In 1988-89, the process of “perestroika” began in the USSR, the Berlin Wall fell, and soon the socialist camp disintegrated. And the USSR did not even begin to claim any influence in the countries of the third world. By 1990, the Cold War was over. It was she who contributed to the strengthening of the totalitarian regime in the USSR. The arms race also led to scientific discoveries: nuclear physics began to develop more intensively, space research gained a wider scope.

Consequences of the Cold War

The 20th century has ended, more than ten years have passed in the new millennium. The Soviet Union no longer exists, and the countries of the West have also changed ... But as soon as the once weak Russia rose from its knees, gained strength and confidence on the world stage, the United States and its allies again imagine the “ghost of communism”. And it remains to be hoped that the politicians of the leading countries will not return to the policy of the Cold War, since, in the end, everyone will suffer from it ...

58. The collapse of the USSR and the formation of a new Russian statehood in the 90s. Perestroika.

Soviet Union in 1985-1991 Perestroika. The collapse of the USSR.

The concept of "perestroika" can be defined. as an attempt to preserve the administrative-command socialism, giving it e-you democracy and market relations, without affecting the fundamental foundations of polit. building. Perestroika had serious prerequisites. Stagnation in the economy, the growth of scientific and technical. lagging behind the West, failures in the social. sphere have caused millions of people and some leaders to realize the need for change. Dr. its premise was watered. crisis, expressed in the decomposition of the leadership, in its inability to provide. economy progress.

The subjective reason for the restructuring is Jav. arrival on tuesday floor. 70s-early 80s to the leadership of the country rel. young politicians (M. S. Gorbacheva, E. K. Ligacheva, E. A. Shevarnadze, N. I. Ryzhkova), who sought not only to strengthen their power, but also advocated the renewal of the state and society.

You can suggest sl.periodization of perestroika: 1st stage - from April 1985 to the end of 1986; the second stage - from January 1987 to April 1988; the third stage - from April 1988 to March 1990; the fourth stage - from March 1990 to August 1991.

The beginning of perestroika was laid by the April (1985) Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU, proclaimed. the course to accelerate the social-economy. development of the country, profound changes in the life of society through the improvement of socialism. Acceleration presumed. impl. due to scientific and technical. progress, re-equipment of machines and the activation of “human. factor”, by increasing labor and economics. disciplines. The most realistic restructuring is manifested. at the first stage in ext. politics, where the idea of ​​a new watered was put forward. thinking. It was understood as a rethinking of the modern. the world and holding a half-ki from the position of a universal human being. values.

A slow departure from the ideas of "world revolution" began. The first years of perestroika show. Gorbachev (and his position in the party leadership has been strengthened) that he is a radical. changes cannot be achieved without deep transformations of the economy and political. systems. Ex. 2 alternatives for the development of the USSR: the first could be based on the experience of China, where, in the absence of polit. freedoms widely unfolded economy. reform, the second option assumed the same time. democratization and reforms. The second option was chosen. It was with these measures that the second stage of perestroika began. Understanding the importance of economic questions, Gorbachev convened the 1987 Plenum, on the cat. suggestion economic reform program. The transition from administrative to economic was proclaimed. methods of managing the national economy. The two cornerstones of the reform were the laws adopted in 1987 on the state. enterprise and cooperation.

An important role in impl. reforms, involvement in political. the life of the working people played half-ka publicity. It started with revealing the truth about the crimes Stalin period, without exposing the cat. it was impossible to break the totalitarian regime.

During the party conference in June-July 1988 b. raised the question of polit. reform, for example. on the creation of a legal state-va, the development of parliamentarism. B. amended the Constitution of the USSR, providing for the introduction of a new element of the state. structure - the Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR. During this period of perestroika, a multi-party system is being formed. Gorbachev begins to carry out half-man maneuvering m / y by conservatives and reformists. But this style played into the hands of the opponents of change. The lack of firmness and determination had a particularly hard effect on the economy. In 1988-1990. not entrepreneurial will decide. measures for its structural transformation - preserved. former farms. mechanism. The changes affected only the cooperative sector. Open inflationary processes began, production fell, decreased. standard of living. In the spring of 1990, the last the stage of restructuring is a crisis. Fast. Gorbachev's vacillations led conservatives to accuse him of being "bourgeois" and "a betrayal of the cause of socialism."

Elected in the spring of 1990 as Chairman of the Supreme Council, BN Yeltsin at the end of July, proposal. Gorbachev to develop a joint program of economics. reforms. Two programs were originally developed: Ryzhkov-Abalkin (“Prussian” way of market transformation of society) and Shatalin-Yavlinsky (radical transition to the market). Although a second program was chosen, the plan was not actually carried through to the end. Instead of Ryzhkov, V.S. Pavlov, cat. impl. price increase and exchange of 50- and 100-ruble banknotes. The ruble depreciated significantly.

At the turn of 1990-1991. Gorbachev went to rapprochement with the conservatives. Complicated half-e in the union republics. April 23, 1991 - in Novo Ogaryovo, a meeting of the leaders of 11 republics took place, on the cat. b. an agreement was reached on the principles of a new union treaty. Yeltsin began to lose the support of the majority, the cat. was elected to the post of Chairman of the Supreme Council. He is prov. early presidential elections in Russia and wins.

At the same time, on August 21, 1991, d.b. sign an alliance treaty, cat. foreseen creation of a federal state. However, on August 18, a group of hand-lei proposals. Gorbachev introduce extra. half-e and put an end to the reforms. After the refusal, he was isolated from the administration of the country.

On August 19, Vice-President G. I. Yanaev assumed the office of President. The GKChP was created. In Moscow were centuries. troops. The fight against the GKChP was led by Yeltsin and the leadership of Russia. The coup was declared unconstitutional. Prod. coup at the White House. Many thousands of Muscovites came to the White House. Act. role in organizing and rebuffing the coup was played by new entrepreneurs - the heads of stock exchanges, commercial structures. They provided Fin. and tech. assistance to the hands of Russia, and their employees were an act. members of the living ring at the White Lady. As a result, the putschists did not dare to use force, and by August 21 the uprising was suppressed. The leaders of the GKChP were taken into custody. These events essentially drew a line under the existence of the USSR. The victory of Yeltsin and the Democrats frightened the local communist nomenklatura, and they threw themselves into the arms of the nationalists. A wave of declarations of independence, referenda and presidential elections swept through all the republics.

In December, at a meeting in Belovezhskaya Pushcha of Yeltsin, Kravchuk and Shushkevich, and then at a meeting in Alma-Ata of the leaders of the former Soviet republics, the Union Treaty of 1922 was terminated, the USSR ceased to exist, and Gorbachev resigned. Simultaneous on the territory of the former Soviet Union arose the CIS. The collapse of the administrative-command socialism and the liquidation of the USSR were a challenge. complex of social-economy. reasons. First of all, the markets that developed on a “shadow” criminal basis demanded legalization. relations. Totalitarian politics. sys-ma not b. capable of providing conv. for economic progress. The lack of real rights and powers of the union republics, the gap in the levels of their economics. development, fear of losing nat. identity, memories of repression created the prerequisites for the rise of national movements.

Formation of a new Russian statehood.

With the collapse of the USSR began the history of a new modern. Russia. Today it is still difficult with history. t. sp. to evaluate the collapse of the USSR and the events that followed; very little time has passed, there is no necessary separation from the era, we still cannot fully imagine all the consequences of this event. But even today those denials are clearly outlined. trends, cat. caused by the events of 1991, many historians compare the significance of 1991 with the events of October 1917 in Russia.

The most serious case. decline in the Russian economy. At the end of 1991, a new government was formed, cat. headed by E. T. Gaidar, an economist, a supporter of liberal market relations. Reforms beginning. with "shock therapy". They included a landslide liberalization of prices, there was an unprecedented rise in prices. In the result of those appearances. goods, but the savings of millions of citizens were lost. Savings, often accumulated over a lifetime, were turned into ashes at once, and in such a way that the economy could not extract the slightest benefit from them. The salaries of public sector employees have decreased many times over. Simultaneous early reform on the denationalization of the state. own-ty. She incl. “voucherization” plan, dev. A. B. Chubais, cat. provided for the distribution of vouchers, i.e. privatization checks to the entire population of the country. Vouchers, scraps of paper distributed to the population instead of money, turned out to be useless. Another form of denationalization was the corporatization of property. Use as well as the sale of property at auction. All this made it possible to provide mass denationalization of property, but its owners became a narrow layer of Russian citizens, most of them - former workers of the party, Komsomol, trade union organizations.

Started reforms rev. and bank. system. an important role in fin. sphere began to play free. walking foreign currencies. Reduced state. and cooperative form of trade, led sharply. private trading sector. Russian market littered with foreign goods. But the new, so-called market, rel-I had little in common with the civilized market, which caused great harm to both the state and citizens. During this period, activation struggle for the first capital accumulation. And Russia has become like America in the 30s, cat. was going through a gangster war at the time. The transition to private ownership, market relations, and caused private entrepreneurship. But it is manifest. especially in Finland. sphere, in the development of the market, decomp. services, at the same time did not touch the mother. production Most of the enterprises did not survive this course of reforms. Actual the industry was destroyed, because industrial production fell by more than half. The fall in production led to massive non-payments, abbr. deductions to the state budget, pension fund, stole. salary debt.

This law worked for about a year. The country managed to turn towards the market, but at what cost. Voltage the struggle in the field was intertwined with the struggle for the choice of economics. course of transformation. For the successful development of reforms, it is necessary. b. develop a scientific justification. concept of development, but there was no time for this. Management is forced to compose it in a hurry, while making mistakes. The reform began to be carried out without the support of the masses, which complicated its implementation. Need b. well-trained reformist cadres. Hence the frequent change of leadership of the country. Changes in the composition of the Government of the Russian Federation sometimes took on a protracted nature and led to negativities. economy consequences. This happened during the next change of government on March 23, 1998, when for the first time it was dismissed in full force, headed by chairman V. S. Chernomyrdin. In April 1998, the new Chairman of the Government b. the young reformer SV Kiriyenko was elected. This right did not work for long. August 25, 1998 It was dismissed by presidential decree. This was caused by the government's decision to freeze GKOs (simultaneous default) and devaluation. This led to disastrous consequences. Within a month, the economy was thrown back to the level of the early 1990s. for some time the entire fin. Russian system. Economy the crisis deepened and watered. crisis, cat. b. associated with the creation of a new rights of the Russian Federation. Prime Minister b. elected E. M. Primakov, man, cat. in September 1998 supported pract. all factions in the State. Duma. The formation of a new cabinet began. But the most serious consequences of the autumn crisis of 1998, consisting in the rejection of power from the people, in the loss of the people's trust by the leadership of the country, will not be overcome soon.

The process of transformation of economics. sys-we render. much more painful, long and complex than the representation. previously. Market mechanisms nah. at a primitive level, fin. the sector is still weak by international standards, industry and agriculture are experiencing a long-term decline. This is due to the unfortunate obst-in, both external and internal. character. First of all, for the successful implementation of reforms in Russia there are not enough resources. Unprecedented economy. The crisis led to a multiple decline. federal government revenues. State. the budget in 1997 amounted to about 80 billion dollars. issue even a reduced state spending plan. The Russian government lives in debt: in 1995-1997. sizes of state internal debt increased from 14.7 to 25.4% of GDP. Noticeably abbreviated. taxable base, tk. cont. industrial decline. production.

The budget deficit is growing. And this is sign. search for new funds abroad. The dependence of Russia on the external is increasing. creditors. Russia inherited. from the USSR about 70 billion dollars of external debt, since then it has doubled. Only in 1995-1996. ext. took away the debt. for 12 billion dollars. With one hand, the government pays new bills, with the other hand, it collects more and more new loans.

After the collapse of the socialist system in Russia, pract. re-integrate into the world. economy. And this is origin. cond., when the competitiveness of the Russian economy is extremely low. Ext. Russia's trade is reminiscent of underdeveloped countries: exports are dominated by oil and gas and other minerals. Russia still has opportunities - in aviation, special metallurgy, mechanical engineering, energy, biotechnology and other areas.

Scientific and technical. the development of the country is rapidly declining.

the decline in inflation and the currency “corridor” did not lead to the distribution of the zone of the ruble, but to its reduction.

Rigid tax floor-ka and in rel-and small and cf. entrepreneurs, and in relation to citizens, led to the opposite result-that: taxes were collected. worse.

Low inflation e. was abbr. prices for granting credits and loans, but nothing of the kind is produced.

The government tried to revive prom. production through the development of strategic. directions, holding a competition of projects, in the future attracting funds from the state and foreign countries. investors. But there was no need. funds, and the program of industrial. half-ki was never approved. By the end of the 20th century, Russia in a difficult floor. But all is not yet lost. Russia still has a chance to get out of the protracted crisis.

There are three development paths:

the loss of the intellectual and cultural potential of the country's development, its transformation into a raw material base and a source of cheap labor.

Implementation of the ideals of consumer society and the formation of a high level of consumption.

The search for movement towards the information society, the development of a new reform strategy, the change of the ideals of the consumer society to a value system that affirms the prestige of the spiritual and intellectual sphere, the development of culture, science, technological revolution, etc.

The country continues to reform watered. systems. Further changes in polit. life go in the direction approved. statehood.

On December 12, 1993, the Constitution was adopted by popular vote. She consolidated the changes that have taken place in the country. It states that the bearer of sovereignty and the only source of power is the people. He exercises his power directly and through the organs of state power and local self-government. The new law limited the powers of parliament, but strengthened the power of the president. The President exercises the power of administration and lawmaking through decrees. The presidential elections of 1996 approved Yeltsin for another 4 years.

Elections in the country have become a permanent phenomenon.

58. After Chernenko's death in 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev came to power. By that time, the USSR was already on the verge of a deep crisis, both in the economy and in the social sphere. The efficiency of social production was steadily declining, and the arms race was a heavy burden on the country's economy. In fact, all spheres of society needed to be updated. The difficult situation of the USSR was the reason for perestroika, as well as changes in the country's foreign policy. Modern historians distinguish the following stages of perestroika:

1985 - 1986

1987 - 1988

1989 - 1991

During the beginning of perestroika from 1985 to 1986. there were no significant changes in the organization of government of the country. In the regions, power, at least formally, belonged to the Soviets, and in highest level- The Supreme Soviet of the USSR. But, during this period, statements about publicity and the fight against bureaucracy were already heard. Gradually, the process of rethinking international relations began. The tension in relations between the USSR and the USA has significantly decreased.

Large-scale changes began somewhat later - from the end of 1987. This period is characterized by unprecedented freedom of creativity, the development of art. Authorial journalistic programs are broadcast on television, magazines publish materials promoting the ideas of reforms. At the same time, the political struggle is clearly intensifying. Serious transformations in the sphere of state power begin. So, in December 1988, at the 11th extraordinary session of the Supreme Council, the law “On Amendments and Additions to the Constitution” was adopted. The law made changes to the electoral system by introducing the principle of alternativeness.

However, the most turbulent was the third period of perestroika in the USSR. In 1989, Soviet troops were completely withdrawn from Afghanistan. In fact, the USSR ceases to support socialist regimes on the territory of other states. The camp of the socialist countries is collapsing. The most important, significant, event of that period is the fall of the Berlin Wall and the unification of Germany.

The party is gradually losing real power and its unity. A fierce battle between the factions begins. Not only the situation that has developed in the USSR is being criticized, but also the very foundations of the ideology of Marxism, as well as October Revolution 1917 Many opposition parties and movements are formed.

Against the backdrop of a tough political struggle during this period of Gorbachev's perestroika, a split begins in the sphere of the intelligentsia, among artists. If some of them were critical of the processes taking place in the country, then the other part provides comprehensive support to Gorbachev. Against the backdrop of political and social freedom unprecedented at that time, the volume of funding for both art and science, education, and many industries is significantly reduced. Talented scientists in such conditions leave to work abroad, or turn into businessmen. Many research institutes and design bureaus cease to exist. The development of knowledge-intensive industries slows down, and later stops altogether. Perhaps the most striking example of this can be the Energiya-Buran project, within the framework of which a unique reusable space shuttle Buran was created, which made a single flight.

The financial situation of the majority of citizens is gradually deteriorating. Also, there is an aggravation of interethnic relations. Many cultural and political figures are beginning to say that perestroika has become obsolete.

The consequences of perestroika are extremely ambiguous and multifaceted. Undoubtedly, the receipt by society of social and political freedoms, publicity and the reform of the planned distribution economy are positive aspects. However, the processes that took place during the period of perestroika in the USSR in 1985-1991 led to the collapse of the USSR and the aggravation of interethnic conflicts that had been smoldering for a long time. The weakening of power, both in the center and in the regions, a sharp decline in the standard of living of the population, undermining the scientific base, and so on. Undoubtedly, the results of perestroika and its significance will be rethought by future generations more than once.

59. Russian Federation in 1991-2000

Consequences of restructuring Economic consequencesthe collapse of the USSR and the difficulties of economic transformation was the reduction of Russia's economic potential by one third. The country has lost half of its seaports and merchant fleet, direct access to world routes in the West and in the South.

The immediate result was a drop in production, the cessation of investment activities, the collapse of cooperative ties within the USSR and the CMEA. There was a reduction in the volume of trade and a deterioration in its structure. All this affected the socio-economic situation in the country and caused the process of polarization of the population.

At the same time, Russia declared itself the legal successor of the Union and inherited all Union property located on its territory, including the remains of the gold reserves.

Political changesGorbachev's reform period led to the elimination of the one-party communist system and the weakening of political stability in society. Political freedoms, political pluralism were consolidated in the country, a multi-party system was formed.

Beginning of Russian modernization

Economic development in 1991-1993After 1991, a new stage of economic modernization began in Russia.

The radicals who came to power, headed by B.N. Yeltsin nominatedeconomic reform programfor 1992-1993, which included:

- free pricing (which was supposed to eliminate the shortage of goods);

- trade liberalization and then

mass privatization of housing and state-owned enterprises.

The total destruction of the state monopoly on economic activity was the main task of the liberal-privatization course of reforms.Structural adjustment of the Russian economyassumed the overcoming of over-militarization and excessive production of means of production (which in 1992 was 82.6%).

The social direction of the reforms was to create new social groups, primarily for a relatively wide stratum of owners.

The Deputy Prime Minister of the Russian government acted as the main strategist of economic reforms and a supporter of the method of shock therapyE.T. Gaidar.

The progress of the reform.From January 1, 1992, prices for most products were released. The next step was the privatization of state property. In 1992, the privatization of 20% of state-owned enterprises in trade and the service sector was envisaged. On October 1, 1992, the issuance of privatization checks (vouchers) to Russian citizens began. Since 1993, these securities have been allowed to be invested in shares of enterprises.

At the same time, in January 1992, the centralized system of resource distribution was abolished, and measures were taken to limit state subsidies to unprofitable industries and regions, and to transfer enterprises to full self-sufficiency. The share of total military spending was reduced (by 67-71% in 1991).

Results of the first stage.The results of the reforms were deeply contradictory.

One side, a market was introduced in Russia, trade liberalization eliminated the shortage of goods. Russian privatization has completed the task of dismantling the mechanism of centralized management of the economy.

On the other side, the decline in industrial production continued (by 35%), there was a sharp decline in the standard of living of the people. Prices have risen 100-150 times, while the average salary has increased only 10-15 times.

As a result of the release of prices, the population's funds were confiscated, which caused acute social discontent. High inflation led to the depreciation of the ruble and made financial and monetary stabilization impossible.

In the course of the privatization process (the sale of joint-stock enterprises), state property was redistributed, as a result, a significant part of it was concentrated in the hands of a small part of the country's population.

Economic development in 1993-1994

New government office.In December 1992, the VII Congress of People's Deputies of Russia achieved the resignation of E.T. Gaidar from the post of acting prime minister. Elected new head of governmentV.S. Chernomyrdin(former head of the oil and gas industry of the USSR).

Toreform course adjustment. While maintaining the general direction of movement towards the market, the emphasis was placed on supporting state-owned (including unprofitable) enterprises. Particular attention was paid to the fuel and energy and defense complexes, which again received significant loans from the government. Protectionism was also the main feature of Chernomyrdin's policy. Due to disagreement with the principles of reforms, those appointed to the new cabinet by Deputy Prime MinisterE.T. Gaidarand finance ministerB.G. Fedorovin early 1994 they left the government, joining the parliamentary opposition.

In December 1992, the government adopted a unified tariff wage system, which made it possible to somewhat alleviate the situation in the public sector.

The main focus of the reform wasmass privatizationstate-owned enterprises in all sectors. This process was coordinated by one of the Deputy Prime MinistersA.B. Chubais.

Results.By the end of 1993 almost 40,000 enterprises had been privatized. At the same time, in the conditions of corruption and supermonopolization, privatization had a number of negative consequences, with obvious successes in a number of industries. In the course of privatization, the real value of fixed assets was underestimated by 20-30 times and, accordingly, the value of privatization checks. In addition, at enterprises privatized into the ownership of labor collectives, the director who manages the income remained the real owner.

During the first years of reforms, the number of private banks (up to 2000) and stock exchanges (303) increased. In agriculture, the share of enterprises with state ownership was no more than 15% of land (24,000 collective farms). The rest became LLPs and JSCs, but for most farms this was the only change.

The decline in production in industry continued and amounted to 16.2%, in agriculture - 4% compared with 1992. In the absence of the necessary technical and economic base and state assistance, 14 thousand farms stopped their activities.

Economic development in 1995-1996

Attempts to stabilize the situation. GovernmentV.S. Chernomyrdintried to stabilize the standard of living of the population by providing targeted support to some of the least protected strata. Entrepreneurial activity of citizens was encouraged, and activities to attract foreign investment were intensified.

The priority task at the new stage was once again proclaimedtight financial policy. To solve problems in this area and replenish the budget, the All-Russian Extraordinary Commission on Tax Policy was created. However, despite this, the government failed to contain the decline in production and the fall in the efficiency of the economy.

Results of the first five years of reforms. In 1990, labor productivity in the economy was 19.4%, in 1995 - 13.5%; industrial growth in 1990 - 24.3%, in 1995 - 16.2%.; the growth of agriculture in 1990 - 20.7%, in 1995 - 14.8%. The allocations for science and education were significantly reduced from 2% to 0.32%.

The main reason for the process of further curtailment of industry and agriculture in the Russian economy is the unprofitability of enterprises in world prices, their uncompetitiveness in the world market. In connection with the reduction in the share of expenditures for the needs of the agro-industrial complex (from 15% in 1991 to 3.2% in 1996) and the fall in the all-Russian gross harvest, the problem of Russia's food security arose. Against the background of a general decline in industrial production, there was an increase in the raw material orientation of domestic industry. The share of these sectors for 1991-1996. increased by more than 2 times, while the share of mechanical engineering decreased by more than 20%, light industry by 62%. The share of total military spending in the structure of GDP decreased: from 7.6% in 1990 to 3.82% in 1997. As a result, Russia lost its traditional arms markets.

Foreign investment in the Russian economy. According to economists' calculations, the need for investments for the structural restructuring of the Russian economy for the next 15 years is $800-900 billion (Russia's internal reserves were $400-600 billion). Foreign investments (loans, investments in shares of privatized enterprises, etc.) in the Russian economy at the beginning of 1996 amounted to 9 billion dollars. At the same time, the size of Russia's external debt approached 130 billion dollars (which was 53% of GDP). But it is known that many countries also owe Russia (the debt of the developing countries to Russia, as the successor to the USSR, was $149 billion). Therefore, in order to speed up the process of returning money, Russia joined the London and Paris Club of creditor countries.

Economic development in 1997 early 1998

The new composition of the cabinet of the government of V.S. Chernomyrdin.In March 1997, the president dismissed the government. The main reason was the holding on March 27, 1997 of the All-Russian protest action, organized by trade unions and supported by the opposition. The reason for the protests of the working people was the continuing decline in the living standards of the population, non-payment wages, social benefits and pensions. V.S. Chernomyrdin remained the head of the cabinet, and his first deputies were appointedA.B. Chubais(who became simultaneously Minister of Finance) andB.E. Nemtsov(representative of the Russian regions, governor of the Nizhny Novgorod region).

Asmain directionsThe activities of the new government cabinet were named such measures as the reform of natural monopolies, pension and communal reforms, and the reform of the government apparatus. An important task of the new cabinet was the fight against corruption, which was seen as one of the reasons for the decline in the authority of the Russian authorities. For these purposes, the declaration of income and property of managers, as well as members of their families, was introduced. The President even instructed to develop a set of ethical rules for a civil servant, as well as a Civil Service Code.

The new cabinet of ministers decided to abolish unjustified tax and customs privileges. Each purchase of goods or provision of services under the state order had to be carried out through open tenders.

The catastrophic situation that prevailed in the field of finance by the spring of 1997 led to the adoptioncost sequestration lawfederal budget, that is, reducing government spending by 108 trillion. rub. (including a 30% reduction in the costs of the defense industry, the military-industrial complex, the coal industry; a 50% reduction in all other costs was envisaged).

Growing crisis phenomena in the economy.In the new year of 1998, the Chernomyrdin government took a number of measures to overcome the financial crisis (a new bankruptcy law was adopted, the ruble was denominated). However, in March-April the situation continued to deteriorate, including in the social sphere (another All-Russian protest action was scheduled for April 9). On March 31, by decree of the President, the government headed by V.S. Chernomyrdin was dismissed. After difficult negotiations between the President and the State Duma, the new Prime Minister was approvedS.V. Kiriyenko.

Monetary and financial crisis of 1998 Economic development in 1998-2000. The economic course of S.V. Kiriyenko. In May-June, the deterioration of the situation on the financial market became catastrophic, which was caused, among other things, by a drop in world prices for raw materials (by 30% for metal and twice for oil) and for shares of Russian companies. The government issued a statement on the tightening of budgetary policy, simultaneously asking for help from the heads of state of the United States and Germany, as well as the IMF. Clinton and Kohl supported the activities of the Russian authorities, and the IMF provided Russia with another $700 million loan. At the same time, negotiations continued on providing Russia withstabilization loan(in the amount of 10-15 billion dollars) to prevent the devaluation of the ruble. At the same time, the government proposedanti-crisis(stabilization) program.

The main condition for issuing a loan from the World Bank for 1998 was the splitting of natural monopolies. Therefore, the government began to develop a plan for vertical and horizontal restructuring in such sectors as oil transportation, energy, gas industry, rail transport, and telecommunications. They also discussed a plan for the nationalization of Gazexport and directing financial flows from gas exports directly (bypassing Gazprom) to the budget (ie, an attempt to introduce a state monopoly on gas exports).

August socio-economic crisis. On August 17, 1998, Prime Minister S.V. Kiriyenko issued a statement on the termination of payments on state obligations and a moratorium on the payment of debts to foreign banks (default - refusal of previously assumed obligations). August 23 was followed by the resignation of the government of SV Kiriyenko. The consequences of the crisis were extremely severe for the population. High inflation (up to 60%) and rising prices led to a decrease in real incomes of citizens by about a third. The drop in imports (by 6-7 times) caused a sharp reduction in customs duties as a traditional source of income for the treasury. There was a collapse of the market infrastructure and a crisis in the banking system and the securities market.

Government office of E.M.Primakov. On September 11, 1998, E.M. Primakov was approved as the new head of government. The main principles of his policy were the introduction of more stringent state regulation of the market, if possible limiting the issue of money in amounts that do not allow hyperinflation, the fight against criminalization in the economy.E.Primakova, Yu.Maslyukova(First Deputy Prime Minister, Chairman of the Minsk State Property Committee;V. Gerashchenko(Chairman of the Central Bank). The government has taken measures for the administrative regulation of the foreign exchange market under the leadership of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation. On October 1, 1998, a state monopoly on alcoholic products was introduced.

In search of a way out of the crisis. The government made attempts to achieve a restructuring of GKO debts and new Western loans, to prevent the seizure of foreign assets of Russian banks. The size of the internal and external debt of the Russian Federation in 1998 amounted to 158.8 billion dollars (of which external 143 billion dollars). In the context of the financial crisis in Russia, the West is trying to impose a number of conditions favorable to it (the requirement to increase VAT, maintain high duties for Russian exporters, change the budgetary ratio of the center-regions, slow down the export of Russian high technologies and increase the primary budget surplus by 2-3 times, i.e. cut the social sphere even more strongly). Against this background, a struggle unfolded in the upper echelons of power over the problems of overcoming the crisis. In May 1999, the government of E.M.Primakov was dismissed. The new head of the cabinet wasS.V.Stepashin, who was replaced in the summer of 1999V.V. Putin,concurrently publicly named successor to the President.

Political development

Political processes in 1991-1993

June 12, 1990, still within the USSR, was adoptedDeclaration of SovereigntyRSFSR.

The democratization of the political process, which began during the period of perestroika, led to the establishment in the political system of the RSFSR of the principle of separation of powers: into the executive (in the person of the President) and the legislative (Supreme Council of the RSFSR). The transitional nature of Russian statehood determined in 1993.confrontation between the two branches of government.In this situation, the President persistently defended the positions of the radical democrats and their course of reforms. At the All-Russian referendum on April 25, 1993, the majority of citizens voted for confidence in the President.

Political crisiserupted in the autumn of 1993. On September 21, the President signed a decree in which he announced the dissolution of the Congress of People's Deputies and the Supreme Council, the holding of elections to new government bodies in December and a referendum on a new Constitution. Following this, Vice-President openly joined the ranks of the oppositionA.V. Rutskoi, chairman of the Supreme CouncilR.I. Khasbulatov. The apogee of the constitutional crisis was the events of October 3-4, 1993, when armed clashes took place on the streets of Moscow and blood was shed.

Political processes in 1993-1996.

Moods in society and elections to the Federal Assembly. On December 12, 1993, elections were held for a new legislative body of Russia - a bicameralFederal Assembly(the upper house is the Federation Council, the lower house is the State Duma). Elections were held by electoral districts and party lists.

The election results testified to the growing dissatisfaction of the population with the socio-economic situation in the country, a significant drop in living standards. The problem of the weakness of power, its corruption, the inability to ensure public safety, stop crime and solve other pressing problems has become tangible for people. The growth of the national-patriotic idea in society was also important. At the same time, a certain part of the electorate remained in the position of continuing liberal reforms. received a quarter of the votesLDPRheaded byV.V. Zhirinovsky, a significant number of votes were received by representativesCommunist Party of the Russian Federation (leader G.A. Zyuganov).15% of the votes were cast forRussia's choiceheaded byE.T. Gaidar;

Adoption of a new Constitution. Liquidation of the Soviet political system. On December 12, 1993, in the course of a popular vote, a new Constitution of Russia was adopted. the Russian Federation proclaimedpresidential republic. The system of local councils was liquidated, their functions were transferred to the representatives of the President. The bicameral Federal Assembly was declared a new body of legislative power.

The Constitution significantly strengthened the position of the President. He became both head of state and head of government. The president concentrated in his hands all the fullness of executive power and was endowed with significant legislative powers (including the right to dissolve the State Duma if it rejected the candidacy of the prime minister three times).

At the same time, a unified system of local government did not develop. In a number of places, representative bodies practically do not participate in management. Mayors, governors, etc. govern. Moreover, in most cases these are elected positions, although sometimes we are talking about a leader appointed from above. In some regions, the influence of representative elected bodies is predominant.

Elections to the State Duma of the second convocation and presidential elections.On December 17, 1995, in the elections to the State Duma, out of 43 electoral blocs and associations, four of them overcame the 5% barrier -KPRF, LDPR, Yabloko, pro-government associationOur home is Russia(did not pass the 5% barrier fractionWomen of Russia, motionRussia's choiceand etc.). The Communists received a relative majority in the State Duma. Representative of the faction of the Communist Party of the Russian Federation -G. Seleznevbecame Chairman of the State Duma.

On June 16, 1996, elections of the President of Russia were held. Refusing to support the discredited Zhirinovsky, a significant part of the population, dissatisfied with the results of the reforms, voted for the communists. Of the 10 candidates for the second round of elections,B.N. YeltsinandG.A. Zyuganov. On July 3, the second round of the presidential elections took place, during whichB.N. Yeltsin(40% of votes).

Political processes in 1996-1999. The second tenure of B.N. Yeltsinin the presidency coincided with a rather difficult period in the history of our state.

. On the1998 fellthe peak of social conflict in society: On April 9, 1998, a general protest was held, followed by student unrest in Yekaterinburg, then a rail war of miners that paralyzed the work of the North-Western Railway (damage amounted to 9.5 million rubles). The miners, as well as scientists, teachers, students, seek the repayment of debts by the state, regular payment of wages, and an increase in the living standards of the population. Of particular concern in society is the tendency to merge power and private property (through the entry of financiers and entrepreneurs into the highest executive bodies), that is, elements of oligarchic rule in Russia.

Against this background, there is a noticeableactivation of radicalismin all its manifestations. Among the radical parties that are trying to use the difficult socio-political situation in the country to strengthen their own positions, right-wing radical parties stand out (nationalist ones - Russian National Unity, the Party of Russian Nationalists; national-patriotic (LDPR); left-wing radical ones - one of which is the Communist Party of the Russian Federation, the largest party in Russia 1.550 thousand people). The Communist Party of the Russian Federation, as well as the Liberal Democratic Party, use ethnic nationalism as their political slogans, relying on ideas about the collectivist nature of the people as a means of reviving the greatness of the state. In this situation, the opposition focused its efforts on removing the president from power (impeachment) and forming a government of people's trust.

Elections to the State Duma of the third convocation (December 19, 1999).After a difficult political election campaign that unfolded in the fall of 1999, the new composition of the State Duma will be represented bysixelectoral associations. The Communist Party of the Russian Federation received the largest number of votes (24.22%). This will be the most numerous faction in the Duma, which, however, does not now have an opposition majority. Following the communists is the pro-government bloc Unity (Medved, leaderS.Sh. Shoigu (23.37%),Further - Fatherland movement - All Russia led by a leader -E.M.Primakov(12.64%) and the Union of Right Forces (leader S.V. Kiriyenko) (8.72%). The 5% barrier was also overcome by the association Yabloko (6.13%) and the Zhirinovsky Block (6.08%). The main sensation of the elections was the victory thanks to the applied electoral technologies of the inter-regional movement Unity, created only in October 1999 (that is, on the eve of the elections), and the weak results of the Yabloko association, which lost a third of the votes. The association Our House - Russia, which received only 1.2%, did not get into the State Duma (although its leaders V.S. Chernomyrdin and V. Ryzhkov won in single-mandate constituencies).

Political development in 2000

3.4.1. The resignation of B.N. Yeltsin. Activity President of the Russian Federation V.V. Putin.

3.4.2. March 2000 presidential election

The evolution of Russian statehood.

After the collapse of the USSR, Russia turned from a constituent federal part of a union state into an independent federation (it includes 89 regions, 21 autonomous republics, 50 regions, 6 territories, 10 autonomous districts, 2 federal cities of Moscow and St. Petersburg). Formed two levels of state power in the Russian Federation federal and subjects of the Federation.

Changes in the social status of the republics.The leadership of the Russian Federation faced the priority task of building the Russian statehood on the basis of federalism, decentralization of management. In 1991, the autonomous republics within the RSFSR declared their sovereignty, and the autonomous regions declared themselves sovereign republics. The Islamic factor has acquired a special role in the national policy of the state (20 million people in Russia profess this religion). Tatarstan, Bashkortostan, Yakutia directed their efforts towards secession from the Russian Federation. The leadership of the Chechen Republic announced a severance of ties with the federal authorities and headed for an armed confrontation with the center in the name of achieving independence.

Delimitation of powers of subjects of the federation.In order to preserve statehood in March 1992 in Moscow was signedfederal treaty, where the powers of the subjects of the federation were stipulated and the boundaries between them were designated. For the first time, all subjects of the Russian Federation received the right to create their own laws. In 1994, Tatarstan joined the treaty on special terms. Chechnya refused to sign it.

One of the problems for the Russian Federation is to ensure the legal status of national minorities. To this end, June 19, 1996 was adoptedlaw on national-cultural autonomy, regulating the rights of national minorities that do not have their own state-territorial formations within the Russian Federation. An Advisory Council for the Protection of the Interests of Ethnic Communities has been established under the Government of the Russian Federation.

Federal center and subjects of the Russian Federation. The variety of rates and scales of reforms, their economic and social consequences determined regional differences in the level of production, in the material situation of the population, in the demographic situation. Among the regions, the most privileged ones stand out (Tatarstan, Bashkortostan, Sakha (Yakutia), which pay 1% to the federal budget (all the rest 10%). There is also a group of highly profitable regions: Moscow, St. Petersburg, Samara, Moscow, Sverdlovsk regions, Krasnodar Territory At the same time, there are subsidized and highly subsidized regions of Kalmykia, Dagestan, Ingushetia, Tuva, Adygea, Buryat, Koryak, Chukotka, etc.

After the delimitation of powers and the transition to the election of governors (1996), the federal government is forced to reckon with regional consciousness and the strengthening of local economic elites, as well as the emerging problem of economic separatism (non-compliance with federal laws and presidential decrees, government decrees, concealment of national incomes, etc.). ). This situation requires the adoption of constitutional laws on strengthening the influence of the Federal Center in the regions in order to preserve the integrity and security of the Russian statehood.

War in Chechnya.After the collapse of the USSR, the hottest spot in Russia became North Caucasus. In December 1994, in order to restore constitutional order in Chechnya, federal troops were brought here, which led to a bloody two-year war, which was completed only by the fall of 1996.

In October, an agreement was reached in Khasavyurt to hold presidential elections and to postpone for five years the question of the political status of the Chechen Republic. The elections were held on January 27, 1997. Colonel was elected President of the Chechen RepublicA.Maskhadov, who proclaimed the course for the national independence of Chechnya. On May 12, 1997, the Treaty on Peace and Principles of Relations between the Russian Federation and the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria was signed.

After the end of the war in Chechnya, Russia faced the problem of terrorism in the North Caucasus, which in the autumn of 1999 turned into a national problem. After a series of explosions in Buynakhsk, Moscow, Volgodonsk, militants from Chechen gangs began a policy of intimidation of the Russian authorities. As a response, the Russian government, headed by V.V. Putin decided to use force in the fight against terrorists. As a result, the second Chechen war began. The measures taken by Moscow caused a mixed reaction in the world.INSERT

4. RESULTS

With the collapse of the USSR and the communist regime in the Russian Federation,new stage of economic modernization. The reforms carried out in Russia in the 1990s led to the dismantling of the main elements of the obsolete administrative system and the transition to economic methods of regulation. Private property became a reality. New social strata of owners of various levels and top managers have formed. The liberalization of economic activity, prices and foreign trade contributed to the activation of the consumer market. It was possible to ensure the internal convertibility of the ruble. Russia has embarked on the path of integration into the world economy.

However, the continued decline in production causedcomplication of the economic situationin the country, the aggravation of social problems, the strengthening of the stratification of society into rich and poor. The influence of the state bureaucracy on the economy remained enormous.

The current stage of Russia's renewal is characterized by the coexistence of opposite principles - elements of freedom and authoritarianism, the market and state management of the economy, the strengthening of central power and the desire for regional autonomy. In the correlation of forces of supporters of different ways of development of Russian society, a kind of balance has developed, which is the basis for preservinga high degree of alternativeness in the Russian political process.

The peculiarities of the period the country is going through (transitional nature, lack of world experience of changes of this nature and scale) determined significant fluctuations in the economic and political course within the accepted direction of progressive reforms. Until nowa specific development model has not been developed. At the same time, there is no doubt both the need to use Soviet and foreign experience, and the impossibility of a mechanical perception of Western models or a return to the Soviet past.

This stage in the history of Russia began precisely from the moment the Constitution of the Russian Federation was adopted at a popular vote on December 12, 1993.Constitution of the Russian Federation- The Basic Law of the Russian Federation, has the highest legal force throughout the Russian Federation and direct action.

Structure of the ConstitutionRF:preamble; the first section, which in turn is divided into nine chapters; second section.

Basic principles of the Constitution of the Russian Federation:the supremacy of the Constitution and the direct effect of constitutional norms.

The draft Constitution of the Russian Federation was being preparedspecial constitutional commission on behalf of M.S. Gorbachev (President of the USSR), which was given at the I Congress of People's Deputies of the RSFSR 1990G.This commission included (and was headed by) the future first President of the Russian Federation B.N. Yeltsin.

General concept of the ConstitutionRFwas adopted at the first discussion of the draft constitution at the Congress of People's Deputies, but the draft was never approved. This made it difficult to prepare and implement the new Constitution of the Russian Federation.

Further, the need arose for more decisive measures by the supporters of the transition to a new democratic form of power in Russia. In August 1991, a revolution took place in the system of power in Russia, as a result of which the head of the constitutional commission became the head of state.

At the beginning of 1993It wasconvened a constitutional convention, whichpreparedseveral drafts of the constitution (B.N. Yeltsin took part in one of the drafts). At the discussion of draft constitutions, the so-called presidential draft received the majority of votes (it was later put forward to a referendum). The main provisions of this Constitution of the Russian Federation:

- Russia has embarked on the path of formation of a rule of law state;

- a person, his rights and freedoms are now proclaimed the highest value;

- The Constitution of the Russian Federation and federal legislation has the highest legal force;

- the state structure is based on the principles of federalism and the right of the small peoples of Russia to self-determination;

- the sovereignty and territorial integrity of Russia are proclaimed;

- a unified system of state authorities has been created;

- The principle of separation of powers operates in the Russian Federation.

characteristicfeatures of the state and law of Russia after 1993:

- the highest authorities in the Russian Federation: the President (aka the head of state). Federal Assembly (is a bicameral parliament). Government (the highest body of executive power);

- observedgeneral humanization of the criminal and penitentiary law of Russia(a moratorium on the use of the death penalty). In civil legal relations, private property is becoming increasingly important (its protection in the Russian Federation is carried out to the same extent as the protection of state property). For the first time, private ownership of land appeared in law (this was unacceptable during the USSR period);

- tightening the sanctions of the criminal lawfor crimes against public safety and, first of all, for the organization and execution of terrorist acts (this is still an urgent problem of our time).

The aggravation of relations between the former allies in the anti-Hitler coalition led to a split in the world into two opposing military bloc systems. This confrontation, which lasted for more than four decades, not only determined the state of international relations, but also had a direct impact on the nature of the socio-economic and socio-political development of most countries of the world.

From the point of view of the objective interests of peoples and states, the Cold War was not beneficial to anyone. Most of Europe lay in ruins, the restoration of its economy, as well as the national economy of the USSR, required conditions for peace and cooperation. The only power that gained strength during the war years was the United States. The national income of this country increased from $64 billion in 1938 to $160 billion in 1944. The US accounted for 60% of world industrial production, up to 80% of the world's gold reserves. But the United States also did not gain anything from breaking relations of cooperation with the USSR. The United States could prevent a decline in production after the curtailment of military orders only with the full implementation of the principle of free trade, which was impossible under the conditions of the Cold War.

The post-war world and the causes of the Cold War. The transition from cooperation between the former allies in the anti-fascist coalition to confrontation between them did not occur immediately.

The most important reason for the aggravation of relations between the USSR and the USA was the lack of mutual trust. For I.V. Stalin, especially after the German attack on the USSR, was characterized by extreme suspicion of the intentions of the leaders of foreign states. This suspicion was supported by the theoretical conclusions of the 1920s and 1930s. about the inevitability of fascisation of the bourgeois democracies.

The leadership of the USSR sought to surround its territory with a belt of friendly states controlled by the communists. This was perceived in the United States and Great Britain as an aggressive policy that violated the principle of the freedom of peoples to choose their own path of development. The leaders of the Western countries believed that the successes of the communists could not be the product of the free expression of their will by the peoples, especially in countries where Soviet troops were stationed. From the point of view of the leadership of the USSR, on the contrary, any other choice, except in favor of the communist parties, could only be the product of dictate, external influence.

In the autumn of 1945, the Soviet Union reacted extremely negatively to the demands of Western diplomacy to change the composition of the governments of Bulgaria and Romania on the grounds that only communists were represented in them. Moscow considered that the West intended to restore the barrier of states unfriendly to the USSR, separating it from Western Europe, capable of becoming a springboard for an attack on it.

March 5, 1946 is often considered the formal start of the Cold War, when Winston Churchill(at that time no longer holding the post of Prime Minister of Great Britain) delivered his famous speech in Fulton (USA-Missouri), in which he put forward the idea of ​​​​creating a military alliance of the Anglo-Saxon countries in order to fight world communism. In fact, the aggravation of relations between the allies began earlier, but by March 1946 it intensified due to the refusal of the USSR to withdraw the occupying troops from Iran (the troops were withdrawn only in May 1946 under pressure from Great Britain and the United States).

Manifestations of the Cold War

Acute political and ideological confrontation between the communist and Western liberal systems, which engulfed almost the entire world;

Creation of a system of military (NATO, Warsaw Pact Organization, SEATO, CENTO, ANZUS, ANZUK) and economic (EEC, CMEA, ASEAN, etc.) unions;

Creation of an extensive network of military bases of the USA and the USSR on the territory of foreign states;

Forcing the arms race and military preparations;

A sharp increase in military spending;

Periodically emerging international crises (Berlin crises, Caribbean crisis, Korean War, Vietnam War, Afghan War);

The tacit division of the world into “spheres of influence” of the Soviet and Western blocs, within which the possibility of intervention was tacitly allowed in order to maintain a regime that was pleasing to one or another bloc (Soviet intervention in Hungary, Soviet intervention in Czechoslovakia, the American operation in Guatemala, the overthrow of the anti-Western organized by the United States and Great Britain). government in Iran, US-sponsored invasion of Cuba, US intervention in the Dominican Republic, US intervention in Grenada)

The rise of the national liberation movement in colonial and dependent countries and territories (partly inspired by the USSR), the decolonization of these countries, the formation of the "third world", the Non-Aligned Movement, neo-colonialism;

Conducting a massive "psychological war", the purpose of which was to promote their own ideology and way of life, as well as to discredit the official ideology and way of life of the opposite bloc in the eyes of the population of "enemy" countries and the "third world". For this purpose, radio stations were created that broadcast to the territory of the countries of the “ideological enemy” (see the articles Enemy Voices and Foreign Broadcasting), the production of ideologically directed literature and periodicals in foreign languages ​​was financed, and class, racial, national contradictions were actively used. First main control e KGB of the USSR carried out so-called "active measures" - operations to influence foreign public opinion and the policy of foreign states in the interests of the USSR.

Support for anti-government forces abroad - The USSR and its allies provided material support to communist parties and some other leftist parties in Western and developing countries, as well as national liberation movements, including terrorist organizations. Also, the USSR and its allies supported the movement for peace in the countries of the West. In turn, the US and British intelligence agencies supported and took advantage of such anti-Soviet organizations as the People's Labor Union. Since 1982, the United States has also secretly provided material assistance to Solidarity in Poland, and also provided material assistance to the Afghan Mujahideen and the Contras in Nicaragua.

Reduction of economic and humanitarian ties between states with different socio-political systems.

Boycotts of some Olympic Games. For example, the United States and a number of other countries boycotted the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow. In response, the USSR and most socialist countries boycotted the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles.

Causes, stages and consequences of the Cold War.

After the end of World War II, which became the largest and most violent conflict in the history of mankind, a confrontation arose between the countries of the communist camp on the one hand and the Western capitalist countries on the other. Between the two superpowers of that time, the USSR and the USA. The Cold War can be briefly described as a rivalry for dominance in the new post-war world.

The main cause of the Cold War was the irresolvable ideological contradictions between the two models of society, socialist and capitalist. The West feared the strengthening of the USSR. The absence of a common enemy among the victorious countries, as well as the ambitions of political leaders, played their role.

Historians distinguish the following stages of the Cold War:

· March 5, 1946 - 1953 - The beginning of the Cold War was marked by Churchill's speech delivered in the spring of 1946 in Fulton, in which the idea of ​​creating an alliance of Anglo-Saxon countries to fight communism was proposed. The goal of the United States was an economic victory over the USSR, as well as achieving military superiority. In fact, the Cold War began earlier, but it was precisely by the spring of 1946, due to the USSR's refusal to withdraw troops from Iran, that the situation seriously escalated.

· 1953 - 1962 - During this period of the Cold War, the world was on the brink of nuclear conflict. Despite some improvement in relations between the Soviet Union and the United States during Khrushchev's "thaw", it was at this stage that the anti-communist uprising in Hungary, the events in the GDR and, earlier, in Poland, as well as the Suez crisis took place. International tension increased after the development and successful testing of the USSR in 1957 of an intercontinental ballistic missile.

However, the threat of nuclear war has receded, as now Soviet Union was able to strike back at US cities. This period of relations between the superpowers ended with the Berlin and Caribbean crises of 1961 and 1962, respectively. It was possible to resolve the Caribbean crisis only during personal negotiations between the heads of state - Khrushchev and Kennedy. Also, as a result of the negotiations, a number of agreements on the nonproliferation of nuclear weapons were signed.

· 1962 - 1979 - The period was marked by an arms race that undermined the economies of rival countries. The development and production of new types of weapons required incredible resources. Despite the presence of tension in relations between the USSR and the USA, agreements on the limitation of strategic weapons are signed. A joint space program "Soyuz-Apollo" is being developed. However, by the beginning of the 80s, the USSR began to lose in the arms race.

· 1979 - 1987 - Relations between the USSR and the USA again become aggravated after the entry of Soviet troops into Afghanistan. In 1983 the United States deploys ballistic missiles at bases in Italy, Denmark, England, the FRG, and Belgium. An anti-space defense system is being developed. The USSR reacts to the actions of the West by withdrawing from the Geneva talks. During this period, the missile attack warning system is in constant combat readiness.

· 1987 - 1991 - Gorbachev's coming to power in the USSR in 1985 led not only to global changes within the country, but also to radical changes in foreign policy, called "new political thinking". Ill-conceived reforms finally undermined the economy of the Soviet Union, which led to the country's virtual defeat in the Cold War.

The end of the Cold War was caused by the weakness of the Soviet economy, its inability to support the arms race any longer, and also by the pro-Soviet communist regimes. Anti-war speeches in various parts of the world also played a certain role. The results of the Cold War were depressing for the USSR. A symbol of the victory of the West. was the reunification in 1990 of Germany.

Effects:

In fact, the Cold War had an impact on almost all aspects of human life, in addition, its consequences in different countries had their own characteristics. If we try to highlight some of the main, most general consequences of the Cold War, we should mention the following:

· division of the world according to ideological principle - with the beginning of the Cold War and the formation of military-political blocs. Led by the USA and the USSR, the whole world found itself in a state of division into "us" and "them". This created numerous practical difficulties, as it put many obstacles in the way of economic, cultural and other cooperation, but first of all it had negative psychological consequences - humanity did not feel like a single whole. In addition, the fear was constantly fanned that the confrontation could go into an acute phase and end in a world war with the use of nuclear weapons;

· the division of the world into spheres of influence and the struggle for them - in fact, the entire planet was considered by the opposing sides as a springboard in the fight against each other. Therefore, certain regions of the world were spheres of influence, for control over which there was a fierce struggle between the superpowers at the level of economic policy, propaganda, support for certain forces in individual countries and secret operations of special services. As a result, severe divisions were provoked in various regions, which, after the end of the Cold War, led to numerous hotbeds of tension, the emergence of local armed conflicts and full-scale civil wars(the fate of Yugoslavia, "hot spots" on the territory of the former USSR, numerous conflicts in Africa, and so on);

· Militarization of the world economy - huge material resources, natural, technical and financial resources were directed to the military industry, to the arms race. In addition to the fact that this undermined the economic potential of many countries (primarily from the socialist camp), it also became a very serious factor in the subsequent emergence of local conflicts and global terrorism. After the end of the Cold War, a large number of weapons and weapons remained, which, through the black market, began to feed "hot spots" and organizations of extremists;

· the formation of a number of socialist regimes - the end of the Cold War marked the anti-communist and anti-socialist revolutions in many countries, primarily in Europe. However, a number of countries retained socialist regimes, and to a fairly conservative form. This is one of the factors of instability in modern international relations: for example, it is still very unprofitable for the United States to have a socialist state (Cuba) on its borders, and the DPRK, whose political regime very close to Stalinism, is an irritant for the West, South Korea and Japan due to information about the work on the creation of North Korean nuclear weapons;

the cold war was actually not so “cold” - the fact is that this confrontation was called the cold war because it did not come to armed conflict between superpowers and their most powerful allies. But meanwhile, full-scale military conflicts took place in a number of parts of the world, partly provoked by the actions of the superpowers, as well as with their direct participation in them (the war in Vietnam, the war in Afghanistan, a whole list of conflicts on the African continent);

· The Cold War contributed to the emergence of some countries in the leading positions - after the Second World War, the United States actively supported the economic revival and development of West Germany and Japan, which could be their allies in the fight against the USSR. The Soviet Union also provided some assistance to China. At the same time, China developed independently, but while the rest of the world focused on the confrontation between the USA and the USSR, China received favorable conditions for transformations;

Scientific, technical and technological development - the Cold War stimulated the development of both fundamental science and applied technologies, which were originally sponsored and developed for military purposes, and then were repurposed for civilian needs and influenced the growth of the standard of living of ordinary people. A classic example is the Internet, which originally appeared as a communication system for the US military in the event of a nuclear war with the USSR;

· the formation of a unipolar model of the world - the United States, which actually won the Cold War, became the only superpower. Relying on the NATO military-political mechanism created by them to counter the USSR, as well as on the most powerful military machine that also appeared during the arms race with the Soviet Union, the States received all the necessary mechanisms to protect their interests in any part of the world, regardless of the decisions of international organizations and interests of other countries. This was especially clearly manifested in the so-called "export of democracy" carried out by the United States since the turn of the 20th-21st centuries. On the one hand, this means the dominance of one country, on the other hand, it leads to an increase in contradictions and resistance to this domination.

The Cold War is the historical period from 1946 to 1991, which was marked by the confrontation between two major superpowers - the USSR and the USA, which took shape after the end of World War II in 1945. The rivalry between the two strongest states of the planet at that time gradually acquired a fierce character of confrontation in all spheres - economic, social, political and ideological. Both states created military-political associations (NATO and the Warsaw Pact), accelerated the creation of nuclear and conventional weapons, and also constantly took covert or overt participation in almost all local military conflicts on the planet.

Main causes of confrontation

• The desire of the United States to secure world leadership and create a world based on American values, taking advantage of the temporary weakness of potential opponents (European states, like the USSR, lay in ruins after the war, and other countries at that time could not even close compete with the strengthened overseas "empire" )
• Different ideological programs of the USA and the USSR (Capitalism and Socialism). The authority of the Soviet Union after the defeat of Nazi Germany was unusually high. Including in the states of Western Europe. Fearing the spread of communist ideology and mass support for it, the United States began to actively oppose the USSR.

The position of the parties at the beginning of the conflict

The United States initially had a colossal economic head start over its eastern adversary, thanks to which, in many respects, they got the opportunity to become a superpower. The USSR defeated the strongest European army, but paid for it with millions of lives and thousands of destroyed cities and villages. No one knew how long it would take to restore the economy destroyed by the fascist invasion. The territory of the United States, unlike the USSR, did not suffer at all, and the losses against the background of the losses of the Soviet army looked insignificant, since it was the Soviet Union that took the strongest blow from the fascist core of all of Europe, fighting alone against Germany and its allies from 1941 to 1944.

The United States, on the other hand, participated in the war in the European theater of operations for less than a year - from June 1944 to May 1945. After the war, the United States became a creditor to the Western European states, effectively formalizing their economic dependence on America. The Yankees proposed the Marshall Plan to Western Europe, an economic aid program that 16 states had signed by 1948. For 4 years, the United States had to transfer 17 billion to Europe. dollars.

Less than a year after the victory over fascism, the British and Americans began to look anxiously at the East and look for some kind of threat there. Already in the spring of 1946, Winston Churchill delivers his famous Fullton speech, which is usually associated with the beginning of the Cold War. Active anti-communist rhetoric begins in the West. By the end of the 1940s, all communists were removed from the governments of Western European states. This was one of the conditions under which the United States provided financial assistance to European countries.

The USSR was not included in the program financial assistance for obvious reasons - he was already considered an enemy. The countries of Eastern Europe, which were under the control of the communists, fearing the growth of US influence and economic dependence, also did not accept the Marshall Plan. Thus, the USSR and its allies were forced to restore the destroyed economy solely on their own, and this was done much faster than expected in the West. The USSR not only quickly restored infrastructure, industry and destroyed cities, but also in short time eliminated the US nuclear monopoly by creating nuclear weapons, thereby depriving the Americans of the opportunity to strike with impunity.

Creation of military-political blocs of NATO and the Warsaw Pact

In the spring of 1949, the United States initiated the creation of a NATO military bloc (Organization of the North Atlantic Alliance), citing the need to "fight the Soviet threat." The union initially included the Netherlands, France, Belgium, Luxembourg, Great Britain, Iceland, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark, as well as the USA and Canada. American military bases began to appear in Europe, the size of the armed forces of European armies increased, and the number of military equipment and combat aircraft increased.

The USSR reacted in 1955 with the creation of the Warsaw Treaty Organization (OVD), in the same way creating the unified armed forces of the Eastern European states, as they did in the West. The ATS included Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, the GDR, Poland, Romania, the USSR and Czechoslovakia. In response to the buildup of military forces by the Western military bloc, the strengthening of the armies of the socialist states also began.

Symbols of NATO and the Warsaw Pact

Local military conflicts

Two military-political blocs launched a large-scale confrontation with each other all over the planet. A direct military clash was feared on both sides, since its outcome was unpredictable. However, there was a constant struggle at various points the globe for spheres of influence and control over non-aligned countries. Here are just a few of the most striking examples of military conflicts in which the USSR and the USA indirectly or directly participated.

1. Korean War (1950-1953)
After World War II, Korea was divided into two states - in the South, pro-American forces were in power, and in the north, the DPRK (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) was formed, in which the Communists were in power. In 1950, a war broke out between the two Koreas - “socialist” and “capitalist”, in which, of course, the USSR supported North Korea, and the United States supported South Korea. Soviet pilots and military specialists, as well as detachments of Chinese "volunteers", unofficially fought on the side of the DPRK. The United States provided direct military assistance to South Korea, intervening openly in the conflict, which ended with the signing of peace and the maintenance of the status quo in 1953.

2. Vietnam War (1957-1975)
In fact, the scenario of the beginning of the confrontation was the same - Vietnam after 1954 was divided into two parts. In North Vietnam, the Communists were in power, and in South Vietnam, political forces oriented towards the United States. Each side sought to unify Vietnam. Since 1965, the United States has provided open military assistance to the South Vietnamese regime. Regular American troops, along with the army of South Vietnam, participated in hostilities against North Vietnamese troops. hidden help The USSR and China provided weapons, equipment and military specialists to North Vietnam. The war ended with the victory of the North Vietnamese communists in 1975.

3. Arab-Israeli wars
In a whole series of wars in the Middle East between the Arab states and Israel, the Soviet Union and the Eastern bloc supported the Arabs, and the US and NATO supported the Israelis. Soviet military specialists trained the troops of the Arab states, which were armed with tanks and aircraft that came from the USSR, and the soldiers of the Arab armies used Soviet equipment and equipment. The Israelis used American military equipment and followed the instructions of US advisers.

4. Afghan war (1979-1989)
The USSR sent troops to Afghanistan in 1979 to support a political regime that was oriented toward Moscow. Large formations of the Afghan Mujahideen fought against the Soviet troops and the government army of Afghanistan, who enjoyed the support of the United States and NATO, and accordingly armed themselves with them. Soviet troops left Afghanistan in 1989, the war continued after their departure.

All of the above is only a small part of the military conflicts in which the superpowers participated, covertly or almost overtly fighting each other in local wars.

1 — American soldiers in positions during the Korean War
2-Soviet tank in the service of the Syrian army
3-American helicopter in the sky over Vietnam
4-Column of Soviet troops in Afghanistan

Why did the USSR and the USA never enter into a direct military conflict?

As mentioned above, the outcome of the military conflict between the two large military blocs was completely unpredictable, but the main deterrent was the presence of nuclear missile weapons in huge quantities both the United States and the Soviet Union. Over the years of confrontation, the parties have accumulated such a number of nuclear charges that would be enough to repeatedly destroy all life on Earth.

Thus, a direct military conflict between the USSR and the USA would inevitably mean an exchange of nuclear missile strikes, during which there would be no winners - everyone would be losers, and the very possibility of life on the planet would be called into question. Nobody wanted such an outcome, so the parties avoided an open military clash with each other in every possible way, but nevertheless periodically tried each other's strength in local conflicts, helping any state covertly or directly participating in hostilities.

So, with the beginning of the nuclear age, local conflicts and information wars have become almost the only ways to expand their influence and control over other states. This situation persists to this day. The possibilities of the collapse and liquidation of such major geopolitical players as modern China and Russia lie only in the sphere of attempts to undermine the state from within by means of information wars, the purpose of which is a coup d'etat with subsequent destructive actions of puppet governments. There are constant attempts on the part of the West to find the weaknesses of Russia and other uncontrolled states, to provoke ethnic, religious, political conflicts, etc.

End of the Cold War

In 1991, the Soviet Union collapsed. There was only one superpower left on planet Earth - the United States, which tried to rebuild the whole world on the basis of American liberal values. Within the framework of globalization, an attempt is being made to impose on all mankind a certain universal model of social structure along the lines of the United States and Western Europe. However, this has not yet been possible. There is active resistance in all parts of the globe against the imposition of American values, which are unacceptable to many peoples. The story goes on, the struggle continues ... Think about the future and the past, try to understand and comprehend the world around, develop and do not stand still. Passive waiting and burning through life is essentially a regression in your development. As the Russian philosopher V. Belinsky said - who does not go forward, he goes back, there is no standing position ...

Best regards, mind-point administration

Ufa State Aviation Technical University

Department of Fatherland History and Cultural Studies

Test

in history

"cold war": causes, essence, consequences

Completed:

Gaisin A.N.

FIRT student

Group PIE-210z

Introduction

1.Start of the Cold War

Causes of the Cold War

1 Korean War

2 Construction of the Berlin Wall

3 Cuban Missile Crisis

4 Vietnam War

5 Afghan War

4.Consequences

Conclusion

Bibliography

INTRODUCTION

The unity of the victorious countries could not be lasting. The USSR, on the one hand, and the USA, Great Britain and France, on the other, represented different social systems. Stalin sought to expand the territory led by the communist parties. The Soviet Union sought to gain access to resources that were previously controlled by the capitalist countries. The US and its allies sought to maintain their dominance in Asia, Africa and Latin America. All this brought mankind to the brink of the third world war. The confrontation between the USSR and the USA, which unfolded in the mid-40s-80s of the twentieth century and was called the "cold war", never turned into a "hot" war, although it constantly led to conflicts in certain regions. The Cold War caused the world to split into two camps, gravitating towards the USSR and the USA. The term "cold war" was introduced by Churchill during his speech in Fulton (USA) on March 5, 1946. No longer the leader of his country, Churchill remained one of the most influential politicians in the world. In his speech, he stated that Europe was divided by the "Iron Curtain" and urged western civilization declare war on communism. In fact, the war of two systems, two ideologies has not stopped since 1917, however, it took shape as a completely conscious confrontation precisely after the Second World War.

Why did it start only after the Second World War? Obviously, this was dictated by the time itself, the era itself. The allies emerged from this war so strong, and the means of warfare became so destructive, that it became clear that sorting things out with the old methods was too much of a luxury. Nevertheless, the desire to exterminate the opposing side of the coalition partners has not diminished. To a certain extent, the initiative to start the Cold War belongs to the Western countries, for which the might of the USSR, which became apparent during the Second World War, turned out to be a very unpleasant surprise.

So, the Cold War arose shortly after the end of World War II, when the Allies began to take stock of its results. What did they see? First, half of Europe ended up in the Soviet zone of influence, and pro-Soviet regimes feverishly arose there. Secondly, a powerful wave of liberation movement arose in the colonies against the mother countries. Thirdly, the world quickly polarized and turned into a bipolar one. Fourthly, two superpowers emerged on the world stage, the military and economic power of which gave them a significant superiority over others. Plus, the interests of Western countries in various parts of the world are beginning to run into the interests of the USSR. This new state of the world, formed after the Second World War, was recognized by Churchill faster than others when he proclaimed the Cold War.

1.THE BEGINNING OF THE COLD WAR

In 1945, there was a deep disparity in power and strength between the two main victorious countries. Even before the war, disproportions were shifting in America's favor, especially in the economy. But hostilities pushed the two countries even further in the opposite direction. The war did not touch American soil: the fighting took place far from the coast of America. The economy of the United States, which was the main supplier and financier of the entire victorious coalition, experienced an unprecedented leap between 1939 and 1945. The potential of US industrial capacities grew by 50%, production increased by 2.5 times. 4 times more equipment was produced, 7 times more vehicles. Agricultural production increased by 36%. Wages grew, as did all the incomes of the population.

Inequality also manifested itself in relation to the possession of nuclear weapons. As is known, until 1949, the only power possessing an atomic bomb was the United States. The Americans made no secret of the fact that they perceived nuclear weapons as an attribute of the might of a great power, as a means of intimidating a potential adversary - the USSR and its allies, as a means of pressure.

I.V. Stalin considered it necessary to create a military counterweight to the United States. Since 1949 he became convinced of the possibility of destabilizing the capitalist system and approaching the proletarian revolution in the West.

For its part, the US leadership sought to foresee a policy "from a position of strength" and tried to use all its economic and military-political might to put pressure on the USSR. In 1946, the US President G. Truman's doctrine of "limitation of communist expansion" was proclaimed, reinforced in 1947 by the doctrine of economic assistance to "free peoples" ("Marshall Plan", which the USSR abandoned). This meant a turn to the "cold war", which predetermined the worsening of the international climate and founded the threat of military-political crises. Stalin faced a difficult dilemma: whether to resist the pressure that his former allies, now armed with an atomic bomb, exerted on the USSR in conditions when the country was exhausted. Stalin was convinced that the United States and Britain would not dare to start a war. The Soviet government decided to speed up work on the manufacture of its own atomic bomb. The work, carried out in strict secrecy, began in full measure from August-September 1945. After Potsdam and Hiroshima, Stalin formed, under the supreme control of Beria, a special committee headed by People's Commissar Vannikov, called upon to direct all activities to create new weapons.

The deterioration of relations with the Western world, as well as the revival of imperial ambitions, pushed the Soviet leadership to consolidate control over Central and Southeastern Europe. In response to the US attempt to link the Western occupation zones with the Western European states by economic and political agreements, the USSR and under its pressure the Eastern European countries refused to participate in the American aid program, and later on in the activities of international economic organizations. Such was the world after the war. The role of the communists has greatly grown, the prestige of the USSR in the world has risen high. This was clearly not beneficial to the United States, Great Britain and other major capitalist powers. The confrontation between the West and the Soviet Union began to take on a sharp character. Moreover, Stalin was irritated by the economic power of the United States after the war, in which the states suffered almost no losses. Increasingly, they began to talk about the bipolar structure of the world, standing in the ruins of the USSR gradually rose to its feet. Two superpowers rose above all others - the USSR and the USA. Gradually, imperceptibly for both opposing camps, an arms race began between them - the "cold war".

Its beginning was connected with atomic weapons. The American military, thinking in the usual categories of naked force, began to look for the proper means to strike at the "enemy", that is, at the Soviet Union. The philosopher's stone in solving the problem, which seemed insoluble in the recommendations relating to 1943-1944, was the atomic weapon. The support of the position of the United States by most countries of the world was combined with their exceptional position as holders of a monopoly on the atomic bomb: the Americans again demonstrated their power by conducting test explosions on the Bikini Atoll in the summer of 1946. Stalin during this period made a number of statements aimed at downplaying the importance of the new weapon. These statements set the tone for all Soviet propaganda. But the behavior of the representatives of the Soviet Union in private showed in reality their great concern.

But the American monopoly on nuclear weapons lasted only four years. In 1949, the USSR tested its first atomic bomb. This event was a real shock to the Western world and an important milestone in the Cold War. In the course of further accelerated developments in the USSR, nuclear and then thermonuclear weapons were soon created. War has become very dangerous for everyone, and is fraught with very bad consequences. The nuclear potential accumulated during the years of the Cold War was enormous, but the gigantic stockpiles of destructive weapons did not bring any benefit, and the costs of their production and storage grew. If earlier they said "we can destroy you, but you can't destroy us", now the wording has changed. They began to say "you can destroy us 38 times, and we can destroy you 64!" The arguments are fruitless, especially considering that if a war broke out and one of the opponents used nuclear weapons, very soon nothing would be left not only of him, but of the entire planet.

The arms race was growing rapidly. As soon as one of the parties created some fundamentally new weapon, its opponent threw all his strength and resources to achieve the same. Frantic competition affected all areas of the military industry. Competed everywhere: in creating latest systems small arms (the US responded to the Soviet AKM M-16), in new designs of tanks, aircraft, ships and submarines, but perhaps the most dramatic was the competition in the creation of rocket technology. The entire so-called peaceful space in those days was not even the visible part of the iceberg, but a snow cap on the visible part. The United States overtook the USSR in terms of the number of nuclear weapons. The USSR overtook the USA in rocket science. The USSR was the first in the world to launch a satellite, and in 1961 it was the first to send a man into space. The Americans could not endure such a clear superiority. As a result - their landing on the moon. At this point, the parties reached strategic parity. However, this did not stop the arms race. On the contrary, it has spread to all sectors that have at least some relation to armaments. This can, for example, include the race to create supercomputers. Here the West took unconditional revenge for lagging behind in the field of rocket science, since, for purely ideological reasons, the USSR missed a breakthrough in this area.

The arms race has even affected education. After Gagarin's flight, the United States was forced to revise the foundations of the education system and introduce fundamentally new teaching methods.

The arms race was subsequently voluntarily suspended by both sides. A number of treaties were signed to limit the accumulation of armaments.

3.CAUSES OF THE COLD WAR

The Cold War was characterized by the frequent appearance of "hot" spots. Each local conflict was brought onto the world stage, thanks to the fact that Cold War opponents supported the opposing sides. Let's take a look at some of the "hot spots".

3.1 Korean War

In 1945, Soviet and American troops liberated Korea from the Japanese army. To the south of the 38th parallel, the US troops are located, to the north - the Red Army. Thus, the Korean Peninsula was divided into two parts. In the North, the Communists came to power, in the South - the military, relying on US assistance. Two states formed on the peninsula - the northern Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK) and the southern Republic of Korea. The leadership of North Korea dreamed of uniting the country, even if by force of arms.

In 1950, the North Korean leader Kim Il Sung visited Moscow and enlisted the support of the Soviet Union. Plans for the "military liberation" of South Korea were also approved by Chinese leader Mao Ze Dong. At dawn on June 25, 1950, the North Korean army moved to the south of the country. Her offensive was so powerful that in three days she occupied the capital of the South - Seoul. Then the advance of the northerners slowed down, but by mid-September almost the entire peninsula was in their hands. It seemed that only one decisive effort separated the army of the north from the final victory. However, on July 7, the UN Security Council voted to send international troops to help South Korea.

And in September, UN troops (mostly American) came to the aid of the southerners. They launched a powerful offensive to the North from that patch, which was still held by the South Korean army. At the same time, troops landed on the west coast, cutting the peninsula in half. Events began to develop with the same speed in the opposite direction. The Americans occupied Seoul, crossed the 38th parallel and continued their offensive against the DPRK. North Korea was on the brink of complete disaster when China unexpectedly intervened. The Chinese leadership proposed, without declaring war on the United States, to send troops to help North Korea. In China, they were officially called "People's Volunteers". In October, about a million Chinese soldiers crossed the Yalu River and fought the Americans. Soon the front leveled off along the 38th parallel.

The war continued for another three years. During the American offensive in 1950, the Soviet Union deployed several air divisions to help North Korea. The Americans were significantly superior to the Chinese in technology. China suffered heavy losses. On July 27, 1953, the war ended with a truce. In North Korea, the government of Kim Il Sung, friendly to the USSR and China, remained in power, accepting the honorary title of "great leader."

3.2 Construction of the Berlin Wall

In 1955, the division of Europe between East and West finally took shape. However, a clear frontier of confrontation has not yet completely divided Europe. There was one unclosed "window" in it - Berlin. The city was divided in half, with East Berlin being the capital of the GDR, and West Berlin considered part of Germany. Two opposite social systems coexisted within the same city, while every Berliner could freely get "from socialism to capitalism" and back, moving from one street to another. Every day up to 500 thousand people crossed this invisible border in both directions. Many East Germans, taking advantage of the open border, left for the West forever. Thousands of people moved in this way every year, which greatly worried the East German authorities. And in general, the wide-open window in the "Iron Curtain" did not at all correspond to the general spirit of the era.

In August 1961, the Soviet and East German authorities decided to close the border between the two parts of Berlin. The tension in the city grew. Western countries protested the division of the city. Finally, in October, the confrontation culminated. At the Brandenburg Gate and on Friedrichstrasse, near the main checkpoints, American tanks lined up. Soviet combat vehicles came out to meet them. For more than a day, the tanks of the USSR and the USA stood with guns aimed at each other. Periodically, the tankers turned on the engines, as if preparing for an attack. The tension was somewhat relieved only after the Soviet, and after them the American tanks, withdrew to other streets. However, Western countries finally recognized the division of the city only ten years later. It was formalized by an agreement of four powers (USSR, USA, England and France), signed in 1971. All over the world, the construction of the Berlin Wall was perceived as a symbolic completion of the post-war division of Europe.

cold war revolution crisis

3.3 Cuban Missile Crisis

On January 1959, a revolution won in Cuba, led by the 32-year-old partisan leader Fidel Castro. The new government began a decisive struggle against American influence on the island. Needless to say, the Soviet Union fully supported the Cuban Revolution. However, the Havana authorities seriously feared a US military invasion. In May 1962, Nikita Khrushchev put forward an unexpected idea - to place Soviet nuclear missiles on the island. He jokingly explained this step by saying that the imperialists "need to put a hedgehog in their pants." After some deliberation, Cuba agreed to the Soviet proposal, and in the summer of 1962, 42 missiles with nuclear warheads and bombers capable of carrying nuclear bombs were sent to the island. The transfer of missiles was carried out in the strictest secrecy, but already in September, the US leadership suspected something was wrong. On September 4, President John F. Kennedy declared that the United States would under no circumstances tolerate Soviet nuclear missiles 150 kilometers from its coast. In response, Khrushchev assured Kennedy that there were no Soviet missiles or nuclear weapons in Cuba and never would be.

October, an American reconnaissance aircraft photographed the missile launch pads from the air. In an atmosphere of strict secrecy, the US leadership began to discuss retaliatory measures. On October 22, President Kennedy addressed the American people on radio and television. He reported that Soviet missiles had been found in Cuba and demanded that the USSR immediately remove them. Kennedy announced that the United States was beginning a naval blockade of Cuba. On October 24, at the request of the USSR, the UN Security Council urgently met. The Soviet Union continued to stubbornly deny the existence of nuclear missiles in Cuba. The situation in the Caribbean became more and more tense. Two dozen Soviet ships were moving towards Cuba. American ships were ordered to stop them, if necessary - by fire. True, it did not come to sea battles. Khrushchev ordered several Soviet ships to stop on the blockade line.

On October 23, an exchange of official letters began between Moscow and Washington. In his first messages, N. Khrushchev indignantly called the actions of the United States "pure banditry" and "the madness of degenerate imperialism."

Within days, it became clear that the US was determined to remove the missiles at any cost. On October 26, Khrushchev sent a more conciliatory message to Kennedy. He admitted that Cuba had powerful Soviet weapons. At the same time, Nikita Sergeevich convinced the president that the USSR was not going to attack America. In his words, "Only crazy people can do this or suicides who want to die themselves and destroy the whole world before that." Khrushchev suggested that John F. Kennedy pledge not to attack Cuba; then the Soviet Union will be able to remove its weapons from the island. The President of the United States replied that the United States was prepared to make a gentleman's pledge not to invade Cuba if the USSR withdrew its offensive weapons. Thus the first steps towards peace were taken.

But on October 27 came the "black Saturday" of the Cuban crisis, when only by a miracle did not a new one break out. World War. In those days, squadrons of American planes swept over Cuba twice a day for the purpose of intimidation. And on October 27, Soviet troops in Cuba shot down one of the US reconnaissance aircraft with an anti-aircraft missile. Its pilot Anderson was killed. The situation escalated to the limit, the US President decided two days later to begin the bombing of Soviet missile bases and a military attack on the island.

However, on Sunday, October 28, the Soviet leadership decided to accept the American terms. The decision to remove the missiles from Cuba was made without the consent of the Cuban leadership. Perhaps this was done on purpose, since Fidel Castro strongly objected to the removal of the missiles. International tension began to subside rapidly after 28 October. The Soviet Union removed its missiles and bombers from Cuba. On November 20, the United States lifted the naval blockade of the island. The Cuban (or Caribbean) crisis ended peacefully.

3.4 Vietnam War

The Vietnam War began with an incident in the Gulf of Tonkin, during which coast guard vessels of the DRV fired on American destroyers providing fire support to South Vietnamese government forces in their fight against partisans. After that, everything secret became clear and the conflict developed according to the already familiar pattern. One of the superpowers entered the war openly, and the second did everything in its power to make it "not boring" to fight. The war that the United States thought was a cakewalk turned out to be America's nightmare. Anti-war demonstrations shook the country. The youth rebelled against the senseless massacre. In 1975, the United States considered it a good thing to announce that they had "accomplished their mission" and proceed with the evacuation of their military contingent. This war greatly shocked the entire American society and led to major reforms. The post-war crisis lasted more than 10 years. It is difficult to say how it would have ended if the Afghan crisis had not come to hand.

3.5 Afghan War

In April 1978, a coup took place in Afghanistan, later called the April Revolution. Afghan communists came to power - the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA). The government was headed by the writer Nur Mohammed Taraki. However, within a few months, a sharp struggle flared up within the ruling party. In August 1979, a confrontation broke out between the two leaders of the party - Taraki and Amin. On September 16, Taraki was removed from his post, expelled from the party and taken into custody. He soon died. These events caused discontent in Moscow, although outwardly everything remained as before. Mass "purges" and executions in the party milieu that began in Afghanistan caused condemnation. And since they reminded the Soviet leaders of the Chinese "cultural revolution", there were fears that Amin might break with the USSR and move closer to China. Amin repeatedly asked for the entry of Soviet troops into Afghanistan to strengthen the revolutionary power. Finally, on December 12, 1979, the Soviet leadership decided to fulfill his request, but at the same time remove Amin himself. Soviet troops were brought into Afghanistan, Amin was killed by a grenade explosion during the storming of the presidential palace. Now the Soviet newspapers called him a "CIA agent", wrote about the "bloody clique of Amin and his henchmen."

In the West, the entry of Soviet troops into Afghanistan caused violent protests. The Cold War broke out with renewed vigor. On January 14, 1980, the UN General Assembly demanded the withdrawal of "foreign troops" from Afghanistan. 104 states voted for this decision.

Meanwhile, in Afghanistan itself, armed resistance to Soviet troops began to intensify. Of course, it was not the supporters of Amin who fought against them, but the opponents of the revolutionary government in general. The Soviet press at first claimed that there were no battles in Afghanistan, that peace and tranquility reigned there. However, the war did not subside, and when it became clear, the USSR recognized that "bandits were rampaging" in the republic. They were called "dushmans", that is, enemies. Secretly, through Pakistan, they were supported by the United States, helping with weapons and money. The United States knew well what a war against an armed people meant. The experience of the Vietnam War was used at 100%, with only one small difference, the roles have changed. Now the USSR was at war with an underdeveloped country, and the United States helped him to feel what a difficult thing it was. The rebels controlled a significant part of the territory of Afghanistan. All of them were united by the slogan of jihad - holy Islamic war. They called themselves "mujahideen" - fighters for the faith. Otherwise, the programs of the rebel groups varied greatly.

The war in Afghanistan did not stop for more than nine years…. More than a million Afghans died during the hostilities. Soviet troops, according to official figures, lost 14,453 people killed.

In June 1987, the first, so far symbolic, steps towards peace were taken. The new Kabul government offered "national reconciliation" to the rebels. In April 1988, the Soviet Union signed an agreement in Geneva on the withdrawal of troops from Afghanistan. On May 15, the troops began to leave. Nine months later, on February 15, 1989, the last Soviet soldier left Afghanistan. For the Soviet Union, the Afghan war ended that day.

4. CONSEQUENCES

The last milestone of the Cold War is considered to be the dismantling of the Berlin Wall. That is, we can talk about its results. But this is perhaps the most difficult. Because for everyone the consequences are twofold.

What are they for the USSR and today's Russia? After the Second World War, the USSR restructured its economy in such a way that the vast majority of funds went to the military-industrial complex, since the USSR could not afford to be weaker than the United States. This turned the USSR into a country of general scarcity and a weak economy, and destroyed the once mighty power. However, on the other hand, thanks to this, another state appeared on the political map - the Russian Federation, the state in which we now live, which is developing and building exceptionally friendly and partnership relations with other countries.

But what about the USA? First of all, they lost a dangerous rival in the face of the USSR, and wandered through a partner in the face of the Russian Federation. And secondly, helping the "dushmans" in Afghanistan gave birth to a worldwide evil - international terrorism.

And finally, the Cold War emphasized that the main component that determined the victory of one of the parties was universal human values, which neither the fantastic development of technology nor the sophisticated ideological influence could outweigh.

CONCLUSION

A small detente in the confrontation occurred in the 70s. Its crowning achievement was the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe. The participating countries consulted for two years, and in 1975 in Helsinki, these countries signed the Final Act of the meeting. On the part of the USSR, it was sealed by Leonid Brezhnev. This document legalized the post-war division of Europe, which was what the USSR wanted. In exchange for this Western concession, the Soviet Union pledged to respect human rights.

Shortly before this, in July 1975, the famous Soviet-American joint flight took place on spaceships Soyuz and Apollo. The USSR stopped jamming Western radio broadcasts. The era of the Cold War seemed to be a thing of the past forever. However, in December 1979, Soviet troops entered Afghanistan - another period of the Cold War began. Relations between West and East reached a freezing point when, by decision of the Soviet leadership, a South Korean plane with civilian passengers on board was shot down, which ended up in Soviet airspace. After this event, US President Ronald Reagan called the USSR "the evil empire and the center of evil." It was not until 1987 that relations between East and West began to gradually improve again. In 1988-89, with the beginning of perestroika, drastic changes took place in Soviet politics. In November 1989, the Berlin Wall ceased to exist. On July 1, 1991, the Warsaw Pact was dissolved. The socialist camp collapsed. In a number of countries - its former members - democratic revolutions took place, which not only were not condemned, but were supported by the USSR. The Soviet Union also refused to expand its influence in the countries of the third world. Such a sharp turn in Soviet foreign policy in the West is associated with the name of Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Encyclopedia for children. V.5, part 3. Moscow "Avanta+". 1998.

History of Russia: Educational minimum for an applicant. "Graduate School". Moscow. 2001.

N.N. Yakovlev. "CIA against the USSR". "Young guard". Moscow. 1983.

Stephen Ambrose. "Eisenhower - soldier and president." "Book LTD." 1993.

Winston Churchill. "Second World War". T3. "Military Publishing". 1991.

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