False Dmitry II and the Polish-Swedish intervention. Open Polish and Swedish intervention in Russia at the beginning of the 17th century

Polish and Swedish interventions of the early 17th century

actions of the expansionist ruling circles of the Commonwealth and Sweden, aimed at dismembering Russia and eliminating its state independence. The formation of plans for aggression dates back to the end of the Livonian War of 1558-83 (See Livonian War of 1558-83). After 1583, Stefan Batory put forward a plan for the subordination of the Russian state to Poland. The conquest plans of the Swedish feudal lords were developed by 1580 by King Johan III and included the capture of Izhora land, the city of Korela with the county, as well as North Karelia, the Karelian coast, the Kola Peninsula, the coast White Sea to the mouth of the Northern Dvina. But domestic political and international causes prevented at the end of the 16th century. start implementing these plans. The rise of the anti-feudal struggle (see Peasant War of the Beginning of the 17th Century) and the aggravation of contradictions within the ruling class in Russia at the beginning of the 17th century. significantly weakened its foreign policy position. This was taken advantage of by the ruling elite of the Commonwealth (Sigismund III, Catholic circles, a significant part of the Polish-Lithuanian magnates), which, due to the complexity of the internal and external situation, resorted to disguised intervention, supporting False Dmitry I (See False Dmitry I). In return, False Dmitry I promised to transfer the Commonwealth (and partly to his father-in-law Yu. Mnishek) the western regions of the Russian state, support it in the fight against Sweden, introduce Catholicism in Russia and take part in the anti-Turkish coalition. However, after the accession, False Dmitry I, for various reasons, refused to make territorial concessions to Poland and conclude a military alliance against Sweden. The murder of an impostor in May 1606 during the anti-Polish uprising in Moscow meant the collapse of the first attempt at aggression by the Polish feudal lords against Russia.

The second stage of the disguised intervention is associated with the name of False Dmitry II (See False Dmitry II) . Aggravation of the class struggle and contradictions in the Commonwealth Rokosh a M. Zebrzydowski (1606-07) did not allow the government of the Commonwealth to go over to open hostilities. The basis of the military forces of False Dmitry II were detachments of Polish-Lithuanian magnates. As a result of the spring campaign of 1608 and the victory near Volkhov (May 1608), the troops of False Dmitry II approached Moscow and, having settled in the Tushino camp (See Tushino camp) , started besieging it. In July 1608, the government of V. I. Shuisky concluded a truce with the government of Poland, under which the Russian side was obliged to release all the Poles captured in Moscow in May 1606, and the government of Sigismund III was to withdraw the Polish troops from the territory of Russia. The Polish side did not comply with the terms of the armistice, and in August 1608, a detachment of Ya. P. Sapieha (about 7.5 thousand people) also arrived in Tushino. A new upsurge in the class struggle in the western, central and Volga regions of Russia, directed against the feudal government of Shuisky, allowed the Tushino detachments in the fall of 1608 to capture a significant territory of the European part of the Russian state. Then the Shuisky government concluded the Vyborg Treaty with the Swedish king Charles IX (February 1609), according to which Sweden provided Russia with mercenary detachments of troops (mainly Germans and Swedes), paid by Russia, and the Shuisky government was obliged to cede to the Swedes the city of Korel with the district (however, the local Karelian the population opposed it). Huge monetary and in-kind requisitions, as well as violence and robbery, which accompanied the collection of them by Polish detachments, caused a spontaneous and rapid growth of the national liberation struggle of the population of the White Sea coast and the Volga region. This led to a crisis in the Tushino camp, in which power from December 1608 passed to the Polish leaders (Hetman Prince Ruzhinsky, who actually led the Tushino troops from the winter of 1608) and 10 elected from various detachments. Relying on the national liberation movement, M. V. Skopin-Shuisky in May 1609 began a campaign from Novgorod and by the end of the summer he had liberated the territory of the Trans-Volga and Upper Volga regions, including Yaroslavl. Earlier as a result of actions local population and the troops of F.I. Sheremetev (see Sheremetevs), the Lower and Middle Volga regions were cleared.

The failure of False Dmitry II, the internal political weakness of the government of V.I. Shuisky and some stabilization of the internal situation in the Commonwealth led to the beginning of open aggression of the Polish government against Russia; this action was approved by Pope Paul V. Using the Vyborg treaty between Russia and Sweden as a pretext, the Polish troops began the siege of Smolensk (September 1609), which accelerated the collapse of the Tushino camp. On December 27, False Dmitry II fled from Tushin to Kaluga, and in March 1610 a significant part of the Tushin Polish troops went over to Sigismund III. On February 4 (14), 1610, the embassy of Russian feudal lords, who were previously supporters of False Dmitry II, headed by M. G. Saltykov, concluded an agreement with Sigismund III, according to which his son Vladislav was recognized as the Russian Tsar. The treaty contained a number of restrictive articles (Vladislav's conversion to Orthodoxy, the preservation of official, court and land privileges and the rights of Russian feudal lords, etc.), which the Poles formally accepted, but nevertheless continued aggression. The campaign against the Polish army ended with the defeat of the Russian government troops near Klushino on June 24 (July 4), 1610, one of the reasons for which was the betrayal of the Swedish mercenaries. This led to the fall of the Shuisky government. A new government was created in Moscow ("Seven Boyars"), which concluded on August 17 (27), 1610 a new agreement with the commander of the Polish army, hetman Zolkiewski. Vladislav was recognized as the Russian Tsar. Sigismund III pledged to end the siege of Smolensk. But the Polish government was not going to fulfill the agreement, because. Sigismund III himself intended to become the Russian Tsar. On the basis of the agreement, Polish troops entered Moscow (on the night of September 20-21) and real power was concentrated in the hands of the Polish command (Hetman Gonsevsky) and his direct accomplices (M. G. Saltykov, F. Andronov, etc.). The rule of the Polish feudal lords in Moscow caused a new upsurge in the national liberation struggle. However, the First Militia of 1611, due to the aggravation of class contradictions in it, actually disintegrated. On June 3, 1611, Smolensk fell, the heroic defense of which for almost 2 years fettered the main forces of the Polish troops. But already in September 1611, the formation of the Second Militia began in Nizhny Novgorod (see). As a result of his actions, Moscow was liberated on October 26, 1612. In the autumn of 1612, Sigismund III again unsuccessfully tried to capture Moscow. The unsuccessful outcome of the "Moscow War" strengthened the opposition to the king. Having secured new appropriations from the Sejm in 1616, the Polish government in 1617 made a last attempt to conquer the Russian state. Polish troops besieged Moscow. Having been defeated during its assault, they were forced to retreat in October 1618. The military failure and the change in Poland's foreign policy position as a result of the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War of 1618–48 forced the Polish government to sign the Deulino Truce of 1618. Russia lost Smolensk, Chernigov, Dorogobuzh and other cities of the southwestern and western outskirts, but received a long respite.

Open Swedish aggression against Russia began in the summer of 1610, but since 1604 the government of Charles IX followed the course of Polish aggression, offering far from disinterested military assistance to the successive Russian governments. The conclusion of the Treaty of Vyborg in 1609 gave Charles IX a pretext for intervening in the affairs of the Russian state. After the fall of the Shuisky government, the Swedish troops, led by J. Delagardie, switched to open aggression. In August 1610, the Swedes besieged Ivangorod, and in September - Korela (fell on March 2, 1611). At the end of 1610 - beginning of 1611, Swedish troops undertook unsuccessful campaigns against Kola, the Sumy jail and the Solovetsky monastery. In the summer of 1611, the Swedes began hostilities against Novgorod. Trying to use the Polish-Swedish contradictions, the leadership of the First Home Guard started a relationship with Delagardie, inviting one of the Swedish princes to the Russian throne in exchange for providing military assistance. However, the governors of Novgorod surrendered the city to the Swedes (July 16). An agreement was concluded between Delagardie and the Novgorod secular and spiritual feudal lords, who tried to represent the Russian state as a whole, under the terms of which the patronage of Charles IX was recognized, an alliance was proclaimed against Poland, and the election of one of his sons (Gustav Adolf or Karl Philip) to the Russian throne was guaranteed. Prior to the ratification of the treaty, Delagardie remained in Novgorod as chief governor. Using the agreement, the Swedish troops by the spring of 1612 captured Koporye, Yam, Ivangorod, Oreshek, Gdov, Porkhov, Staraya Russa, Ladoga and Tikhvin; the attempt of the Swedes to take possession of Pskov was unsuccessful. After the arrival of the Second Militia in Yaroslavl (April 1612), its leadership established relations with the Novgorodians; a wait-and-see policy was pursued with respect to the Swedes. After the restoration of central state power in Moscow, the Swedish troops tried to capture new areas, but their actions ran into resistance from the masses. In the summer of 1613, as a result of joint actions of the urban population and Russian troops, Tikhvin and Porkhov were liberated, a 3,000-strong Polish-Lithuanian detachment operating on the side of Sweden was defeated. In the course of unsuccessful negotiations with the delegates of Novgorod (August 1613 - January 1614), the Swedish government sought either inclusion in Sweden Novgorod land, or the annexation of the Izhora land, the Kola Peninsula, North Karelia, the western and southwestern coasts of the White Sea. In 1614 and 1615, the Swedish command, in order to include the northwestern regions of Russia into Sweden, tried to force the Novgorodians to swear allegiance to the new Swedish king Gustav u II. In response to this, a guerrilla war of the population of the Novgorod land unfolded against the Swedish troops. After a new unsuccessful siege of Pskov in the summer of 1615, the Swedish government agreed to start peace negotiations with the government of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich (See Mikhail Fedorovich) , which ended with the signing of the Peace of Stolbovsky in 1617 (See Stolbovsky Peace of 1617). Under the terms of the agreement, Karl Philip renounced claims to the Russian throne, Russia returned most of Novgorod land, but Sweden was ceded to the city of Korela with the district and Izhora land with Ivangorod, Yam, Koporye and Oreshok. The conclusion of the Stolbovsky treaty and the Deulinsky truce marked the collapse of the aggressive plans and the intervention of the Polish-Lithuanian and Swedish feudal lords.

Lit.: Platonov S. F., Essays on the history of unrest in the Muscovite state of the XVI-XVII centuries, M., 1937; Lyubomirov P. G., Essay on the history of the Nizhny Novgorod militia 1611-1613, M., 1939; Zamyatin G. A., On the issue of the election of Charles Philip to the Russian throne (1611-1616), Yuryev, 1913; his own, "Pskov seat" (Heroic defense of Pskov from the Swedes in 1615), in the collection: Historical Notes, vol. 40, M., 1952; Figarovsky V.A., Rebuff to the Swedish interventionists in Novgorod, in the book: Novgorod Historical Collection, c. 3-4, Novgorod, 1938; Shepelev I. S., Liberation and class struggle in the Russian state in 1608-1610, Pyatigorsk, 1957; Shaskolsky I.P., Swedish intervention in Karelin at the beginning of the 17th century, Petrozavodsk, 1950; Florya B.N., Russian-Polish relations and the Baltic issue in the late 16th - early 17th centuries, M., 1973; Almguist H. K. H., Sverge och Ryssland. 1595-1611, Uppsala, 1907; Sobieski W., Zółkiewski na Kremlu, Warsz. -, 1920; Maciszewski J., Polska a Moskwa. 1603-1618, Warsz., 1968; see also lit. under the articles Deulinsky truce of 1618, False Dmitry I, False Dmitry II, People's militia under the leadership of Minin and Pozharsky, First militia of 1611, "Seven Boyars", Stolbovsky Peace of 1617.

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- (Polska) Polish People's Republic (Polska Rzeczpospolita Ludowa), Poland. I. General information P. socialist state in Central Europe, in the basin of the river. Vistula and Odra, between the Baltic Sea in the north, the Carpathians and ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

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In the spring of 1607, False Dmitry II appeared in Russia. His identity has not been established. According to one version, he is the son of a priest, according to another - a home teacher, according to the third - the son of A. M. Kurbsky, according to the fourth - the son of a Starodub nobleman, according to the fifth - a Jew. On June 12, 1607, the inhabitants of Starodub swore allegiance to him. The army of the impostor was commanded by the Polish commander Mekhovetsky. She occupied Kozelsk, Karachev, Orel and laid siege to Bryansk. When government troops delivered food to Bryansk, False Dmitry II lifted the siege.

In April 1608, 4,000 Poles under the command of Rozhinsky came to the camp of the impostor. They removed Mekhovetsky and elected Rozhinsky as hetman. In June 1608, the army of False Dmitry II approached Moscow and stopped in Tushino, so they began to call him the "Tushino thief." On July 25, 1608, Russia and Poland signed a truce for three years. On September 23, 1608, the army of the impostor under the command of J. Sapega laid siege to the Trinity-Sergius Monastery. See Solovyov S. M. History of Russia since ancient times. T. 8. Skrynnikov R. G. Minin and Pozharsky. pp. 94 - 119.

In 1609, Vasily Shuisky turned to the Swedish king Charles IX with a request for help in the fight against False Dmitry II. The Swedes captured all the Russian fortresses on the Baltic coast, except for Nut. The Polish king Sigismund III used the involvement of Swedish mercenaries in the Russian army to fight False Dmitry II as a pretext for declaring war on Russia. The reasons for the war were the aggressive policy of Poland towards Russia and the desire of Russia to unite all the East Slavic lands. The aggressiveness of Poland was explained by the fact that the support of the government was the petty nobility. It sought to maintain its possessions in Ukraine and Belarus and hoped to get new lands in Russia. On September 19, 1609, the Poles besieged Smolensk. The defense of the city was led by the boyar M. B. Shein. In the spring and summer of 1609, M. V. Skopin-Shuisky liberated the north of Russia from the Tushino people.

On January 12, 1610, Ya. Sapega was forced to lift the siege of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery. The beginning of an open war led to the collapse of the Tushino camp. Most of the Poles went over to the side of their government. Only Rozhinsky remained with the impostor. He treated False Dmitry II like a prisoner, so in December 1609 the impostor fled to Kaluga and on December 11, 1610 was killed. The nobles who were in the Tushino camp nominated the Polish prince Vladislav as a candidate for the throne. On February 4, 1610, they concluded an agreement with Sigismund III on the election of Vladislav as the Russian Tsar.

According to the agreement, Vladislav was obliged to accept Orthodoxy and did not have the right to issue new laws without the consent of the Boyar Duma and the Zemsky Sobor. The treaty forbade the transfer of peasants from one landowner to another. D. I. Shuisky tried to free Smolensk from the siege, but on June 24, 1610 he was defeated near Klushino. The defeat of the Russian army near Klushino opened the way for the Poles to Moscow. On July 17, 1610, the conspirators led by P.P. Lyapunov overthrew Vasily Shuisky. Power passed to the boyar government, which went down in history under the name of the Seven Boyars.

• On August 17, the inhabitants of Moscow took the oath to Vladislav. The nobles saw in him a lesser evil compared to False Dmitry II. On September 20, the government let a Polish detachment into Moscow under the command of S. Zolkiewski. On his initiative, the Moscow boyars and nobles sent an embassy to the Polish king, headed by V.V. Golitsyn and F.N. Romanov. Sigismund III refused to let his son go to Moscow, because he wanted to take the Russian throne himself and completely subordinate Russia to Poland. Thus, there was a threat to the independence of Russia. In January 1611, P.P. Lyapunov organized a people's militia. Its basis was made up of nobles and Cossacks. The closest associates of P.P. Lyapunov were Prince D.T. Trubetskoy and Cossack ataman I.M. Zarutsky. Prince D. M. Pozharsky was elected commander-in-chief. In March 1611, the militia approached Moscow.
• On March 19, an uprising broke out in the city. The reason for it was the insult by the Poles of Patriarch Hermogenes. The vanguard of the militia under the command of D. M. Pozharsky entered Moscow. The Poles set fire to the city, the rebels were poorly armed, so they were defeated. D. M. Pozharsky was seriously wounded. The militia retreated to the outskirts of Moscow. According to N. I. Kostomarov, the Poles killed about 8 thousand civilians. See Kostomarov N. I. The Tale of the Liberation of Moscow from the Poles in 1612 and the Election of Tsar Mikhail. // Kostomarov N. I. Historical monographs and research. M., 1989. S. 75. On July 22, 1611, the Cossacks accused P. P. Lyapunov of intending to destroy the Cossacks and return the runaway peasants and serfs to their former owners and killed him. According to N. M. Karamzin, P. P. Lyapunov was slandered by I. M. Zarutsky. According to R. G. Skrynnikov, a fake letter on behalf of P. P. Lyapunov with a call for the destruction of the Cossacks was written by the Polish colonel A. Gonsevsky. See Skrynnikov R. G. Minin and Pozharsky. S. 197.

After the death of P.P. Lyapunov, the nobles left the militia and waged a partisan war against the Poles in the vicinity of Moscow. On June 3, 1611, the Poles stormed Smolensk. The surviving defenders of the city, led by M. B. Shein, were captured. In the same year, the Swedes occupied Novgorod. Novgorod governor I. N. Odoevsky concluded a peace treaty with the commander of the Swedish army, J. Delagardie, confirming the terms of the Tyavzinsky peace. I. N. Odoevsky recognized the son of Charles IX as the Russian Tsar, and J. Delagardie - his governor and pledged to obey him in everything. See Kostomarov N. I. The Tale of the Liberation of Moscow from the Poles in 1612 and the Election of Tsar Mikhail. P. 75. Karamzin N. M. History of the Russian state. T. 12 // Moscow. 1989. No. 12. S. 142 - 144.

Only the turmoil that reigned in our country at that time saved the Novgorod governor from responsibility for treason - a crime that at all times and among all peoples was considered one of the most serious. In September 1611, K. M. Minin appealed to the people of Nizhny Novgorod to create a new militia. K. M. Minin was born in Balakhna in the family of a small salt industrialist, in his youth he came to Nizhny Novgorod and engaged in trade. In 1611 he was a zemstvo headman. Letters from K. M. Minin, Patriarch Hermogenes and the monks of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery were distributed throughout the country. In Nizhny Novgorod, the formation of the second people's militia began. D. M. Pozharsky was again elected commander-in-chief. In March 1612, the militia left Nizhny Novgorod and arrived in Yaroslavl. There he continued his formation and training. K. M. Minin and D. M. Pozharsky created the Council of the whole earth - a provisional government.

At the same time, the second Council of the whole land operated under the leadership of D.T. Trubetskoy and I.M. Zarutsky. A conflict arose between the leaders of the two militias, since I. M. Zarutsky and D. T. Trubetskoy recognized the Pskov impostor. In July 1612, K. M. Minin and D. M. Pozharsky learned that a strong and numerous Polish army under the command of Hetman Ya. Khodkevich was heading towards Moscow. D. M. Pozharsky was ahead of Ya. Khodkevich and, thus, seized the strategic initiative. This largely ensured the victory of the Russian army.

• On August 22-24, 1612, a decisive battle took place between the Russian and Polish armies. The militia of K. M. Minin and D. M. Pozharsky numbered 10 thousand people, the army of J. Khodkevich - 12 thousand, the Polish garrison in the Kremlin - 3 thousand. Consequently, the Polish army outnumbered the Russian one by 1.5 times. D. M. Pozharsky deployed his army on the western outskirts of Moscow, and not on the eastern outskirts, as suggested by D. T. Trubetskoy. D. M. Pozharsky gave D. T. Trubetskoy five horse hundreds.
• On August 22, J. Khodkevich launched an offensive. The Russian army recaptured it and went on the counterattack several times. J. Khodkevich brought infantry into battle. Noble cavalry could not withstand the pressure and retreated. Then D. M. Pozharsky ordered the nobles to dismount and fight on foot. In the afternoon, J. Khodkevich threw all his forces into battle in order to break through the defenses of the Russian militia on the Arbat and in the area of ​​the Tver Gates. The archers opened deadly fire on the enemy and forced him to stop attacking. At the same time, the Polish garrison made a sortie from the Kremlin. She was repulsed. A hand-to-hand fight ensued. The troops placed at the disposal of D.T. Trubetskoy and the Cossacks from the first militia counterattacked the enemy and forced him to retreat. On August 24, the Poles launched an offensive from Zamoskvorechye. D. M. Pozharsky sent cavalry against them. D.T. Trubetskoy launched an offensive from the Kolomenskaya Sloboda. However, he acted indecisively, which allowed J. Khodkevich to throw his main forces against D. M. Pozharsky. D. M. Pozharsky brought all his regiments into battle and, thus, stopped the enemy. Then the Poles intensified their offensive against the army of D. M. Trubetskoy and captured the Cossack prison.

The Cossacks resisted the enemy, but when the militia of K. M. Minin and D. M. Pozharsky did not immediately come to their aid, they left the battle. The Polish garrison in the Kremlin made a second sortie. She was repulsed. The cellar of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery A. S. Palitsyn convinced the Cossacks to return to duty. The outcome of the battle was again decided by the swift attack of the Cossacks. They were supported by the cavalry under the command of K. M. Minin, then the infantry under the command of D. M. Pozharsky went on the offensive. The Poles took to flight. See Kostomarov N. I. The Tale of the Liberation of Moscow from the Poles in 1612 and the Election of Tsar Mikhail. P. 81 - 82. Skrynnikov R. G. Minin and Pozharsky. pp. 256 - 263.

The assault on the Kremlin was unsuccessful, so the Russian army laid siege to it. On October 22, Kitai-Gorod was liberated. On October 26, the Polish garrison in the Kremlin capitulated. The liberation of Moscow was a radical turning point in the course of the war. On February 21, 1613, the Zemsky Sobor elected 16-year-old Mikhail Romanov as Tsar. Patriarch Hermogenes back in 1610 put forward his candidacy for the throne. The boyars were attracted by the youth and inexperience of Mikhail, his unpreparedness to govern the state, and therefore the ability to govern on his behalf. Since the father of the new tsar, Fyodor Nikitich Romanov, was the patriarch in Tushino and, together with Prince V.V. Golitsyn, headed the embassy to the Polish king, the boyars who collaborated with the Poles, that is, committed high treason, saw in Mikhail a guarantor of their impunity. He was a cousin-nephew of Fyodor Ivanovich, the last tsar from the Rurik dynasty, which created the appearance of succession of power.

At first, Mikhail refused the throne and explained this by the disorder in the administration and the lack of money in the treasury, then he agreed to come to Moscow and take the throne. The Poles tried to kill the young tsar, but the Kostroma peasant Ivan Susanin led them into an impenetrable forest. On July 11, 1613, Mikhail was married to the kingdom. See Solovyov S. M. History of Russia since ancient times. T. 9. M., 1990. S. 7 - 28.

He was elected on the same terms as Vasily Shuisky. The real power belonged to the king's relatives. They removed D. M. Pozharsky from command, since, in their opinion, he was not notable enough, and replaced him with Prince D. M. Cherkassky.

In 1613, the Russian army fought with the Poles near Kaluga and Vyazma. An attempt to liberate Smolensk was unsuccessful due to the indiscipline of the nobles. The new government increased taxes and decided to return the runaway peasants to their former owners. This caused an uprising led by Mikhail Balovnya. driving forces uprisings were Cossacks and peasants. In 1615 it was suppressed. In the same year, the Polish army under the command of A. Lisovsky invaded Russia. The tsar again appointed D. M. Pozharsky commander in chief.

On June 29, 1615, the Russian army left Moscow. On August 30, the Battle of Orel took place. I. Pushkin's detachment attacked the Polish camp, followed by three attacks by the main forces. The regiment of S. Isleniev and the Tatars left the battlefield. 600 people remained with D. M. Pozharsky. The confrontation continued for three days. The mercenaries who were in the Polish army transferred to the Russian army. This decided the outcome of the battle. A. Lisovsky fled. In July 1616, the Russian government sent an army to Smolensk under the command of M. K. Tinbaev and N. Likharev. At the same time, the Lithuanians attacked Starodub, devastated the neighborhood of Karachev and Krom, burned Oskol and approached Belgorod. On October 22, 1616, the governors who were stationed near Smolensk reported on the impending campaign against Moscow of the Polish army under the command of A. Gonsevsky. The Russian command sent an army under the command of N. Boryatinsky to Dorogobuzh.

In March 1617, the Russian army defeated the Poles near Dorogobuzh, but the Dorogobuzh governor surrendered the city to the Poles. In the same year, Vladislav undertook a campaign against Moscow in order to take the Russian throne. On October 18, the Russian army under the command of D. M. Pozharsky approached Kaluga. The Poles besieged the city and on December 23 tried to take it by storm, but were met with fire and fled. In October 1618, the Poles approached Moscow and tried to take it, but their attack on the White City was repulsed.

On December 1, 1618, Russia and Poland signed the Deulino truce, according to which Smolensk was ceded to Poland. The treaty also provided for the exchange of prisoners. According to the Stolbovsky peace treaty, concluded on February 27, 1617, Sweden returned Novgorod to Russia, but Russia completely lost access to Baltic Sea. See Tarle E. V. The Northern War and the Swedish invasion of Russia. // Tarle E.V. Selected works. T. 3. Rostov-on-Don, 1994. Since that time, the main foreign policy tasks of Russia have been the return of their original possessions in the Baltic, the return of Smolensk and the reunification of Ukraine and Belarus with Russia.

Early 17th century was marked by a general political crisis, social contradictions escalated. The board of Boris Godunov was dissatisfied with all sectors of society. Taking advantage of the weakening of statehood, the Commonwealth and Sweden attempted to seize Russian lands and include it in the sphere of influence of the Catholic Church.

In 1601, a man appeared who pretended to be the miraculously saved Tsarevich Dmitry. It turned out to be a fugitive monk, a deacon of the Chudov Monastery Grigory Otrepiev. The pretext for the intervention was the appearance of False Dmitry in 1601-1602. in the Polish possessions in Ukraine, where he announced his claims to the royal throne in Russia. In Poland, False Dmitry turned to the Polish gentry and King Sigismund III for help. In order to get closer to the Polish elite, False Dmitry adopted Catholicism and promised, if successful, to make this religion the state religion in Russia, and also to give Poland the western Russian lands.

In October 1604, False Dmitry invaded Russia. The army, which was joined by runaway peasants, Cossacks, service people, quickly advanced towards Moscow. In April 1605, Boris Godunov died, and his warriors went over to the side of the applicant. Fyodor, Godunov's 16-year-old son, was unable to hold on to power. Moscow went over to the side of False Dmitry. The young king and his mother were killed, and on June 20 a new "autocrat" entered the capital.

False Dmitry I turned out to be an active and energetic ruler, but he did not justify the hopes of those forces that brought him to the throne, namely: he did not give the outskirts of Russia to the Poles and did not convert the Russians to Catholicism. He aroused dissatisfaction among Moscow subjects by non-observance of ancient customs and rituals, there were rumors about his Catholicism. In May 1606, an uprising broke out in Moscow, False Dmitry I was overthrown and killed. The boyar Vasily Shuisky was “shouted out” to the kings on Red Square. In 1607, a new impostor appeared in Starodub, posing as Tsarevich Dmitry. He gathered an army from representatives of the oppressed lower classes, Cossacks, servicemen and detachments of Polish adventurers. False Dmitry II approached Moscow and camped in Tushino (hence the nickname "Tushinsky Thief"). A large number of Moscow boyars and princes went over to his side.

In the spring of 1609, M.V. Skopin-Shuisky (the tsar's nephew), having gathered detachments of the people's militia from Smolensk, the Volga region, and the Moscow region, lifted the 16,000-strong siege of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra. The army of False Dmitry II was defeated, he himself fled to Kaluga, where he was killed.

In February 1609, Shuisky concluded an agreement with Sweden. This gave the Polish king, who was at war with Sweden, a pretext to declare war on Russia. The Polish army under the command of Hetman Zholkevsky moved to Moscow, near the village of Klushino, it defeated the troops of Shuisky. The king finally lost the confidence of his subjects and in July 1610 was deposed from the throne. The Moscow boyars invited the son of Sigismund III, Vladislav, to the throne, and surrendered Moscow to the Polish troops.

The "great devastation" of the Russian land caused a wide upsurge of the patriotic movement in the country. In the winter of 1611, the first people's militia was formed in Ryazan, headed by Prokopy Lyapunov. In March, the militia approached Moscow and began the siege of the capital. However, the split between the nobles and peasants with the Cossacks made it impossible to achieve victory.

In the autumn of 1611 in Nizhny Novgorod, the zemstvo elder Kuzma Minin organized a second militia. Prince D.M. Pozharsky is invited to head the Zemstvo army. At the end of August 1612, the army of Minin and Pozharsky approached Moscow and began to besiege it; On October 27, 1612, the Poles surrendered. Thanks to the heroism of the Russian people, Moscow was liberated, and the Zemsky Sobor elected Mikhail Romanov as Russian Tsar.

In 1617, Stolbovsky Peace was concluded between Russia and Sweden. Russia returned Novgorod, but lost the coast of the Gulf of Finland. In 1618, the Deulino truce was concluded with Poland, which received the Smolensk, Chernigov and Novgorod-Seversk lands. Despite the dire consequences of the Swedish Polish intervention, Russia has retained the most important thing - its statehood.

The position of Shuisky's government was still very precarious due to the ongoing struggle between the various strata of the feudal class, which was actively invaded by foreign forces. The Polish-Lithuanian magnates and gentry, as well as the Catholic Church, did not give up hope of taking advantage of the aggravation of contradictions in Russia. The failure of the adventure of the impostor "Dimitri" did not stop them. In the summer of 1607, another “Dimitriy” appeared in the city of Starodub, who “miraculously escaped” in 1606 in Moscow. A part of the Polish gentry gathered to him, rebelling against their own king and hoping to make amends with the king by participating in the campaign of False Dmitry II (as he is called in literature). Dissatisfaction with the government of Shuisky pushed the Cossacks led by Ivan Zarutsky, the remnants of Bolotnikov's detachments, to False Dmitry II (whose identity remained unidentified). In Seversk Ukraine, in the Ryazan district, in Pskov, Astrakhan and other places, mass unrest continued.
In the spring of 1608, a number of cities in Seversk Ukraine swore allegiance to False Dmitry. In early June, he was near Moscow, but in the battles near Khimki and on Presnya he was stopped and founded his camp in Tushino, soon receiving the nickname " Tushinsky thief". Almost at the same time, a detachment of the gentry under the command of Sapieha began an unsuccessful siege of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, behind the walls of which the peasants gathered from the surrounding villages and villages courageously defended themselves.
In an effort to release forces to fight False Dmitry, the Shuisky government concluded a truce with Poland in July 1608, according to which both sides released prisoners captured during the adventure of the first impostor. Under this agreement, Marina Mnishek and her father were released from Moscow, but they ended up in Tushino. Having promised them 300,000 gold rubles and the entire Seversk land with 14 cities after his accession to Moscow, False Dmitry II was "recognized" by Marina as her husband and "Tsarevich Dimitri". False Dmitry received an order from the Catholic Church - to introduce in Russia the union of the Catholic Church with the Orthodox Church, similarly to how it was done in Ukraine and Belarus, and also to transfer the capital Russian state from Moscow to one of the cities closer to Poland. While False Dmitry stood in Tushino, detachments of interventionists
scattered throughout the country, robbing, raping, oppressing the inhabitants. In response, popular uprisings broke out more and more often. Militias were created, which soon drove the interventionists out of Kostroma and Galich. Successfully withstood the siege and repelled the attacks of Yaroslavl, uprisings broke out in Murom and Vladimir. During 1609, the liberation movement swept through a significant part of the country to the north and northeast of Moscow.
While the masses were unfolding the struggle against the interventionists, many service people and even representatives of the nobility, dissatisfied with the Shuisky government, moved to Tushino. False Dmitry willingly accepted them, gave them lands and peasants as a reward, and promoted them in ranks. Some then returned back to Shuisky and received even higher ranks and new estates for this. These defectors were called "Tushino flights" among the people.
Tushino created its own state apparatus. Metropolitan Filaret, who suffered under Godunov, was brought from Rostov, captured by the Tushins, and "named" patriarch. So the father of the future Tsar Mikhail Romanov received the highest church rank in the camp of adventurers and traitors.

Start of the Swedish intervention

The Shuisky government also embarked on the path of collusion with foreign forces. It appealed for help to the Swedish king Charles IX, who had long hatched plans to seize the Novgorod land and Karelia from Russia and even earlier offered assistance in protecting these lands from the Commonwealth. Shuisky's government did not dare to rely on the mass popular movement against the interventionists that was developing in the country. An agreement with Sweden was reached at a heavy price - Shuisky renounced the terms of the Tyavzinsky peace and, in general, claims to the Baltic coast, gave the city of Korela with the county and allowed the free circulation of Swedish coins on the territory of Russia. Thus, the Swedish intervention was actually unleashed.
This caused great unrest among the population of the northwestern Russian lands, in Novgorod and Karelia, and in this situation the Pskovites preferred to swear allegiance to the impostor, but not to obey the Shuisky government, which allowed Swedish interventionists into the country.
In the spring of 1609, the young commander, Prince Mikhail Vasilievich Skopin-Shuisky, using the help of the Swedish detachment under the command of Delagardie, struck at the Polish-Lithuanian invaders and, relying on the militia of the northern cities, liberated the north of the country. However, the Swedes soon refused to continue participating in hostilities, demanding that they be paid the promised salary, and also immediately transferred Korela into their possession. Shuisky had no money, and he imposed heavy taxes on the people. In turn, this led to new unrest and uprisings against the feudal lords. In the Ryazan district, the Volga region, near Moscow and other places, new groups of rebels appeared.

Open intervention of the Polish-Lithuanian feudal lords

The appearance of Swedish troops on the territory of Russia made it possible for the Polish-Lithuanian rulers to launch an open invasion of Russia, because the Commonwealth and Sweden were at war. In the summer of 1609, the Polish king Sigismund III, at the head of a large army, moved directly to Smolensk. There were very few troops in it, because Shuisky assigned them to fight Tushin.
Shuisky's government, fearful of the people's movement and striving to liquidate it, opened the way for both Swedish and open Polish intervention. But again, the high patriotism of the masses was revealed with all its might. This was shown by the heroic defense of Smolensk, which did not surrender to the enemy and was held almost exclusively by forces - the townspeople and the peasant population gathered in the city. The defense of Smolensk, which was headed by the governor Mikhail Borisovich Shein, delayed the advance of the Polish troops for a long time. The Tushino camp soon crumbled, False Dmitry II fled to Kaluga with a handful of followers.
Remaining in a difficult situation after the flight of False Dmitry II, the “Russian Tushins” sent an embassy to King Sigismund III, headed by the boyar M. G. Saltykov. The agreement concluded on behalf of the Boyar Duma with the king in February 1610 provided for the accession of Vladislav, an alliance with the Commonwealth, the preservation of the privileges of the boyars in Russia and the strengthening of serfdom.
M. V. Skopin-Shuisky at the head of the troops in March 1610 solemnly entered Moscow. The nobles tried to use the increased authority of M.V. Skopin-Shuisky to overthrow Vasily Shuisky. But the young commander died unexpectedly - perhaps he was poisoned by Shuisky. The incompetent and cowardly brother of the tsar Dmitry Shuisky was placed at the head of the government troops. With a 40,000-strong army, D. Shuisky moved towards the Polish troops of Hetman Stanislav Zholkevsky moving from Smolensk. In June 1610, Shuisky's troops in the battle near Klushino suffered a complete defeat. In this battle, the mercenary detachments were changed, one part of which went over to the side of the enemy, and the other, led by Delagardie, went north to secure the Russian lands that were passing under the rule of Sweden. Using the general dissatisfaction with the Shuisky government, False Dmitry II again stepped up his actions. He captured Serpukhov, took possession of Kolomna for a while, approached Moscow and stood in Kolomenskoye. Zolkiewski's troops approached Moscow from the west. The fate of the government of Vasily Shuisky was decided. On July 17, 1610, Vasily Shuisky was deposed from the throne and forcibly tonsured a monk by the nobles, headed by Zakhar Lyapunov, with the support of the townspeople of Moscow.
But the boyars, headed by F. I. Mstislavsky, took advantage of the results of the coup. In an effort to maintain the privileged position of the Moscow boyars and prevent the rise of the anti-feudal movement in the country, F. I. Mstislavsky called on Hetman Zholkevsky to come out of Mozhaisk to protect Moscow from False Dmitry 11 and then began negotiations with Zholkevsky regarding the recognition of Prince Vladislav on the Russian throne.
On August 17, 1610, in the Polish camp near Moscow, the Moscow boyars signed an agreement recognizing Prince Vladislav as the Russian Tsar, and on the night of September 21, 1610, the boyars secretly let the Polish detachments into Moscow. The most difficult time of foreign intervention has come. As a result of the treacherous policy of the boyars, a significant part of the country, including the capital, was captured by foreign invaders, power in Moscow actually belonged to the Polish governor Gonsevsky, the boyar government, the so-called "seven boyars", headed by F. I. Mstislavsky, had no role in governance played. The calculations of some representatives of the boyars that the calling of Vladislav would help get rid of both False Dmitry II and Sigismund turned out to be untenable. The king refused to let Vladislav go and demanded an end to resistance in Smolensk. Attempts by some members of the embassy to persuade the defenders of Smolensk to lay down their arms before the Polish king were unsuccessful.

Introduction

Introduction

At the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries, Europe experienced a period of transition from the Middle Ages to the New Age. This is the era of the great geographical discoveries and the first colonial conquests. The discovery of the New World, a new sea route to India and the lands of Southeast Asia, and finally, the first round-the-world voyages not only formed new ideas for Europeans about the world as a whole, but also led to a change in the geopolitical interests of European states. The formation of Europe as a single whole opposing the rest of the world began.

The great geographical discoveries stimulated active international relations, primarily economic ones, this expanded the possibilities of the goods market to a global scale, which intensified intercontinental contacts, bringing Europe closer to America, Asia and Africa. Participation in colonial policy gave rise to irreconcilable conflicts between European states.

The transition of Europe to the New Age was characterized by significant shifts in all areas of public life - socio-economic, political, religious, scientific. The process of establishing new capitalist relations became irreversible.

The consequence of the bourgeois revolutions was not only freedom economic activity but also changes in the forms of government and promotion and formation of the rule of law and civil society.

The era of the XVI-XVII centuries. was a turning point not only for Europe, but also for Russia. The century brought numerous trials for Russia and its statehood. After the death of Ivan the Terrible in 1584, a weak and sickly man became his heir and tsar. Fedor Ivanovich (1584-1598). A struggle for power within the country began. This situation caused not only internal contradictions, but also intensified attempts external forces liquidate the state independence of Russia. For almost the entire century, she had to fight off the Commonwealth, Sweden, raids Crimean Tatars- vassals of the Ottoman Empire, to resist the Catholic Church, which sought to turn Russia away from Orthodoxy.

Troubled times.17th century laid the foundation for peasant wars; in this century there are riots of cities, the famous case of Patriarch Nikon and the schism Orthodox Church. Therefore, this century V.O. Klyuchevsky called rebellious.

An attempt was also made to intervene. The ruling circles of the Commonwealth and the Catholic Church intended to dismember Russia and eliminate its state independence.

Polish Swedish intervention Russia

1. Polish-Swedish intervention. general characteristics

The Polish-Swedish intervention is an attempt by the Commonwealth to establish its dominance over Russia during the Time of Troubles.

At the beginning of the XVII century. Polish and Swedish feudal lords, taking advantage of the weakening of the Russian state caused by the unfolding struggle within ruling class started the intervention. They wanted the dismemberment of the Russian state and the enslavement of its peoples. The Commonwealth resorted to a disguised intervention, supporting False Dmitry I. In return, False Dmitry I promised to transfer the western regions of the Russian state to the Commonwealth (and partly to his father-in-law Yu. Mnishek), support it in the fight against Sweden, introduce Catholicism in Russia and take part in the anti-Turkish coalition. However, after the accession, False Dmitry I, for various reasons, refused to make territorial concessions to Poland and conclude a military alliance against Sweden. The murder of an impostor in May 1606 during the anti-Polish uprising in Moscow meant the collapse of the first attempt at aggression by the Polish feudal lords against Russia.

The beginning of the 17th century was marked by a general political crisis, and social contradictions intensified. Board<#"center">2. Activities of the first and second militias

The "great devastation" of the Russian land caused a broad upsurge of the patriotic movement in the country. In the winter of 1611, the first people's militia was formed in Ryazan.

First militia 1611 (Ryazan militia), formed in Ryazan to fight the Poles, led by the nobleman Prokipiy Lyapunov. It consisted of a detachment of nobles from the southeastern districts and the Volga region, nobles and Cossacks from the Tushino camp, townspeople. On the way to Moscow, new forces joined the militia: residents of Nizhny Novgorod, Murom, Yaroslavl, Kostoroma, Cossacks led by I. Zarutsky, boyars and nobles led by D. Trubetskoy, the remnants of the detachments of M. Skopin-Shuisky.

In the spring of 1611, an unsuccessful anti-Polish uprising took place in Moscow. The Poles fortified themselves in the Kremlin, a significant part of Moscow was defeated and burned by the Polish garrison, who wanted to prevent an uprising, and several thousand inhabitants were beaten; Prince D.M. was seriously wounded in the battles. Pozharsky, who led the rebels.

By April 1611, the forces of the first militia approached Moscow and laid siege to the Poles. However, as a result of disagreements that arose between the Cossacks and the nobles, Lyapunov was killed, and the militias went home.

By this time, the Swedes captured Novgorod, from mid-July 1611, an open Swedish intervention began.

The Poles, after a months-long siege, captured Smolensk, and the King of Poland, Sigismund III, announced that he himself would become the Tsar of Moscow, and Russia would become part of the Commonwealth. in mid-July, the Swedes of Delagardie captured Novgorod with its lands, the Novgorod metropolitan and voivode recognized dependence on Sweden and started talking about the election of its prince as a Russian sovereign.

Second militia. Russia was threatened with the loss of national independence. Dismemberment of the lands. In this difficult, dashing time in the autumn of 1611, the entire Russian people rose up in an armed struggle against the Polish-Swedish intervention. The army consisted of detachments of nobles, townspeople, peasants of the central and northern regions of Russia and the Volga region. The starting point and center of the movement was Nizhny Novgorod, headed by its zemstvo headman Kuzma Minin, who in September 1611 spoke in a zemstvo hut with calls to help the Muscovite state, sparing no means and sacrifices. On his initiative, a "Council of the whole earth" was created, consisting of representatives of all segments of the population. The Council was a provisional government and led the collection of funds and the call of soldiers.

Prince Dmitry Mikhailovich Pozharsky, a capable military leader and a man with an unblemished reputation, was invited as the head of the zemstvo militia; Kuzma Minin took over the economic and financial part. Thus, the militia had two leaders, and in popular perception the names of Minin and Pozharsky merged into one inseparable whole. Thanks to their decisive actions and complete agreement among themselves, Nizhny Novgorod soon became the center of patriotic forces throughout Russia.

In August 1612, the militia of Minin and Pozharsky entered Moscow and united with the remnants of the first militia. On August 22, Kuzma crossed the Moscow River with a detachment and inflicted a flank attack on the enemy, thanks to which the troops of the Lithuanian hetman Ya.K. Khodkevich, who tried to break through to help their compatriots besieged in Moscow, were defeated. The Polish garrison experienced severe hardships, because. Pozharsky arrived in Moscow at the same time as Khodkevich, who, meanwhile, had time to collect provisions for the Polish garrison settled in Moscow. This provision was recaptured from Khodkevich by the Cossacks, under the command of Prince D.T. Trubetskoy, which decided the fate of the Polish garrison: after 2 months, hunger forced him to surrender. And after the successful assault on Kitay-Gorod, the Polish garrison capitulated on October 26 and surrendered the Kremlin, and both militias solemnly entered liberated Moscow with the ringing of bells and the jubilation of the people. As a result, Moscow was liberated from the invaders. The attempt of the Polish troops to retake Moscow failed. Moscow, the heart of all Russia, was liberated by the efforts of the people, who, in a difficult hour, showed endurance, steadfastness, courage, and saved the entire country from a national catastrophe.

Civil uprising played a decisive role in the victory.

In memory of the liberation of Moscow from the invaders, on October 22, 1612, a temple was erected on Red Square in honor of the icon of Our Lady of Kazan.

3. The beginning of the reign of the Romanov dynasty

In January 1613, the Zemsky Sobor, which included the clergy, the boyars, the nobility, townspeople, the Cossacks, the black-haired peasantry, the archers, elected 16-year-old Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov, the son of Patriarch Filaret, as king, in the world - the boyar Fyodor Nikitich Romanov. The election of the king meant the revival of the country, the protection of its sovereignty, independence and originality. The candidacy of Mikhail Romanov suited everyone political forces Russian society: aristocrats - the antiquity of the family, supporters of a legitimate monarchy - kinship with Ivan the Terrible, victims of terror and chaos of the "Troubled Years" - non-participation in the oprichnina.

Marrying the reign on July 11, 1613, Mikhail Romanov promised not to make decisions without the advice of the Boyar Duma and the Zemsky Sobor. In the first years of government, real power was in the hands of these state structures. However, soon the leading place in the government of the country was taken by his father, Patriarch Filaret.

After the restoration of tsarist power, all the forces of the state were thrown into restoring order within the country and fighting the interventionists. It took several years to exterminate the band of robbers that roamed the country.

At the beginning of the reign of Mikhail Romanov, the main efforts of the authorities were aimed at solving foreign policy problems related to intervention:

· In 1617, after several military clashes, the Stolbovsky peace was concluded with Sweden, according to which Russia lost the Baltic coast and paid monetary compensation. Sweden renounced claims to the Russian throne, most of the Novgorod land was returned to Russia, but the city of Korela with the county and Izhora land with Ivangorod, Yam, Koporye and Oreshok were ceded to Sweden.

· In December 1618, after successfully repulsing the campaign against Prince Vladislav in Russia, the Deulino truce was concluded for 14.5 years, for which Russia gave the Smolensk and Chernigov and Novgorod-Seversky lands to the Commonwealth.

The conclusion of the Stolbovsky treaty and the Deulinsky truce marked the collapse of the aggressive plans and the intervention of the Polish-Lithuanian and Swedish feudal lords

The main internal political problem was the elimination of uprisings and unrest, and especially the fight against impostors: in 1614, Marina Minshek and her son Vorenok, who had hidden in Nizhny Novgorod, were executed in Moscow.

4. Main events in the history of Russia, the countries of Central and Western Europe at the beginning of the 17th century

At the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries, Europe experienced a period of transition from the Middle Ages to the New Age.

This period of time was characterized by significant changes in all areas of social life - socio-economic, political, religious, scientific. The process of establishing new capitalist relations became irreversible.

At this stage, the countries of the first echelon of capitalism came to the fore, where early bourgeois revolutions took place - Holland and England, in which there were appropriate prerequisites.

the largest historical events XVI-XVII centuries were the Reformation, the Peasants' War and the Thirty Years' War on a pan-European scale.

The era of the XVI-XVII centuries. was a turning point not only for Europe, but also for Russia.

At the beginning of the XVII century. Russia went through a period called Troubled times.17th century laid the foundation for peasant wars; in this age there are revolts of the cities.

Polish and Swedish feudal lords, taking advantage of the weakening of the Russian state, caused by the unfolding struggle within the ruling class, began an intervention. They wanted the dismemberment of the Russian state and the enslavement of its peoples.

The main events in the history of Russia, some countries of Central and Western Europe at the beginning of the 17th century are presented in Table 1.

Table 1 - Synchronic table of the main events in the history of Russia, the countries of Central and Western Europe at the beginning of the 17th century

CountryEventEnglandIn the XVI century. absolutism prevailed. Relations between the king and parliament escalated. 1642 - 1646. the first civil war took place. The cause of the revolution was the process of transition from absolute monarchy to a constitutional one, respecting the interests of the bourgeoisie and the new nobility. the revolution proclaimed freedom of trade and enterprise. FranceAbsolutism also took root in France. The extravagance of the royal court, favoritism, high military spending, the payment of a huge bureaucratic apparatus. everything was accompanied by uprisings (1548,1624,1639 others). The position of the peasantry was difficult. The bulk of the peasantry was landless. For the use of land, the peasants paid rent, up to 1/4 of the harvest. In 1644 an uprising broke out. There were constant wars. 1618-1648. Thirty Years' War. Many countries participated, united in two blocs: Habsburg and anti-Habsburg. The result of the war was the conclusion of the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. France also lagged behind in the development of industry. There was a process of initial accumulation of capital. GermanyOn the threshold of modern times, Germany experienced economic decline. It remained politically fragmented, the autonomy of cities was strengthened. Serfdom revived, corvée exploitation expanded, and the influence of the landowners increased. These processes led to less mobility of the peasantry, which delayed the development of capitalism and the disintegration of feudalism. Germany became the birthplace of the Reformation. in form it was a struggle against the Catholic Church. The peasant war (1524-1526) was directed against the strengthening of feudal oppression. Demands were put forward to abolish personal dependence, to reduce feudal extortions, corvée, and so on. The main event was the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648). NetherlandsBourgeois revolution. In 1566 a popular uprising broke out. In 1572 - a general uprising in the northern provinces. The reason is the contradictions between the nobility and the bourgeoisie. The liberation from Spanish rule ended with the formation of the bourgeois republic of the United Provinces. In the 17th century, it came to the fore in Europe in terms of economic development. AustriaAustria was in a difficult economic situation. She was in particular danger Ottoman Empire. In the summer of 1683, Turkish troops laid siege to Vienna. In 1699, Austria and its allies managed to defeat Turkey. Hungary In 1683 - 1699 - war with Turkey. The Turks were expelled. Hungary became part of the Habsburg possessions and became a country bound by an alliance with Austria. ItalyBy the beginning of the New Age did not represent a single state. The greatest difficulties were experienced by the peasants, who were in the position of tenants and farm laborers and completely dependent on the landowners. Political fragmentation hindered the development of industry and trade. Russia at the beginning of the 17th century. Russia went through a period called Troubled times (1598-1613). In 1601-1603. a "great gladness" fell upon Russia, caused by crop failures. 1603 - an uprising of serfs, led by Khlopok Kosolap. In 1606-1607. It was uprising of Ivan Bolotnikov. Polish-Swedish intervention 1609-1617 The reign of Mikhail Romanov 1613

The era of the XVI-XVII centuries. was a turning point not only for Europe, but also for Russia. The events that took place caused deep dissatisfaction among all classes of the Russian state.

Civil War in Russia at the beginning of the 17th century. integral part which became the chain popular uprisings(Khlopka, Bolotnikova, etc.) opened a whole era of powerful social upheavals. They were caused by the onslaught of the feudal lords, the state on the lower ranks of the people, primarily by the final enslavement of the peasantry, the bulk of the population of Russia. The war is filled with violence and death. No wonder it opens the century, nicknamed in Russia rebellious.

The process of forming a single state is in full swing. Russia is expanding its territory, actively participating in geographical discoveries and is increasingly involved in the orbit of common European politics and trade. Just as in the countries of Western Europe, in Russia in this era there was a tendency to weaken the church and move the state system from a class-representative monarchy to absolutism.

The consequences of the Swedish-Polish intervention were difficult for Russia, the country was on the verge of death, it was threatened with the loss of national independence and the dismemberment of the territory, but the invaders failed to achieve the destruction of the state and the enslavement of the people. Russia has retained the most important thing - its statehood.

Bibliography

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