, the most grandiose architectural monument of Kievan Rus - the 13-domed St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv (1037) had a pronounced stepped-pyramidal composition, which, like many-domed, was unusual for Byzantine churches. According to a somewhat simplified model of Kyiv Sophia, Sophia Cathedrals were built in Novgorod and Polotsk (XI century).

Gradually, Russian architecture receives an increasing variety of forms. In Novgorod in the XII-XIII centuries. many churches are being created - Boris and Gleb in Detinets, Spas-Nereditsa, Paraskeva Pyatnitsa, etc., which, despite their small size and maximum simplicity of decoration, have amazing beauty and majesty.

In the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, a peculiar type of architecture was taking shape, distinguished by the elegance of proportions and the elegance of decor, in particular, white stone carvings: the Assumption and Demetrius Cathedrals in Vladimir, the Church of the Intercession of the Blessed Virgin Mary on the Nerl.

During the heyday of Kievan Rus, the first place belonged to monumental painting - mosaic and fresco.

In Kyiv's Sophia, mosaics covered the dome (Christ the Pantocrator) and the altar (Our Lady of Oranta); the rest of the temple was covered with frescoes - scenes from the life of Christ, saints, images of preachers, as well as secular subjects: group portraits of Yaroslav the Wise with his family, episodes of court life.

Of the later examples of monumental painting, the most famous are the frescoes of the Church of the Savior-Nereditsa and the St. Demetrius Cathedral. Original Russian works of icon painting are known only from the 12th century. the Novgorod school (the Savior Not Made by Hands, the Assumption, the Angel of Golden Hair) gained great fame at that time.

The Christianization of Russia gradually led to the decline of sculpture, whose works were associated with pagan idols.

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Lecture on the topic

"The main stages of the political fragmentation of the ancient Russian state".

Stage I 1054-1097

- after death Yaroslav the Wise when the separation of individual principalities began. During this period, there is a struggle for the throne of Kyiv between the sons of Yaroslav - Izyaslav, Svyatoslav, Vsevolod. As a result of this struggle, Vsevolod came to power ( 1078 - 1093) - "the house of Vsevolod" ruled all of Russia. Having taken possession of Kyiv, Vsevolod gave to his son Vladimir Monomakh the city of Chernihiv, contrary to the son of Svyatoslav Oleg which caused new strife between the now grandchildren of Yaroslav the Wise.

After the death of Vsevolod in 1093, he became the prince of Kyiv Svyatopolk(son of Izyaslav), as the eldest in the family. However, he enjoyed great prestige. Vladimir Monomakh- flexible, strong-willed, resorting either to force or to negotiations, managed to restore the unity of Ancient Russia.

After the death of Svyatopolk in 1113, the people of Kiev demanded that he be appointed to the throne of Kyiv. Grand Prince of Kyiv Vladimir Monomakh became already at the age of 60 and the years of his reign 1113-112 fall on the second stage of feudal fragmentation.

II stage 1097-1132- in 1097 in the town Lyubech, in the family castle of Monomakh, a congress of princes gathered.

Main question –association to fight against the Polovtsy(as a result - trips to the steppe in 1103, 1109, 1111 - “ Crusades"). Russia's campaign 1111 g. reached the city of Sharukan near the Don, the so-called heart of the Polovtsian land. At the Lubech Congress, a call was made for peace and an end to internecine strife from the lips of Vladimir Monomakh- "Yes, everyone rules his patrimony." It turned out to be prophetic, as it essentially initiated a change political structure Russia.

The country divided into 3 princely estates:

Estate of the Izyaslavichs - Svyatopolk
The patrimony of the Svyatoslavichs - Oleg (Olgovichi, Olegovichi)
The patrimony of the Vsevolodovichi - Vladimir Monomakh (monomashichi)

Thus,Lyubech congress Princes approved an agreement on securing the princely thrones on the ground for separate branches of the Rurik dynasty, and from that moment the real process of the collapse of Kievan Rus begins.

In 1125, after the death of Vladimir Monomakh, his son came to power Mstislav the Great (1125 - 1132), who continued the policy of his father and was also loved by the people.

Stage III 1132- after death Mstislav the Great the period began when "the whole Russian land is irritated." A period of strife began between the three branches of the Rurikovich family - the Yaroslavichs, which led to the final fragmentation of the state into separate lands.

Total on the territory of Russia in the XII century. there were 15 lands that continued to be crushed further. Among all the newly formed lands during this period, three stood out:

Ø Vladimiro - Suzdal land(strong princely power)

Ø Novgorod Republic(the power of the prince, limited by the veche)

Ø Galicia - Volyn land(power was shared by the prince and the boyars).

Thus,became a reality territorial and political fragmentation, new compared to ancient Russian state, a form of state-political organization based on the transfer of ownership of a territory by inheritance from father to son.

The legal substantiation of the new principle of inheritance was fixed by the congress of princes in the city of Lyubech in 1097. The new principle of the organization of power turned the Russian land from the possession of the Rurik family into a set of independent "fatherlands", hereditary possessions of individual branches of the princely house.

The nature of the new state formations.

§ Despite the fragmentation of Russian lands, integrity Russia was preserved to a certain extent: First of all united by a common faith, language, the operation of common laws (Large Truth), Secondly the idea of unity, which was especially manifested in times of strife and other disasters, did not disappear in the people's minds.

§ A dual self-consciousness was formed, in which Russian people considered their Fatherland and the Russian land as a whole, and at the same time the lot where they lived - the Ryazan volost, Polotsk, Smolensk, Pskov, etc.

§ The desire of specific princes to strengthen regional centers and secure certain volosts for themselves and their descendants was accompanied by a struggle for tables that were not the property of any branch - this was the struggle for the Kyiv throne.

Kyiv, as the all-Russian capital, became the object of a kind of collective ownership. Despite the fact that the power of the Kyiv prince was nominal, the possession of Kyiv gave certain political and moral advantages. Therefore, in the XII century. a fierce struggle unfolded for the capital of the ancient Russian state.

1169- Kyiv was subjected to a terrible defeat by the united Kanyazis, under the leadership of Andrei Bogolyubsky (son of Yuri Dolgoruky).

Before 1199 – duumvirate system in Kyiv - a system of co-government of representatives of 2 different dynasties: the Monomakhoviches and the Olegovichs.

With 1199

by 1205 in Kyiv "power of Roman"(Roman is the son of Mstislav the Great). Under Roman, the rise of Kyiv was the last, after him the Kyiv land collapsed.

Thus, the struggle for the Kyiv throne led to the devastation of the Kyiv land and the loss of its former significance.

Feudal fragmentation

After some time, the table of the Grand Duke of Kyiv lost its appeal for local princes, who focused on expanding and developing their own possessions - estates.

In the XIV century. Kyiv land was absorbed by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

Findings.

v Fragmentation was regular a stage of political development in the Middle Ages, characteristic not only for Russia, but also for other states.

v State-political fragmentation weakened military potential of Russia, but also contributed to the improvement control systems, created favorable conditions for the development of economy and culture in regional centers.

v Fragmentation intensified princely strife, which led to the weakening of the Russian lands and became one of the factors of the national catastrophe caused by the Horde invasion.

The disintegration of the early feudal state into several large independent entities is a natural stage in the development of feudal relations, characteristic of both Western and Eastern European countries. This period lasted in Russia from the 30s of the 12th century until the end of the 15th century.

During this time, the fragmentation of the once unified state increased more and more: by the middle of the 12th century, there were 15 principalities, at the beginning of the 13th century - 50, in the 14th century - about 250.

Causes of feudal fragmentation:

The growth in the number of cities (by the beginning of the Tatar-Mongol invasion there were about 300) in the conditions of subsistence economy led to the natural isolation of individual territories, which became economically independent from each other, since they provided for themselves. Already not only Kyiv, but also other cities could claim the role of cultural, trade and craft centers.
Local ruling groups (princes, boyars) were strong enough to independently maintain order in their territories and protect their interests.
The existing system of vassalage gave rise to special hierarchical relationships within the ruling elite of society: each feudal lord had certain obligations to the allied (standing above the feudal lord); most of the feudal lords had subordinate vassals (lower feudal lords), which ensured independence and independence of existence, and, consequently, the direct dependence on centralized power disappeared.

Stages of political fragmentation of the ancient Russian state:

1054 After the death of Yaroslav the Wise, the separation of individual principalities began
1097 The Lyubech Congress of Princes approved an agreement on securing the princely thrones in the field for separate branches of the Rurik dynasty
1132 After the death of Mstislav the Great, the final fragmentation of the state into separate lands and principalities took place
Since 1132, the process of crushing continued already within the lands and principalities

Features of feudal fragmentation:

Unlike Medieval Europe, in Russia there was no generally accepted political center (capital). The throne of Kyiv quickly fell into decay. At the beginning of the 13th century, Vladimir princes began to be called Great.
The rulers in all the lands of Russia belonged to the same dynasty.

Main political centers:

Galicia-Volyn land (in the southwest)

The Galicia-Volyn principality occupied lands in the basins of the Dnieper, Prut, Southern and Western Bug, stretching from the Carpathians to Polissya. In the 12th century, there were 2 independent principalities on this territory: Volyn and Galicia. In 1199 they united into the mighty Galicia-Volyn principality.

Vladimir-Suzdal land (in the northeast)

(originally Rostov-Suzdal) Occupied the territory between the Oka and Volga rivers. Rich in fertile soils, forest lands, water meadows, this land was the most fertile land, in addition, it was also well protected by natural barriers (rivers, forests) from external enemies.

Novgorod land (in the northwest)

The largest center of Russian lands in the northwest. It occupied the largest region in terms of territory - from the Baltic to the Ural ridge and from White Sea to the interfluve of the Oka and Volga. Novgorodians possessed huge land funds and the richest crafts.

State fragmentation in Russia

In the 30-40s. 12th century princes cease to recognize the power of the Kievan prince. Russia breaks up into separate principalities (“lands”). For Kyiv began the struggle of different princely branches. The strongest lands were Chernihiv, Vladimir-Suzdal, Galicia-Volyn. Their princes were subject to princes whose possessions (destinies) were part of large lands. The prerequisites for fragmentation are the growth of local centers, already burdened by the guardianship of Kyiv, the development of princely and boyar land ownership. The principality of Vladimir rose under Yuri Dolgoruky and his sons Andrei Bogolyubsky (d. 1174) and Vsevolod the Big Nest (d. 1212). Yuri and Andrei captured Kyiv more than once, but Andrei, unlike his father, planted his brother there, and did not reign himself. Andrew tried to rule by despotic methods and was killed by conspirators. After the death of Andrei and Vsevolod, feuds broke out between their heirs. The Galician principality strengthened under Yaroslav Osmomysl (d. 1187). In 1199, when Yaroslav's son Vladimir died childless, Galich was captured by Roman Volynsky, and in 1238, after a long struggle, Roman's son Daniel. The development of this land was influenced by Poland and Hungary, which actively intervened in local strife, as well as the boyars, much more influential and powerful than in other principalities. Novgorodians in 1136 they expelled Prince Vsevolod and from then on began to invite princes by decision of the veche. The real power lay with the boyars, whose factions fought among themselves for influence. The same situation was in Pskov, which depended on Novgorod. In the 1170s. the Polovtsian danger intensifies. The southern princes, led by Svyatoslav of Kyiv, inflicted several defeats on them, but in 1185 Igor Novgorod-Seversky was defeated and captured by the Polovtsy, the nomads ravaged part of southern Russia. But by the end of the century, the Polovtsy, having broken up into many separate hordes, stopped the raids.

Causes of feudal discord:

Increasing the importance of patrimonial land tenure
disadvantages of the patrimonial principle of succession to the throne
weakening the political and economic role of Kyiv
the reason for the feudal strife was the Lyubech Congress. He changed the principle of succession to the throne and introduced the principle from father to sons.

15 large samost princes were named lands. Only 2 princes were not transferred to anyone in the heritage: Kivevks and Novgor.

Why didn't the Kievan Prince split up?:

formally, the prince of Kiev was considered the grand duke
all the strongest princes could claim the throne of Kiev

The feud of razdr-th is a natural stage in the development of the society, the cat has passed all countries. Therefore, it is impossible to evaluate fr unambiguously:

Positive:

Intensive development of regions, power closer to the people
feudal strife became less frequent
intensive perfect ek-ki, namely agricultural production, transition to 2-3 field system,
intensive wear and tear met o / t, urban development.

By the end of the 13th century, there were about 300 cities in the KKN. There is a transformation of cities into centers of crafts and trade, merchant corporations are being created, and the system of local self-government is developing.