Presentation on world history on the topic "India after the Second World War". III

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India after the Second World War secondary school No. 1 "Ivanova Olga Nikolaevna.

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Until the middle of the 20th century, India consisted of principalities dependent on Great Britain and territories that were British colonies. India was considered by Great Britain as a source of raw materials (coal, ore, cotton, etc.). British India and the native principalities in 1909

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Lokamanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak was an Indian radical nationalist, social reformer and independence fighter. By nationality - Marathi. The first leader of the Indian independence movement - the Indian National Congress (1885) Swaraj "law" - a synonym for the concept of self-government used by Mahatma Gandhi. Usually correlated with Gandhi's concept of India's independence from Great Britain. Swaraj basically means political decentralization and management not through the government, but through members of society and public meetings.

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The national liberation movement in India, the largest British colony, intensified after the Second World War. It was led by two parties - the Indian National Congress (INC), whose leader was Jawaharlal Nehru, and the Muslim League, led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah. The INC advocated the preservation of the integrity of the country, and the Muslim League demanded the creation of Pakistan - an independent Muslim state. The British tried unsuccessfully to reconcile the positions of both sides. In June 1947, a plan was developed, according to which the country's territory was to be divided on religious grounds into 2 states - India and Pakistan. The plan served as the basis for the Indian Independence Act passed by Britain. On August 15, 1947, British troops were withdrawn from Indian territory. Two new states appeared on the world map - the Indian Union (India) and Pakistan. National Liberation Movement in India Jawaharlal Nehru Muhammad Ali Jinnah

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The borders between the newly formed states did not reflect the features national composition which led to armed conflicts between India and Pakistan. It is estimated that more than 6 million Muslims and 4.5 million Hindus migrated. Nearly 700,000 people died in Hindu-Muslim clashes. Mahatma Gandhi sharply spoke out against the Hindu-Muslim enmity, declaring a hunger strike in protest. However, his position was not shared by extremists from both parties. In January 1948, M. Gandhi was mortally wounded during one of the rallies. His death caused the leaders of the INC and the Muslim League to look for opportunities for compromise and reconciliation. In 1947-1949. 555 Indian principalities (out of 601) joined India, the rest became part of Pakistan.

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On November 26, 1949, a new Indian constitution was adopted, which entered into force on January 26, 1950. India is a parliamentary federal republic. The head of state is the president, elected for a 5-year term by the electorate. supreme body legislature- Parliament, consisting of two chambers - the People's Chamber and the Council of States. The government of India - the Council of Ministers - is formed by the parliamentary faction of the party that won the elections to the House of the People. The Prime Minister and Government of India enjoy considerable power. The judiciary as the third branch of government functions independently.

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Jawaharlal Nehru became the first Prime Minister of independent India. The economic course of J. Nehru provided for the division of industry. Thus, the industry of India consisted of three sectors: - state - heavy industry, energy, vehicles, connection; mixed - modern industries economy; private - easy and food industry. Western countries shared their technical experience with India, provided loans, invested in Indian industry. Since 1955, they began to develop at an accelerated pace economic relations between India and the USSR. In December 1953, the first Soviet-Indian agreement was signed on the participation of the USSR in the construction of a metallurgical plant with a capacity of 1 million tons of steel in Bhilai.

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Reforms of Jawaharlal Nehru. Development of state capitalism (mixed economy) Agrarian reforms Improvement of the health care and education system Comprehensive development of relations with all states of the world Administrative and political reforms (state reorganization law)

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New modern industries began to develop in the country - aerospace, instrument making, petrochemical. In the agricultural sector of the economy, the situation was much worse. home social problem the Indian village - small plots of land for the majority of rural workers - was solved with great difficulty. The government eliminated the institution of intermediaries who rented land from the landlords and then subleased it to the peasants, had a fixed rent, bought out part of the landowners' land and transferred it to the peasants. However, the essence of the INC's agrarian policy was to support the development of large, highly productive farms. In the growth of grain production, a certain role was played by " green revolution» - a set of agrotechnical measures for the application high-yielding varieties crops, fertilizers, modern agricultural equipment. However, the "green revolution" was limited.

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INC in 1947-1964 took a clear position on such fundamental issues as the struggle for peace, security and cooperation with other countries, countering aggression, colonialism and racism. J. Nehru and his country stood at the origins of the non-aligned movement. At the initiative of India, Indonesia and Yugoslavia, in September 1961, the First Conference of the Heads of State and Government of 25 non-aligned countries was held in Belgrade. However, at that time, relations between India and China were seriously complicated. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the PRC laid claim to certain areas in the Himalayas. This was the reason for the escape from Tibet to India of the Dalai Lama - the "living god" of all Buddhists. The support of the Dalai Lama by the Indian government worsened relations between states, which led to armed conflict. Chinese troops captured part of Indian territory in the Himalayas. These troubles adversely affected the health of J. Nehru, and in May 1964 he died.

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In mid-1973 - early 1974, as a result of the world energy crisis, the cost of importing oil increased manifold, due to which two-thirds of India's needs for this type of raw material were covered. The level of production in the energy sector has dropped sharply. Prices have risen due to inflation. The terrible drought caused great damage to agriculture. The standard of living of the population, already low, was declining. Despite the course announced by the government of Indira Gandhi to achieve economic independence, India was forced to take large foreign loans. In the context of the economic crisis, the resistance of the opposition was growing. In this situation, on June 26, 1975, the government declared a state of emergency in the country.

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1. 1. In June 1947, a final agreement was reached, allowing the British Parliament to pass the Indian Independence Act, which came into force on August 15, 1947. This document set out the principles of the partition, according to which a number of areas are granted there was an opportunity to decide whether to join the Indian Union or Pakistan, and the right of each of these dominions to self-government with the right to secede from the Commonwealth was declared. The suzerainty of the English monarchy over the Indian principalities was also terminated, as well as the effect of treaties concluded with them. The people of East Bengal and West Punjab opted for Pakistan, while the people of West Bengal and East Punjab voted for joining the Indian Union.
2. 2. Immediately after gaining independence in India, a government was formed headed by Prime Minister J. Nehru. The country experienced unprecedented clashes between Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs. There was a mass migration of Muslims to Pakistan, and Hindus to India. To intercommunal hostility and clashes were added the economic and political difficulties caused by partition. Railways, roads and irrigation canal systems were cut off by state borders, industrial enterprises were cut off from sources of raw materials, civil services, the police and the army, necessary to ensure the normal administration of the country and the security of citizens, were separated. January 30, 1948, when violations public order began to decline, Gandhi was killed by a Hindu fanatic.
3. 3. The rulers of 555 principalities had to decide whether they should join India or Pakistan. The peaceful integration of the vast majority of small principalities did not cause complications. But the Muslims, who were at the head of the richest and most populous principality of Hyderabad, where the Hindus predominated numerically, declared their desire to rule an independent sovereign country. In September 1948, Indian troops entered Hyderabad, and under pressure from the central Indian government, the lower classes signed an agreement on joining the Indian Union.
4. 4. A serious situation arose in the north, where the ruler of Jammu and Kashmir, a territory with a predominantly Muslim population, was a Hindu Maharaja. Pakistan exerted economic pressure on the principality to secure its accession. In October 1947, about 5,000 armed Muslims entered Kashmir. The Maharaja, who was in dire need of help, signed a document on the inclusion of the principality in India. India accused the Pakistani side of aggression and referred the issue of Kashmir to the UN Security Council for discussion. The UN decided to recognize as a demarcation line the actual ceasefire line as of January 1, 1949. November 17, 1956 integral part India.
5. 5. Relations with Pakistan have become a major issue in India's foreign policy. The protracted dispute over Kashmir prevented India from taking a leadership role in the Non-Aligned Movement. When Indian Prime Minister J. Nehru refused to cooperate with the US in combating Soviet expansion, the Americans entered into a military alliance with Pakistan. This forced the Indian leadership to expand contacts with China and the USSR. Indo-Soviet ties became noticeably stronger after the conclusion of a major trade agreement in 1953 and the exchange of visits by the leaders of the two states. The USSR welcomed the Indian policy of non-alignment, which coincided with its strategic line of limiting US influence in the Afro-Asian region.
6. 6. January 26, 1950 India was proclaimed a republic. The 1950 constitution reflects the cautious position of the leadership and consolidates the successes achieved during the country's independent development. The relatively simple procedure for amending the constitution on the basis of majority decisions in parliament increased the scope for further reforms. Under J. Nehru, who was also the head of the planning commission, three five-year plans were implemented. The industrial policy focused on the creation of a mixed economy and opened up prospects for cooperation with private capital, although only state ownership was allowed in the leading industries. This rule affected enterprises of the defense industry, ferrous metallurgy, heavy engineering, mining, etc.
7. 7. The course to stimulate the development of industry was combined with a policy of cautious reforms in the agrarian sector. The planning commission urged the states to legislate to protect the rights of land users, such as limiting rents, setting a ceiling on the area of ​​individual land holdings, and reorganizing the marketing system on a cooperative basis, and in the more distant in the future, perhaps, agricultural production. Since 1953, the implementation of a community development program began, which set, in particular, the task of organizing a network of institutions for the dissemination of advanced agricultural experience in the countryside, as well as the creation of cooperative associations and panchayats in the countryside.
8. 8. The government delayed reaching a compromise on the issue of reorganizing the territorial-administrative division on a linguistic basis, and when in 1956 14 states were formed on the basis of dominant languages, other ethnic communities became dissatisfied. In 1960, serious unrest in the state of Bombay forced the central authorities to meet demands for its division into two new states - Gujarat and Maharashtra. The Sikhs succeeded when in 1965 the Punjab was divided into the state of Punjab, in which the Sikhs were the majority, and the state of Haryana, with a predominantly Hindu population. The ethnic problem arose even more sharply in the northeastern border zone, where some local tribes demanded independence and raised armed uprisings for this purpose.
9. 9. Compromise with the leading castes seriously limited the ability of the government to carry out social transformations in the countryside. The agrarian reform laws that were approved by the states contained significant gaps that allowed, on the one hand, to drive tenants off the land, and, on the other hand, to bypass the provision on the upper limit of land holdings. The slow roll-out of change has resulted in chronic agricultural shortages, higher food prices, and cuts in government subsidies. In the early 1960s, the financial crisis deepened. Economic stagnation, in turn, limited the ability to maneuver for the INC.
10. 10. The authority of Nehru in October 1962 was significantly undermined after the invasion of Chinese troops into the territory of the North-Eastern Frontier Agency and into the mountains of Ladakh in Kashmir. In an effort to secure links between the Xinjiang Uyghur and Tibet Autonomous Regions, China tried to force India to give up its rights to the strategically important Aksai Chin Plain in eastern Ladakh in Kashmir. The armed forces of the People's Republic of China delivered several blows to the Indian army and occupied an area of ​​37.5 thousand square meters. km. By the time China announced the withdrawal of troops from all occupied areas except Aksai Chin, Nehru was forced to turn to the United States for military assistance. Ladakh
11. 11. Nehru's successor as prime minister, Shastri, was nominated to the post by a group of party leaders called the syndicate, supported by large landowners and entrepreneurs. In 1965, experts from the World Bank determined the provision of financial assistance to the implementation of a set of economic reforms. During the year and a half of his tenure as prime minister, Shastri made decisions to reorient the main flow of public investment from heavy industry to Agriculture; emphasis on intensive farming and melioration; incentives through the price system and the allocation of subsidies to rural farms that are able to modernize production; increasing the role of private and foreign investment in industry. The economy became especially dependent on financial inflows from abroad when the additional burden of military spending fell on the country during the second war with Pakistan in 1965.
12. 12. The losses suffered by the INC in the parliamentary elections in 1967 did not deprive it of a narrow victory at the national level, but led to a defeat in 8 states. In the states of Kerala and West Bengal, the INC was ousted from power by a coalition led by the Communist Party of India. In both states, the leftist governments limited the activities of the police, and there unfolded actions of tenants and the agricultural proletariat against the landowners and factory workers - against the management of enterprises. Revolutionary-minded communists supported armed peasant riots in several states where the CPI was active. In the late 1960s, they organized performances by minorities in Andhra Pradesh and members of the Scheduled Tribes and Castes in West Bengal, which were suppressed by the army.
13. 13. The country's next prime minister, Indira Gandhi, could no longer rely on the old party leaders and allied herself with a small youth group of socialists and ex-communists. The prime minister's decisive actions to nationalize the largest commercial banks connected her name with new policy focused on helping the poor. The popularity of the prime minister reached its peak in 1971 as a result of victory in the third Indo-Pakistani war. With the emergence of Bangladesh, India found itself in a dominant position in the South Asian region. Moreover, in May 1974 it carried out nuclear tests, which demonstrated the increased military power of the country.
14. 14. In 1971, the government restored the right of Parliament to amend the Constitution, which had been canceled in 1967 by a Supreme Court ruling. The adopted 26th Amendment stated that any law must comply with the fundamental articles of the Constitution, based on the principles of social and economic justice. When the amendment was rejected by the Supreme Court in April 1973, the government removed the three oldest judges who had voted against it and appointed one of its members, who had spoken in favor of the amendment, as chairman of the court. The leaders of all opposition forces, except for the CPI, saw this act as a threat to the establishment of an authoritarian regime. J. Narayan, the oldest follower of Mahatma Gandhi, became the leader of the opposition. Narayan launched a campaign in Gujarat, which led in January 1974 to the resignation of ministers and the dissolution of the state legislature. An equally vigorous campaign was carried out in Bihar.
15. 15. On June 2, 1975, the accusation of Gandhi of "corrupt practices" gave her opponents the opportunity to organize a movement to remove the prime minister. In response, Gandhi imposed a state of emergency in India, resulting in mass arrests of political opponents and widespread censorship. In the March 1977 parliamentary elections, the new Janata Party, which was a bloc of opposition groups, won a landslide victory and repealed the emergency law. However, the Janata government soon became the victim of internal intrigues. Its head, M. Desai, resigned in June 1979, and Gandhi came to power again in the January 1980 parliamentary elections.
16. 16. Participation of the electorate in the 1980 elections fell to about 55% with an increase in the number of conflicts during the election campaign. In West Bengal, Kerala and Tripura, the KPI won. The central government faced a resurgence of separatist movements in the northeast, and a series of sectarian and communal unrest in Uttar Pradesh. In all cases, to restore order, it was necessary to resort to military force. In June 1984, after the outbreak of Sikh terrorism in the Punjab, the army stormed the Sikh shrine, the Golden Temple in Amritsar, which led to the death of the Sikh leader Bhindranwale and hundreds of his adherents who had taken refuge in the temple. Gandhi's decisive action was greeted with approval in other parts of India, but revolted against the Sikh premier. October 31, 1984 I. Gandhi was killed by two of her guards, Mi-Sikhs. She was succeeded as head of government and as leader of the INC by her son, Rajiv Gandhi, who called parliamentary elections for the end of 1984 and won them a landslide victory.
17. 17. In the 1989 elections, the parties that opposed the INC (I) united around former minister Finance VP Singh, who then headed a minority government. Singh's government was based on the Janata Dal Party, founded in 1988, and supported by the Hindu nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and two communist parties. The coalition collapsed in November 1990 when the BJP withdrew from it. Chandra Sekhar's next government resigned four months later because the INC(I) did not approve the draft state budget.
18. 18. Rajiv Gandhi was killed by a bomb thrown by a Sri Lankan Tamil terrorist in May 1991. It was an act of revenge for the introduction of Indian troops into the north of Sri Lanka in 1987 to counter the Tamil separatists. The new Prime Minister Narasimha Rao carried out decisive economic reforms in 1992, designed to modernize the country's industrial, scientific and technical base. Less successful was the activity of the Rao government in preventing intercommunal clashes that arose after the destruction of a mosque in Uttar Pradesh by orthodox Hindus in December 1992.
19. 19. Elections in April-May 1996 led to the distribution of seats in parliament between the three main factions: the INC (136 seats), the BJP (160) and a left-wing coalition called the United Front (111 seats). After the BJP refused to enter the majority government, the new prime minister, H. D. Deve Govda, invited the INC to participate in it. The basis of the government was made up of representatives of regional and leftist parties.
20. 20. In April 1997, the INC refused to support the coalition led by Govda, and the Prime Minister was forced to resign. His place was taken by Inder Kumar Gujral, appointed by the President and confirmed by Parliament, who continued his predecessor's course of economic liberalization and growth of economic indicators, but refused to further cut social spending. India's foreign policy dialogue with Pakistan and China has intensified. The resignation of the government of Gujral led to early parliamentary elections in March 1998. A coalition of 18 parties came to power, in which the BDP held a leading position.
21. 21. The main task of the new Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee was to maintain a coalition government led by the BJP. In April 1999 there was a government crisis and the government was forced to resign. The lower house of parliament was dissolved. New parliamentary elections were held in October 1999. Despite the active participation in the election campaign of the Indian National Congress, the National Democratic Alliance, led by the BJP, won the majority in parliament. Vajpayee became Prime Minister again. India's nuclear tests have complicated its relations with most of the world's states. In today's unstable environment, the figure of the president remains a factor of stability, who in 1997 for the first time in the history of the country elected a representative of the former "untouchable" caste Kocheril Raman Narayanan, who previously held the post of vice president under Sh. D. Sharma, who belonged to the Brahmin caste.

At the end of the war, the political situation in the country began to deteriorate sharply. Powerful strikes of the working class and peasant uprisings swept northern India, especially in Bengal. In 1945-1946. Calcutta became the scene of mass demonstrations by the population, who more than once erected barricades in the fight against the British military and police punitive forces. In February, there was an uprising in the fleet, which received a wide response in North India. A revolutionary situation was created in the country.
The Labor government of England was forced to yield. On August 15, 1947, Jawaharlal Nehru raised the flag of independent India at the historic Red Fort in Delhi.

Two states were formed: India and Pakistan. The gain of independence was overshadowed by the grandiose clashes between Muslims and Hindus and Sikhs that took place during the division of the country, the resettlement of millions of refugees. The economic consequences of the partition were also severe. All this was most felt in the east and northwest of North India. The situation was complicated by the armed conflict of 1947-1949. between India and Pakistan due to the principality of Kashmir, which entered India as a separate state. In 1947, the national leader, M. K. Gandhi, was assassinated by an extremist religious fanatic.

During the first years of independence, when India remained a British dominion, efforts were made to overcome the negative economic consequences of the partition of the country in 1947, the Indianization of the government apparatus, and the integration of Indian principalities into the states of independent India. The Constituent Assembly in 1949 adopted a new constitution, according to which India became a sovereign republic on January 26, 1950, retaining some ties with the Commonwealth, the successor to the collapsed British colonial empire.

Achievement main goal liberation movement - political independence - led to a new broad regrouping political forces. Intensified social class contradictions came to the fore. Against the backdrop of continued mass actions of workers and peasants, a split occurred in all organizations of workers, especially in trade unions, where three main trade union centers were organized: under the auspices of the INC - the Indian National Congress of Trade Unions, the CPI-VIKP and the United Congress of Trade Unions under the auspices of the congress socialists who left the INC who took shape in the People's Socialist Party. Biggest Influence Left trade unions in North India were used in Bengal, in individual industrial centers such as Kanpur and Delhi.

The Communists retained their influence in the Kisan Sabha, which led powerful peasant uprisings in the 1940s and early 1950s in Bengal, Bihar, the United Provinces and Punjab. The peasants demanded the abolition of the zamindari system, the reduction of rents and taxes, and the granting of tenants' property rights. In 1948, the INC announced its intention to carry out an agrarian reform. In the party itself, a sharp struggle unfolded over the question of the strategy and tactics of the economic and socio-political development of the country. In 1951, the center-left wing led by J. Nehru won a victory, as a result of which a course began to be pursued towards the bourgeois

Change of mood in India after comingto Labor power

British Labor government having won a landslide victory in the parliamentary elections, was determined to resolve all problems in India as soon as possible. Britain's strategy was set out in the government's declaration of September 19, 1945.

The head of the government, K. Attlee, sent three members of his cabinet to India in order to achieve an agreement between the Congress and the Muslim League before granting independence to the country. But during the war years, relations between these organizations deteriorated markedly, and the leader of the Muslim League, M. Ali Jinnah, believed that England was more disposed towards the Congress. Therefore, attempts by the British to reach an agreement between the INC and the League ended in failure.

March 15, 1946 India was granted status dominion, and in April, elections were held for provincial legislatures. In May 1946, the Viceroy published a plan: it was proposed to create a federation of three zones with very broad powers (North-West, East and Central). But the plan was again rejected by both the Muslim League and the INC.

In July 1946, elections to the Constituent Assembly were held (deputies were appointed from the Provincial Legislative Assemblies), and the Viceroy proposed D. Nehru to form a government. The Muslim League refused to enter the new government, and 10 august 1946 G. M. Ali Jinnah urged Muslims to openly fight for transportationannouncement of Pakistan.

In Bengal and in Sindh, where the governments of the Muslim League were in power, a universal hartal was declared. But when the League activists began to force the Hindus to close shops, shops and workshops, clashes broke out, which escalated into a bloody massacre in Calcutta on August 16 - about 20 thousand people were killed. On the same day, unrest spread to Benares, Allahabad, Dhaka and Delhi. Massacres and arsons took place everywhere, in 4 days, according to official figures, more than 6 thousand people were killed. With great difficulty M.K. Gandhi, using his personal authority, managed to suppress the clashes in Calcutta, but nevertheless the massacre was constantly renewed in one place or another.

September 2, 1946 Mr. D. Nehru finally formed government with the participation of Hindus, Parsis and Christians. On October 15, 1946, the Muslim League also formally entered the government, but it continued to boycott its work. The massacre did not stop, flows of refugees rushed to different parts of the country. Gandhi unsuccessfully threatened a hunger strike in an effort to end the unrest. These events instilled fear in people, many abandoned their homes and sought salvation in the areas where fellow believers lived.

The situation in India after the end of World War II

Immediately after the end of the war, in addition to sharp disagreements between religious communities, India faced a number of other problems.

First tied with officers of the former Indian National Armymissions (INA). S.Ch. himself Bose, shortly before the end of the war, died in a plane crash, but hundreds of officers were captured and against them in November 1945 were launched trials. In India, many considered them patriots, they were treated with sympathy. In defense of the INA officers, mass demonstrations took place, for example, in November 1945, a general strike took place in Calcutta, then such actions were repeated several times.

Second the problem is related to use after the Indian wartroops in Indonesia and French Indochina. Since the autumn of 1945, a protest movement has unfolded in India against the use of Indian troops to suppress national movement in other countries. The protesters demanded the return of Indian troops to their homeland and their speedy demobilization. The peak of the movement came in February 1946.

At this time, military pilots went on strike, demanding demobilization and protesting against racial discrimination against Indians; In Bombay, a strike of military sailors began, demanding the immediate withdrawal of troops from Indonesia. The performances of the sailors in Bombay were supported by a general strike announced on February 22, 1946. Only Vallabhai Patel managed to persuade the strikers to return to work - the conflict was resolved.

Third problem - peasant movement, which began in the principalities at the very end of the war. The most massive demonstrations were in the largest principality - Hyderabad (in Telingan), where the peasants opposed the fact that land was taken away from tenants. In 1946 this movement was also supported in the colony, especially in the Central Provinces. Unrest also took place in another principality - Kashmir. There, protests were directed against the despotism of the prince, satyagraha even took the form of refusing to pay taxes. The leaders of the INC and personally M.K. Gandhi repeatedly interfered in the affairs of Kashmir, demanding that the prince release the arrested activists of the National Conference, an organization that enjoyed great authority in Kashmir.

Fourth problem associated with the outbreak in India after the end of the war food crisis, turned into a real famine (according to some sources, a third of the population was covered by it).

Thus, India was torn apart by deep contradictions, many of which threatened to become unmanageable in the foreseeable future, which, of course, strengthened the desire of England to leave the region as soon as possible.

Completion of independence negotiations

On December 9, 1946, the Constituent Assembly finally opened. Rajendra Prasad was elected chairman. But the situation in the country was complicated: religious unrest continued in the winter of 1946/47.

In early 1947, Viceroy Wavell concluded that it was impossible to form a single central authority in India. He recommended that the British government either retain control of India for at least another 10 years, or grant independence gradually, province by province. The British government clearly did not like this option, and March 22, 1947 d. it appointed Lord Mountbatten's new viceroy, a man who spent the entire war in India as commander of the troops. It was announced that Britain would withdraw from India no later than June 1948.

Mountbatten got down to business very actively. He believed that even this date (June 1948) was too late, by which time the violence would be uncontrollable. The British government agreed with this conclusion. 3 July 1947 Mountbatten introduced planpartition of India. By that time, it became obvious that it would hardly be possible to maintain unity, and even such ardent opponents of the division as M.K. Gandhi agreed with this.

It was proposed to simultaneously grant the rights of dominions, dividing India into two states: India and Pakistan. Pakistan consisted of two parts - western and eastern. Western Pakistan was to include Sindh, Balochistan, the North-West Frontier Province and the Western Punjab (approximately 1 / 4 throughout the province). To the eastern part of Pakistan departed East Bengal (about 2 / 3 of the territory) and the Sylhet district of Assam, where a referendum was held.

Pakistan did not even represent a single whole: its western part was separated from the eastern strip of Indian territory in 1600 km. In itself, it was an absurd state formation, in which the most different nations with a common religion.

Another part of Mountbatten's plan was devoted to Indian princegestures. There were about 600 of them, and formally they were not part of the English colony. According to Mountbatten's plan, all the principalities should be included either in India or in Pakistan - the rulers themselves had to decide this. But principalities could not declare themselves independent states.

While the top was only busy with the transfer of power, there was no time left for a thorough demarcation of the border in Punjab and Bengal. This was entrusted to a special demarcation commission chaired by Cyril Radcliffe. The commission worked for two months, but it was impossible in principle to draw boundaries that would suit everyone. Millions of people began to leave the areas that went to the neighboring state.

Many people died during this mass exodus. The roads filled with hundreds of thousands of refugees moving in opposite directions and occasionally trying to settle scores with each other. Sikhs attacked Muslims, Muslims attacked Hindus. Cruelty gave birth to cruelty, enmity engulfed vast territories. Nevertheless, over 45 million Muslims remained in India, which accounted for 12% of the population; the Hindu minority survived in Pakistan - about 30 million Hindus lived in East Bengal.

Many misunderstandings occurred in the division of finance, office work, administrative functions, and the armed forces. 90% of minerals and industrial potential turned out to be on the territory of India, and Pakistan concentrated the production of food and agricultural raw materials on its territory. The population of India was 320 million people, Pakistan - 71 million people.

And yet On August 15, 1947, the independence of the twostates of India and Pakistan. D. Nehru became the prime minister of India, C. Rajagopalacharia became the governor-general, Liikat Alikhan headed the government of Pakistan, and M. Ali Jinnah became the governor-general.

The granting of independence to India and Pakistan had a huge impact on the neighboring English colonies. February 4, 1948 independence was proclaimed Ceylon (Sri Lanka). Then they gained state sovereignty Nepal and Burma. The long period of colonial dependence on England was coming to an end.

conclusions

/. The war that began in 1939 interrupted the gradual withdrawal of the British from India. In the outbreak of conflict with the colonial authorities, the INC tried to put pressure on England, using circumstances that were unfavorable for her. The leaders of the national movement in India were convincedthat the main thing is to achieve the departure of the British, and all other problems are resolvedwobble on their own.

The Muslim League, having adopted the Lahore Resolution on Pakistan in 1940, did not join the boycott of the British authorities. Filling the vacuum after the resignation of the governments formed by the INC, she began to propagate the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bdividing the country, in which she succeeded a lot.

India made a significant contribution to the victory anti-fascist coalition, becomingfor England the main supplier of food, raw materials and industrialgoods. During the war, the situation in the national economy changed for the better.nomy, the process of ousting British capital from it accelerated, the financial system of India and the position of local entrepreneurs strengthened.

After 1945, the continuously deteriorating situation in India forced the British to speed up the process of granting independence to the country. Massacre 1946-1947 finally convinced the public that the independence of the WHOonly if it is divided into two states: India and Pakistan.

The end of the Second World War and the first post-war years constituted a whole historical epoch for Asia. The August Revolution in Vietnam won, the liberation of Indonesia began, Burma, Laos, and Cambodia became independent. Revolutionary China was celebrating the success of many years of struggle.
The same period saw the national liberation revolution in India. No longer relying on the hypocritical promises of England, the Indian working class and the Indian peasantry demanded independence and achieved it by revolutionary means. In February 1946, an uprising of Indian military sailors began (almost 20 ships raised red flags).
The British Labor government was to make a declaration granting political independence to India within the framework of the British Commonwealth of Nations.
A special mission sent to India from London proposed the following plan: India will be transformed into a union of autonomous provinces and principalities, and after that it will be entitled to be considered a dominion; provinces, in turn, are divided into Hindu and Muslim - on a religious basis.
This plan had a chain dismemberment of the country: it was assumed that in this way it would be easier to keep it in its former dependence.
After various maneuvers aimed at separating and quarreling among themselves the two main political parties of national liberation - the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League - England succeeded in carrying out a plan for the partition of India. The law of August 15, 1947 created two dominions: India and Pakistan.
Pakistan (111 million people) was made up of two parts separated by 1.5 thousand kilometers from each other. The principality of Kashmir was claimed by both India and Pakistan. Already in October 1947, Pakistani armed detachments occupied part of Kashmir. At the request of the Maharaja of Kashmir, the principality was included in India (1947).
The dismemberment of the country entailed innumerable disasters. Hundreds of thousands of people were forcibly moved from one dominion to another. Economic ties that had been established for centuries were artificially severed. Religious strife became even more fierce.
When the division into two parts of the province of Punjab began, the struggle between the Hindus (and Sikhs), on the one hand, and the Muslims, on the other, resulted in a massacre. About 500 thousand people died and at least 12 million were left homeless. Pogroms and massacres swept over the whole vast country and, as far as the Punjab is concerned, have not stopped until now.
The dismemberment was followed by the creation of the governments of India and Pakistan. The government of India was formed by the Indian National Congress - the party of the national bourgeoisie, landowners, and intellectuals. D. Nehru became the head of the government.
The national independence of India receives its final confirmation in the act of January 26, 1950, by which India is declared a "sovereign and democratic republic." On the same day, the constitution of the Indian Republic was put into effect.
The constitution proclaimed the federal structure of the new state: at the beginning, the states differed in the form of government, but in 1956 a reform was carried out that introduced a new administrative division. Currently, the states have a uniform system of government.
The principalities of India (Hyderabad, Mysore, etc.) were to become part of the republic: the attempts of their feudal overlords to remain aloof were frustrated by the masses.
The equality of citizens is recognized regardless of the caste and religion to which they belong.
The castes of which we spoke, characterizing ancient India have not disappeared to this day. This division is especially noticeable in the countryside, where the custom holds on stronger and longer.
The predominance of Brahmins (Brahmins) is undoubtedly in political life: they comprise the main cadres of government officials highest rank, leaders political parties and organizations.
At least 70 million people of the Indian population are "untouchables": rickshaws, sweepers, messengers, sewers, etc. And although the laws are on their side, the old customs have not yet disappeared.
The Constitution contains a special reference to the provision of the people with the means of subsistence as a task of management, and the protection of the labor of workers and minors.
In this regard, it is worth mentioning agrarian reform(the task of which should be the destruction feudal tenure and feudal survivals in general), as well as the policy of industrialization of the country.
The first agrarian reform began to be carried out in 1948, but it was limited in nature, carried out by state governments, and amounted to some alienation (for a fee) of the surplus land of the landowners. The redemption payments were very high (10-15 year annuity), and therefore only the kulaks benefited from the fruits of the reform.
In subsequent years, new measures were taken to redistribute land. However, even after that the situation changed little: the peasants owned the same amount of land (27 percent) as the 2 percent of the big landowners.
The industrialization of the country is carried out on the basis of government plans. Special attention devoted to the creation of the public sector National economy. India has created some of the most important industrial complexes.
In November 1949, the constitution of India came into force. The head of the Indian Republic is the President, who is elected for a term of 5 years. He appoints the prime minister of the government (Council of Ministers). The latter is responsible to Parliament. Parliament is bicameral. One of its chambers is elected by state electors, the other by popular vote. The right to vote is universal and is granted to citizens from the age of 21.
Bearing in mind the separatist aspirations of some states, and even more the inevitability of sharp social clashes, the Indian constitution provides for the right of the president to declare a state of emergency and take emergency measures to curb anti-government actions.