INSTRUCTIONS AND PROPHECIES OF THE Blessed MOTHER ALIPIA GOLOSEEVSKY, Kyiv...
After the end of World War II, the victorious powers were unable to establish relations with each other. The main contradictions were between the Soviet Union and the United States. Both states began to form military blocs (alliances), which in the event of war would take their side. The confrontation between the USSR and the USA, as well as their allies, was called the Cold War. Despite the fact that there were no hostilities, both states were in a state of almost continuous confrontation (hostility) from the late 1940s to the mid-1970s, constantly increasing their military potential.
The beginning of the Cold War is usually counted from 1946, when British Prime Minister Winston Churchill delivered his famous speech in the American city of Fulton, in which Soviet Union was called the main enemy of Western countries. An "iron curtain" fell between the USSR and the Western world. In 1949, the military North Atlantic Alliance (NATO) was created. The NATO bloc included the USA, Great Britain, France, West Germany, Canada, Italy and others Western countries. In 1955, the Soviet Union founded the Warsaw Pact organization. In addition to the USSR, Eastern European countries that were part of the socialist camp joined it.
One of the symbols of the Cold War was a Germany split in two. The border between the two camps (western and socialist) ran right through the city of Berlin, and not symbolic, but real - in 1961 the city was divided into two parts by the Berlin Wall.
Several times during the Cold War, the USSR and the United States were on the brink of war. The most critical moment in this confrontation was the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962). The Soviet Union deployed its missiles on the island of Cuba, the United States' nearest southern neighbor. In response, the United States began preparations for an invasion of Cuba, where Soviet military bases and advisers were already located.
Only personal negotiations between US President John F. Kennedy and USSR leader N.S. Khrushchev averted disaster. The presence of atomic weapons in the United States and the Soviet Union kept the governments of these countries from starting a real "hot" war. In the 1970s, the process of détente began. The USSR and the US signed very important nuclear non-proliferation treaties, but tensions between the two countries persisted.
The arms race consumed the vast resources of both blocs. By the early 1980s, the Soviet Union began to lose heavily in the competition between the two systems. The socialist camp lagged more and more behind the advanced capitalist countries of the West. The Soviet Union was forced to start large-scale reforms - perestroika, which led to radical changes in international politics. The Soviet Union and the United States entered into agreements to limit the arms race and establish new partnerships. cold war began to fade into the past. The socialist camp collapsed.
In most of the Warsaw Pact countries, forces came to power that considered the Western world to be their ally. The reunification of Germany in 1990 marked the end of the Cold War.
cold war
cold war- this is a military, political, ideological and economic confrontation between the USSR and the USA and their supporters. It was the result of contradictions between two state systems: capitalist and socialist.
The Cold War was accompanied by an intensification of the arms race, the presence of nuclear weapons, which could lead to a third world war.
The term was first used by the writer George Orwell October 19, 1945 in You and the Atomic Bomb
Period:
1946-1989
Causes of the Cold War
Political
An insoluble ideological contradiction between the two systems, models of society.
Fear of the West and the United States of strengthening the role of the USSR.
Economic
The struggle for resources and markets for products
Weakening the economic and military power of the enemy
Ideological
Total, irreconcilable struggle of two ideologies
The desire to fence the population of their countries with the way of life in enemy countries
Objectives of the parties
To consolidate the spheres of influence achieved during the Second World War.
Put the enemy in unfavorable political, economic and ideological conditions
The goal of the USSR: the complete and final victory of socialism on a world scale
US goal: containment of socialism, opposition to the revolutionary movement, in the future - "throw socialism into the dustbin of history." The USSR was seen as "evil empire"
Conclusion: neither side was right, each aspired to world domination.
The forces of the parties were not equal. The USSR bore all the hardships of the war on its shoulders, and the United States received huge profits from it. It was not until the mid-1970s that parity.
Cold War Means:
Arms race
Block confrontation
Destabilization of the military and economic situation of the enemy
psychological warfare
Ideological confrontation
Intervention in domestic politics
Active intelligence activity
Collection of compromising materials on political leaders, etc.
Major periods and events
March 5, 1946- W. Churchill's speech in Fulton(USA) - the beginning of the Cold War, in which the idea of creating an alliance to fight communism was proclaimed. The speech of the Prime Minister of Great Britain in the presence of the new American President Truman G. had two goals:
Prepare the Western public for the subsequent rupture between the victorious countries.
Literally eradicate from the consciousness of people the feeling of gratitude to the USSR, which appeared after the victory over fascism.
The United States set a goal: to achieve economic and military superiority over the USSR
1947 – The Truman Doctrine". Its essence: containment of the spread of the expansion of the USSR by creating regional military blocs dependent on the United States.
1947 - Marshall Plan - a program to help Europe after World War II
1948-1953 - Soviet-Yugoslav conflict over the ways of building socialism in Yugoslavia.
Split the world into two camps: supporters of the USSR and supporters of the USA.
1949 - the split of Germany into the capitalist FRG, the capital is Bonn and the Soviet GDR, the capital is Berlin. (Before that, two zones were called Bizonia)
1949 - creation NATO(North Atlantic military-political alliance)
1949 - creation CMEA(Council for Mutual Economic Assistance)
1949 - successful atomic bomb test in the USSR.
1950 -1953 – war in korea. The United States participated directly in it, while the USSR veiled it by sending military specialists to Korea.
US target: prevent Soviet influence in the Far East. Outcome: the division of the country into the DPRK (the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (the capital of Pyongyang), established close contacts with the USSR, + into the South Korean state (Seoul) - the zone of American influence.
2nd period: 1955-1962 (cooling in relations between countries , growing contradictions in the world socialist system)
During this period, the world stood on the brink of a nuclear catastrophe.
Anti-communist speeches in Hungary, Poland, events in the GDR, the Suez Crisis
1955 - creation ATS- Organizations of the Warsaw Pact.
1955 - Geneva Conference of Heads of Government of the Victorious Countries.
1957 - development and successful testing of an intercontinental ballistic missile in the USSR, which increased tension in the world.
October 4, 1957 - opened space age. Launch of the first artificial earth satellite in the USSR.
1959 - the victory of the revolution in Cuba (Fidel Castro). Cuba became one of the most reliable partners of the USSR.
1961 - aggravation of relations with China.
1962 – Caribbean crisis. Settled by Khrushchev N.S. and D. Kennedy
The signing of a number of agreements on the nonproliferation of nuclear weapons.
The arms race, which significantly weakened the economies of countries.
1962 - complication of relations with Albania
1963 - USSR, UK and USA signed first nuclear test ban treaty in three spheres: atmosphere, space and under water.
1968 - complication of relations with Czechoslovakia ("Prague Spring").
Discontent Soviet policy in Hungary, Poland, East Germany.
1964-1973- US war in Vietnam. The USSR provided Vietnam with military and financial assistance.
3rd period: 1970-1984- tension strip
1970s - the USSR made a number of attempts to strengthen " detente" international tension, arms reduction.
A number of strategic arms limitation agreements have been signed. So in 1970, an agreement between the Federal Republic of Germany (V. Brand) and the USSR (Brezhnev L.I.), according to which the parties pledged to resolve all their disputes exclusively by peaceful means.
May 1972 - arrival in Moscow of US President Richard Nixon. Treaty signed on limiting missile defense systems (PRO) and OSV-1- Interim Agreement on Certain Measures in the Sphere of Strategic Offensive Arms Limitation.
Convention on the prohibition of the development, production and stockpiling bacteriological(biological) and toxic weapons and their destruction.
1975- high point of détente, signed in August in Helsinki Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe and Declaration of Principles on Relations between states. Signed by 33 states, including the USSR, USA, Canada.
Sovereign equality, respect
Non-use of force and threats of force
Inviolability of borders
Territorial integrity
Non-intervention in internal affairs
Peaceful settlement of disputes
Respect for human rights and freedoms
Equality, the right of peoples to control their own destiny
Cooperation between states
Fulfillment in good faith of obligations under international law
1975 - Soyuz-Apollo joint space program
1979- Treaty on the Limitation of Offensive Arms - OSV-2(Brezhnev L.I. and Carter D.)
What are these principles?
4 period: 1979-1987 - complication of the international situation
The USSR became a truly great power that had to be reckoned with. The détente was mutually beneficial.
The aggravation of relations with the United States in connection with the entry of Soviet troops into Afghanistan in 1979 (the war lasted from December 1979 to February 1989). The goal of the USSR- to protect the borders in Central Asia against the penetration of Islamic fundamentalism. Eventually- The US has not ratified SALT-2.
Since 1981, the new President Reagan R. has launched programs SOI– Strategic defense initiatives.
1983- USA host ballistic missiles in Italy, England, Germany, Belgium, Denmark.
Anti-space defense systems are being developed.
The USSR withdraws from the Geneva talks.
5 period: 1985-1991 - the final stage, mitigation of tension.
Having come to power in 1985, Gorbachev M.S. pursues a policy "new political thinking".
Negotiations: 1985 - in Geneva, 1986 - in Reykjavik, 1987 - in Washington. Recognition of the existing world order, expansion of economic ties between countries, despite different ideologies.
December 1989 - Gorbachev M.S. and Bush at the summit on the island of Malta announced about the end of the Cold War. Its end was caused by the economic weakness of the USSR, its inability to support the arms race anymore. In addition, pro-Soviet regimes were established in the countries of Eastern Europe, the USSR lost support in their person as well.
1990 - German reunification. It became a kind of victory for the West in the Cold War. The fall berlin wall(existed from August 13, 1961 to November 9, 1989)
December 25, 1991 - President D. Bush announced the end of the Cold War and congratulated his compatriots on the victory in it.
Results
The formation of a unipolar world, in which the United States, a superpower, began to occupy a leading position.
The United States and its allies defeated the socialist camp.
Beginning of Westernization of Russia
The collapse of the Soviet economy, the fall of its authority in the international market
Emigration to the West of citizens of Russia, the way of his life seemed too attractive to them.
The collapse of the USSR and the beginning of the formation of a new Russia.
Terms
Parity- the primacy of the side in something.
Confrontation- confrontation, clash of two social systems (people, groups, etc.).
Ratification- giving the document legal force, accepting it.
Westernization- borrowing a Western European or American way of life.
Material prepared: Melnikova Vera Alexandrovna
COLD WAR a world confrontation between two military-political blocs led by the USSR and the USA, which did not reach the point of an open military clash between them. The concept of "cold war" appeared in journalism in 1945-1947 and gradually became fixed in the political vocabulary.After Second World War the world was actually divided into spheres of influence between two blocs with different social systems. The USSR sought to expand the "socialist camp", led from a single center on the model of the Soviet command and administrative system. In its sphere of influence, the USSR sought the introduction of state ownership of the main means of production and the political dominance of the communists. This system was supposed to control resources that were previously in the hands of private capital and capitalist states. The United States, in turn, strove for such a reorganization of the world that would create favorable conditions for the activities of private corporations and the strengthening of influence in the world. Despite this difference between the two systems, their conflict was based on common features. Both systems were based on the principles of an industrial society, which required industrial growth, and hence an increase in the consumption of resources. Planetary struggle for resources of two systems with different
principles of regulation of industrial relations could not but lead to clashes. But the approximate equality of forces between the blocs, and then the threat of nuclear missile destruction of the world in the event of a war between the USSR and the USA, kept the rulers of the superpowers from a direct confrontation. Thus arose the phenomenon of the "cold war", which never resulted in world war, although it constantly led to wars in individual countries and regions (local wars).The immediate beginning of the Cold War was associated with conflicts in Europe and Asia. The Europeans, devastated by the war, were very interested in the experience of accelerated industrial development in the USSR. Information about the Soviet Union was idealized, and millions of people hoped that replacing the capitalist system, which was going through hard times, with a socialist one, could quickly restore the economy and normal life. The peoples of Asia and Africa were even more interested in the communist experience and assistance from the USSR. who fought for independence and hoped to catch up with the West just as the USSR did. As a result, the Soviet sphere of influence began to expand rapidly, which caused fears of the leaders of the Western countries - the former allies of the USSR in Anti-Hitler coalition.
On March 5, 1946, speaking in the presence of US President Truman in Fulton, W. Churchill accused the USSR of launching world expansion, of attacking the territory of the "free world". Churchill called on the "Anglo-Saxon world", that is, the United States, Great Britain and their allies to repulse the USSR. The Fulton speech became a kind of declaration of the Cold War.
In 19461947 the USSR stepped up pressure on Greece and Turkey. There was a civil war in Greece, and the USSR demanded from Turkey the provision of territory for a military base in the Mediterranean, which could be a prelude to the seizure of the country. Under these conditions, Truman announced his readiness to "contain" the USSR throughout the world. This position was called the "Truman Doctrine" and meant the end of cooperation between the victors of fascism. The Cold War has begun.
But the Cold War front ran not between countries, but within them. About a third of the population of France and Italy supported the Communist Party. The poverty of war-torn Europeans was the breeding ground for communist success. In 1947, US Secretary of State George Marshall announced that the United States was ready to provide European countries with material assistance to restore the economy. Initially, even the USSR entered into negotiations for aid, but it soon became clear that American aid would not be provided to countries ruled by the Communists. The US demanded political concessions: the Europeans were to maintain capitalist relations and withdraw the communists from their governments. Under US pressure, the Communists were expelled from the governments of France and Italy, and in April 1948, 16 countries signed the Marshall Plan.
about providing them with assistance of 17 billion dollars in 1948-1952. The pro-communist governments of Eastern European countries did not participate in the plan. In the context of the intensification of the struggle for Europe, the multi-party governments of "people's democracy" in these countries were replaced by totalitarian regimes, clearly subordinate to Moscow (only the Yugoslav communist regime of I. Tito left obedience to Stalin in 1948 and occupied an independent position). In January 1949, most of the countries of Eastern Europe united in an economic union - the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance.These events consolidated the split of Europe. In April 1949, the United States, Canada and most of Western Europe formed a military alliance North Atlantic bloc (NATO). The USSR and the countries of Eastern Europe responded to this only in 1955 by creating their own military alliance, the Warsaw Pact Organization.
Particularly hard the division of Europe affected the fate of Germany the line of split passed through the territory of the country. The east of Germany was occupied by the USSR, the west by the USA, Great Britain and France. The western part of Berlin was also in their hands. In 1948, western Germany was included in the Marshall Plan, but eastern Germany was not. AT different parts countries formed different economic systems which hindered the unification of the country. In June
In 1948, the Western allies carried out a unilateral monetary reform, abolishing the old-fashioned money. All money supply old Reichsmarks poured into East Germany, which was partly the reason that the Soviet occupation authorities were forced to close the borders. West Berlin was completely surrounded. Stalin decided to use the situation to blockade him, hoping to capture the entire German capital and win concessions from the US. But the Americans organized an "air bridge" to Berlin and broke the blockade of the city, which was lifted in 1949. In May 1949, the lands that were in the western zone of occupation united into the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG). West Berlin became an autonomous self-governing city associated with the FRG. In October 1949 in the Sovietzone of occupation was created by the German Democratic Republic (GDR).The rivalry between the USSR and the USA inevitably led to the buildup of armaments by both blocs. Opponents sought to achieve superiority precisely in the field of atomic and then nuclear weapons, as well as in their means of delivery. Soon, rockets became such means in addition to bombers. A "race" of nuclear missile weapons began, which led to extreme strain on the economies of both blocs. To meet the needs of defense, powerful associations of state, industrial and military structures were created - military-industrial complexes (MIC). Giant material resources were spent on their needs, the best scientific forces. The military-industrial complex created the most modern technology, which went primarily to the needs of the arms race. Initially, the leader in the "race" was the United States, which had atomic weapons. The USSR made every effort to create its own atomic bomb. Soviet scientists and intelligence officers worked on this task. Some engineering solutions were obtained through intelligence channels from secret American institutions, but these data could not have been used if Soviet scientists had not come close to creating atomic weapons on their own. The creation of atomic weapons in the USSR was a matter of time, but there was no such time, so intelligence data were of great importance. In 1949, the USSR tested its own atomic bomb. The presence of the bomb in the USSR kept the US from using nuclear weapons in Korea, although such a possibility was discussed by high-ranking US military officials.
In 1952, the United States tested a thermonuclear device in which an atomic bomb played the role of a fuse, and the explosion power was many times greater than the atomic one. In 1953 the USSR tested a thermonuclear bomb. From that time until the 1960s, the USA overtook the USSR only in the number of bombs and bombers, that is, quantitatively, but not qualitatively - the USSR had any weapon that the USA had.
The danger of a war between the USSR and the USA forced them to act "bypass", fighting for the resources of the world away from Europe. Immediately after the start of the Cold War Far East turned into an arena for a fierce struggle between supporters of communist ideas and the pro-Western path of development. The significance of this struggle was very great, since in the Pacific region there were huge human and raw materials. The stability of the capitalist system largely depended on control over this region.
The first clash of the two systems took place in China, the world's largest country in terms of population. After World War II, northeast China, occupied the Soviet army, was handed over to the People's Liberation Army of China (PLA), subordinate to the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). The PLA received Japanese weapons captured by Soviet troops. The rest of the country was subject to the internationally recognized government of the Kuomintang party headed by Chiang Kai-shek. Initially, it was planned to hold national elections in China, which were supposed to decide who would rule the country. But both sides were not sure of victory, and instead of elections, a civil war broke out in China in 1946-1949. It was won by the CPC led by Mao Zedong.
The second major clash of the two systems in Asia took place in Korea. After World War II, this country was split into two zones of occupation - Soviet and American. In 1948 they withdrew their troops from the country, leaving the regimes of their henchmen, the pro-Soviet Kim Il Sung in the north and the pro-American Lee Syngman in the south, to rule. Each of them sought to capture the entire country. In June 1950, the Korean War began, in which the United States, China, and small units of other countries were involved. Soviet pilots "crossed swords" with the American in the sky over China. Despite heavy casualties on both sides, the war ended almost in the same positions in which it began ( see also KOREAN WAR).
On the other hand, the Western countries suffered important defeats in the colonial wars France lost the war in Vietnam in 19461954, and the Netherlands in Indonesia in 19471949.
The Cold War led to the fact that in both "camps" repressions unfolded against dissidents and people who advocated cooperation and rapprochement between the two systems. In the USSR and the countries of Eastern Europe, people were arrested and often shot on charges of “cosmopolitanism” (lack of patriotism, cooperation with the West), “low worship of the West” and “Titoism” (connections with Tito). In the United States, a “witch hunt” began, during which secret communists and “agents” of the USSR were “exposed”. American "witch-hunt", as opposed to Stalinist repressions did not lead to mass terror. But she also had her victims caused by spy mania. Soviet intelligence was indeed working in the US, and the US intelligence agencies decided to show that they were able to expose Soviet spies. The employee Julius Rosenberg was chosen for the role of "chief spy". He did indeed render minor services to Soviet intelligence. It was announced that Rosenberg and his wife Ethel "stole America's atomic secrets". Subsequently, it turned out that Ethel did not know about her husband's cooperation with intelligence. Despite this, both spouses were sentenced to death and, despite the solidarity campaign
with them in America and Europe, executed in June 1953.The execution of the Rosenbergs was the last serious act of the first stage of the Cold War. Stalin died in March 1953, and the new Soviet leadership, headed by Nikita Khrushchev began to look for ways to improve relations with the West.
In 1953-1954 the wars in Korea and Vietnam were stopped. In 1955 the USSR established equal relations with Yugoslavia and the FRG. The great powers also agreed to grant a neutral status to Austria occupied by them and to withdraw their troops from the country.
In 1956, the situation in the world worsened again due to unrest in the socialist countries and attempts by Great Britain, France and Israel to seize the Suez Canal in Egypt. But this time, both "superpowers" the USSR and the USA have made efforts to ensure that conflicts do not escalate. Khrushchev during this period was not interested in intensifying the confrontation. In 1959 he came to the USA. It was the first ever visit of the leader of our country to America. American society made a big impression on Khrushchev. He was especially struck
successes Agriculture much more efficient than in the USSR.However, by that time the USSR could also impress the United States with its successes in the field of high technologies, and above all in space exploration. The system of state socialism made it possible to concentrate large resources for solving one problem at the expense of others. On October 4, 1957, the first artificial earth satellite was launched in the Soviet Union. From now on, the Soviet rocket could deliver cargo to any point on the planet. Including
and a nuclear device. In 1958, the Americans launched their satellite and began mass production of rockets. The USSR did not lag behind, although the achievement and preservation of nuclear-missile parity in the 60s required the exertion of all the forces of the country. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, a wave of workers' uprisings swept across the USSR, which were brutally suppressed. see also NUCLEAR WEAPON.Rockets were built in a hurry, often neglecting safety precautions. In 1960, during the preparation of the rocket for launch, an explosion occurred. Dozens of people died, including Marshal Nedelin, Commander-in-Chief of the USSR Missile Forces. But the race continued at the same pace.
Successes in space exploration also had a huge propaganda value they showed what social order able to achieve great scientific and technological success. On April 12, 1961, the USSR launched a spacecraft with a man on board. Yuri Gagarin became the first cosmonaut. The Americans were on their heels their first astronaut Alan Shepard was in space as early as May 5, 1961.
In 1960, relations between the USSR and the USA worsened again. The Americans sent a U-2 reconnaissance aircraft flying over the territory of the USSR. He flew at heights inaccessible to fighters, but was shot down by a missile. A scandal erupted. Khrushchev expected an apology from Eisenhower at the upcoming summit. Not having received them, Khrushchev abruptly interrupted the meeting with the president. In general, Khrushchev behaved in the presence of Western leaders more and more irritably and willfully. He banged his shoes on the table at a meeting of the UN General Assembly, uttered frightening phrases, for example: "We will bury you." All this created the impression of the unpredictability of Soviet policy.
New US President John F. Kennedy attempted to overthrow the pro-communist regime of Fidel Castro in Cuba. This operation was prepared by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) the main US intelligence service under Eisenhower. The Americans hoped to overthrow Castro by the hands of the Cubans themselves, but the landing of counter-revolutionaries in Cuba failed.
No sooner had Kennedy recovered from this defeat than a new crisis overtook him. At his first meeting with the new American president in April 1961, Khrushchev demanded that the status of West Berlin be changed. Berlin was used for the work of Western intelligence, through its territory there was a cultural exchange uncontrolled by the communists. People could almost freely cross the border between the "two worlds". This led to a "brain drain" specialists who received a cheap education in the GDR then fled to West Berlin, where their work was better paid.
Kennedy refused to make concessions to the USSR and the GDR, which led to the Berlin Crisis. Khrushchev did not dare to start a military clash. The authorities of the GDR in August 1961 simply surrounded West Berlin with a wall. This wall became a symbol of the division of Europe and Germany into two hostile parts, a symbol of the Cold War.
In the Berlin Crisis, neither side gained obvious advantages, but the conflict did not lead to significant losses either. Both sides were preparing for a new test of strength.
The Soviet Union was surrounded on all sides by American military bases that had nuclear weapons. While vacationing in the Crimea, Khrushchev drew attention to the fact that even his beach was within direct reach of American missiles in Turkey. The Soviet leader decided to put America in the same position. Taking advantage of the fact that the Cuban leaders have repeatedly asked
The USSR to protect them from a possible US attack, the Soviet leadership decided to install medium-range nuclear missiles in Cuba. Now any US city could be wiped off the face of the earth in a matter of minutes. In October 1962 this led to the Caribbeancrisis ( see also CUBA CRISIS).As a result of the crisis, which brought the world closest to the brink of a nuclear missile catastrophe, a compromise was reached: the USSR removes missiles from Cuba, while the United States guarantees Cuba against military intervention and withdraws its missiles from Turkey.
The Caribbean crisis taught both the Soviet and American leadership a lot. The leaders of the superpowers realized that they could bring humanity to ruin. Having approached a dangerous line, the Cold War began to decline. The USSR and the USA for the first time agreed to limit the arms race.
1 On August 5, 1963, an agreement was signed banning nuclear weapons tests in three environments: in the atmosphere, space and in water.The conclusion of the 1963 treaty did not mean the end of the Cold War. The very next year, after the death of President Kennedy, the rivalry between the two blocs intensified. But now it has been pushed away from the borders of the USSR and the USA to Southeast Asia, where in the 60s and the first half of the 70s. war broke out in Indochina.
In the 1960s, the international situation changed radically. Both superpowers faced great difficulties: the United States was bogged down in Indochina, and the USSR was drawn into conflict with China. As a result, both superpowers preferred to move from the "cold war" to a policy of gradual détente ("détente").
During the period of détente, important agreements were signed to limit the arms race, including treaties to limit anti-missile defense (ABM) and strategic nuclear weapons (SALT-1 and SALT-2). However, the SALT treaties had a significant drawback. While limiting the total volume of nuclear weapons and missile technology, it almost did not touch upon the deployment of nuclear weapons. Meanwhile, the opponents could concentrate a large number of nuclear missiles in the most dangerous parts of the world, without even violating the agreed total volumes of nuclear weapons.
In 1976, the USSR began modernizing its medium-range missiles in Europe. They could quickly reach the goal in Western Europe. As a result of this modernization, the balance of nuclear forces in Europe was temporarily disturbed. This worried the leaders of Western Europe, who feared that America would not be able to help them against the growing nuclear power of the USSR. In December 1979, the NATO bloc decided to deploy the latest American Pershing-2 and Tomahawk missiles in Western Europe. In the event of a war, these missiles could destroy the largest cities of the USSR in a matter of minutes, while the territory of the United States would remain invulnerable for a while. The security of the Soviet Union was threatened, and he launched a campaign against the deployment of new American missiles and was even ready to make concessions, dismantling part of his nuclear weapons in Europe. A wave of rallies against the deployment of missiles began in the countries of Western Europe, since in the event of a first strike by the Americans, Europe, and not America, would become the target of a Soviet retaliatory strike. New US President Ronald Reagan proposed in 1981 the so-called "zero option" - the withdrawal of all Soviet and American medium-range nuclear missiles from Europe. But in this case, British and French missiles aimed at the USSR would remain here. Brezhnev refused the "zero option".
Detente was finally buried by the invasion Soviet troops to Afghanistan in 1979. The Cold War resumed. In 19801982, the United States waged a series of economic sanctions. In 1983, US President Reagan called the USSR an "evil empire." The installation of new American missiles in Europe has begun. In response, the General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU, Yuri Andropov, stopped all negotiations with the United States.
By the mid-1980s, the countries of "real socialism" entered a period of crisis. The bureaucratic economy could no longer meet the growing needs of the population, wasteful spending of resources led to their significant reduction, the level of social consciousness of people grew so much that they began to understand their lack of rights, the need to
change. It was becoming increasingly difficult for the country to bear the burden of the Cold War, support allied regimes around the world, and wage war in Afghanistan. The technical backwardness of the USSR from the capitalist countries was more and more noticeable and dangerous.Under these conditions, the US President decided to "push" the USSR to weaken. According to Western financial circles, the USSR's foreign exchange reserves amounted to 2530 billion dollars. In order to undermine the economy of the USSR, the Americans had to inflict “unscheduled” damage to the Soviet economy on such a scale otherwise, the “temporary difficulties” associated with the economic war would be smoothed out by a fairly thick currency “cushion”. It was necessary to act quickly in the second half of the 80s. The USSR was supposed to receive additional financial injections from the Urengoy gas pipeline Western Europe. In December 1981, in response to the suppression of the labor movement in Poland, Reagan announced a series of sanctions against Poland and its ally, the USSR. The events in Poland were used as an excuse, because this time, unlike the situation in Afghanistan, the norms of international law were not violated by the Soviet Union. The United States announced the termination of supplies of oil and gas equipment, which should have disrupted the construction of the Urengoy gas pipeline Western Europe. However, the European allies, interested in economic cooperation with the USSR, did not immediately support the United States. Then the Soviet industry managed to independently manufacture pipes that the USSR had planned to purchase in the West earlier. Reagan's campaign against the pipeline failed.
In 1983, US President Ronald Reagan put forward the idea of the "Strategic Defense Initiative" (SDI), or " star wars» space systems that could protect the US from a nuclear attack. This program was carried out in circumvention of the ABM treaty. The USSR did not have technical capabilities for
creating the same system. Although the United States was also far from successful in this area, the communist leaders feared a new round of the arms race.Domestic factors undermined the foundations of the "real socialism" system much more significantly than US actions during the Cold War. At the same time, the crisis in which the USSR found itself put the question of "savings on foreign policy" on the agenda. Despite the fact that the possibilities of such savings were exaggerated, the reforms that began in the USSR led to the end of the Cold War in 1987-1990.
In March 1985, the new General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU, Mikhail Gorbachev, came to power in the USSR. In 1985-1986 he proclaimed a policy of sweeping reforms known as Perestroika. It was also envisaged to improve relations with the capitalist countries on the basis of equality and openness (“new thinking”).
In November 1985, Gorbachev met with Reagan in Geneva and proposed a significant reduction in nuclear weapons in Europe. It was still impossible to solve the problem, because Gorbachev demanded the abolition of SDI, and Reagan did not concede. The American president promised that when the research was successful, the US would "open its laboratories to the Soviets," but Gorbachev did not believe him. “They say, believe us, that if the Americans are the first to implement SDI, they will share it with the Soviet Union. I said then: Mr. President, I urge you, believe us, we have already stated that we will not be the first to use nuclear weapons and we will not be the first to attack the United States of America. Why are you, while maintaining all the offensive potential on Earth and under water, are still going to launch an arms race in space? You don't believe us? Turns out you don't believe me. And why should we trust you more than you trust us?” Despite the fact that no significant progress was achieved at this meeting, the two presidents got to know each other better, which helped them to agree in the future.
However, after the meeting in Geneva, relations between the USSR and the USA deteriorated again. The USSR supported Libya in its conflict with the United States. The United States refused to comply with the SALT agreements, which were carried out even during the years of confrontation in 1980-1984. This was the last wave of the Cold War. The "cooling" in international relations dealt a blow to the plans of Gorbachev, who put forward a large-scale disarmament program and seriously counted on the economic effect of conversion, the transformation of military production into civilian ones. Already in the summer, both sides began to probe the possibilities for holding a "second Geneva", which took place in October 1986 in Reykjavik. Here Gorbachev tried to challenge Reagan to retaliatory concessions,
by proposing large-scale reductions in nuclear weapons, but "in a package" with the rejection of SDI. At first, Reagan was pleasantly surprised by Gorbachev's proposals and even showed hesitation on the issue of SDI. But after deliberation, the president refused to cancel SDI and even feigned indignation at the linkage of the two problems: “Already after everything, or almost everything, as it seemed to me, was decided, Gorbachev threw a feint. With a smile on his face, he said: “But it all depends, of course, on whether you give up SDI.” As a result, the meeting in Reykjavikactually came to nothing. But Reagan realized that to improve international relations it is possible not by pressing on the USSR, but by means of mutual concessions. Gorbachev's strategy was crowned with success The US actually froze SDI until the end of the century. In 1986, the US administration abandoned the frontal offensive against the USSR, which ended in failure.Despite the fact that the pressure from the United States weakened, the financial situation of the USSR began to deteriorate for reasons not directly related to the Cold War. The income of the Soviet Union depended on oil prices, which began to fall in 1986. Chernobyl disaster further undermined the financial balance of the USSR. This made it difficult to reform the country "from above" and made it more active to stimulate the initiative from below. Gradually, authoritarian modernization was replaced by a civil revolution. Already in 19871988. Perestroika led to rapid growth social activity. By this time, the world was in full swing towards ending the Cold War.
After an unsuccessful meeting in Reykjavik in 1986, the two presidents finally came to an agreement in Washington in December 1987 American and Soviet intermediate-range missiles were withdrawn from Europe. The "new thinking" has triumphed. The most important crisis that led to the resumption of the Cold War in 1979 is a thing of the past. It was followed by other "fronts" of the "XB", including the main European one.
The example of Perestroika activated the reformists in Eastern Europe. In 1989, the reforms carried out by the communists in Eastern Europe escalated into revolutions. Together with the communist regime in the GDR was destroyed and Berlin Wall, which became a symbol of the end of the division of Europe. Faced with difficult problems, the USSR could no longer support the "brotherly" communist regimes. The "socialist camp" collapsed.
In December 1988, Gorbachev announced to the UN about the unilateral reduction of the army. In February 1989, Soviet troops were withdrawn from Afghanistan, where the war between the Mujahideen and the pro-Soviet government of Najibullah continued.
In December 1989, off the coast of Malta, Gorbachev and the new US President George W. Bush were able to discuss the situation of actually ending the Cold War. Bush promised to make efforts to extend the most favored nation treatment in US trade to the USSR, which would not have been possible if the Cold War had continued. Despite the persistence of disagreements over the situation in some countries, including the Baltics, the atmosphere of the Cold War is a thing of the past. Explaining the principles of “new thinking” to Bush, Gorbachev said: “ Main principle What we have adopted and are following in our new thinking is the right of every country to free choice, including the right to revise or change the choice originally made. It's very painful, but it's a fundamental right. The right to choose without outside interference.” By this time, the methods of pressure on the USSR had already changed.
In 1990, supporters of the fastest "Westernization", that is, the restructuring of society according to Western models, came to power in most countries of Eastern Europe. Reforms began based on "neoliberal" ideas close to Western neo-conservatism and neo-globalism. The reforms were carried out very quickly, without gradual preparation, which led to a painful breakdown of society. They were called "shock therapy" because it was believed that after a short
"shock" will come relief. Western countries provided financial support for these reforms, and as a result, Eastern Europe managed to create market economy according to the Western model. Entrepreneurs, middle class, part of the youth benefited from these transformations; workers, employees, the elderly lost. Eastern European countries found themselves financially dependent on the West.The new governments of the countries of Eastern Europe demanded the speedy withdrawal of Soviet troops from their territory. The USSR had neither the ability nor the desire to maintain its military presence. In 1990, the withdrawal of troops began, in July 1991 the Warsaw Pact and the Comecon were dissolved. NATO remains the only powerful military force in Europe. The USSR did not outlive its military bloc for long. In August 1991, as a result
unsuccessful attempt by the leaders of the USSR to establish an authoritarian regime (the so-called GKChP), real power passed from Gorbachev to the leaders of the republics of the USSR. The Baltic States withdrew from the Union. In December 1991, in order to consolidate their success in the struggle for power, the leaders of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus signed an agreement in Belovezhskaya Pushcha on the dissolution of the USSR and the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States.The near-exact coincidence of the end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet Union has sparked controversy about the connection between these phenomena. Perhaps the end of the Cold War is the result of the collapse of the USSR and, therefore, the United States won this "war". But by the time the Soviet Union collapsed, the Cold War had already ended. Considering that the missile crisis was resolved in 1987, an agreement on Afghanistan was concluded in 1988, and Soviet troops were withdrawn from this country in February 1989, authoritarian regimes disappeared in almost all countries of Eastern Europe in 1989, then we can talk about the continuation of the Cold War after 1990 is not necessary. The problems that caused the aggravation of international tension not only in 1979-1980, but also in 1946-1947 were removed. Already in 1990, the level of relations between the USSR and Western countries returned to the state before the Cold War, and it was remembered only in order to proclaim its end, as President D. Bush did when he announced victory in the Cold War after the collapse of the USSR and Presidents B. Yeltsin and D. Bush, announcing its termination in 1992 These propagandist statements do not remove the fact that in 1990-1991 the signs of the "cold war" had already disappeared. The end of the Cold War and the collapse of the USSR have a common cause - the crisis of state socialism in the USSR.
Alexander Shubin
The confrontation between the two superpowers, in which their allies also participated, was not a war in the truest sense of the term, the main weapon here was ideology. For the first time, the expression "" was used in his article "You and the Atomic" by the famous British writer George Orwell. In it, he accurately described the confrontation between invincible superpowers that possess atomic weapons, but agreed not to use them, remaining in a state of peace, which, in fact, is not peace.
Post-war prerequisites for the start of the Cold War
After the end of the Second World War, the allied states - members of the Anti-Hitler coalition faced the global question of the upcoming struggle for peace. The United States and Great Britain, concerned about the military power of the USSR, not wanting to lose their leadership positions in global politics, began to perceive the Soviet Union as a future potential adversary. Even before the signing of the official act of surrender of Germany in April 1945, the British government began to develop plans for a possible war with the USSR. In his memoirs, Winston Churchill justified this by saying that at that time Soviet Russia, inspired by a hard and long-awaited victory, had become a deadly threat to the entire free world.
The USSR was well aware that the former Western allies were planning a new aggression. The European part of the Soviet Union was exhausted and destroyed, all resources were involved in the restoration of cities. A possible new war could become even more protracted and require even greater expenses, which the USSR would hardly have coped with, unlike the less affected West. But the country could not show its vulnerability in any way.
Therefore, the authorities of the Soviet Union invested huge funds not only in the reconstruction of the country, but also in the maintenance and development of the communist parties in the West, seeking to expand the influence of socialism. In addition, the Soviet authorities put forward a number of territorial demands, which further intensified the confrontation between the USSR, the USA and Great Britain.
Fulton speech
In March 1946, Churchill, speaking at Westminster College in Fulton, Missouri, USA, gave a speech that in the USSR came to be considered a signal to start. In his speech, Churchill explicitly called on all Western states to unite for the coming fight against the communist threat. It is worth noting the fact that at that time Churchill was not the Prime Minister of England and acted as a private person, but his speech clearly outlined the new foreign policy of the West. It is historically believed that it was Churchill's Fulton speech that gave impetus to the formal beginning of the Cold War - a long confrontation between the USA and the USSR.
Truman Doctrine
A year later, in 1947, US President Harry Truman, in his statement known as the Truman Doctrine, finally formulated the US foreign policy objectives. The Truman Doctrine marked the transition from post-war cooperation between the US and the USSR to open rivalry, which was called in a statement by the American president a conflict of interests between democracy and totalitarianism.
"Cold War" is a term used to denote a period in world history from 1946 to 1989, characterized by a confrontation between two political and economic superpowers - the USSR and the USA, which are the guarantors of a new system of international relations created after World War II.
Origin of the term.
It is believed that for the first time the expression "cold war" was used by the famous British science fiction writer George Orwell on October 19, 1945 in the article "You and the atomic bomb." In his opinion, the countries possessing nuclear weapons will dominate the world, while between them there will be a constant "cold war", that is, a confrontation without direct military clashes. His prediction can be called prophetic, since at the end of the war the United States had a monopoly on nuclear weapons. At the official level, this expression sounded in April 1947 from the lips of US presidential adviser Bernard Baruch.
Churchill's Fulton speech
After the end of World War II, relations between the USSR and the Western allies began to deteriorate rapidly. Already in September 1945, the Joint Chiefs of Staff approved the idea of the United States delivering a first strike against a potential enemy (meaning the use of nuclear weapons). On March 5, 1946, the former Prime Minister of Great Britain, in his speech at Westminster College in the city of Fulton in the USA in the presence of American President Harry Truman, formulated the goals of "a fraternal association of peoples who speak English language", urging them to rally to defend the "great principles of freedom and human rights." “From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended over the European continent,” and “Soviet Russia wants ... the unlimited spread of its power and its doctrines.” Churchill's Fulton speech is considered a turning point in the beginning of the Cold War between East and West.
"Truman Doctrine"
In the spring of 1947, the President of the United States promulgated his "Truman Doctrine" or the "containment of communism" doctrine, according to which "the world as a whole must accept the American system" and the United States is obliged to fight any revolutionary movement, any claims of the Soviet Union. The decisive factor was the conflict between the two ways of life. One of them, according to Truman, was based on individual rights, free elections, legal institutions and guarantees against aggression. The other is in control of the press and the media mass media, imposing the will of the minority on the majority, on terror and oppression.
One of the instruments of containment was the American plan for economic assistance, announced on June 5, 1947 by US Secretary of State J. Marshall, who announced the provision of gratuitous assistance to Europe, which would be directed "not against any country or doctrine, but against hunger, poverty, despair and chaos."
Initially, the USSR and the countries of Central Europe showed interest in the plan, but after negotiations in Paris, a delegation of 83 Soviet economists headed by V.M. Molotov left them at the direction of V.I. Stalin. The 16 countries that joined the plan received significant assistance from 1948 to 1952; its implementation actually completed the division of spheres of influence in Europe. The Communists lost their positions in Western Europe.
Cominformburo
In September 1947, at the first meeting of the Cominformburo (Information Bureau of the Communist and Workers' Parties), A.A. Zhdanov about the formation of two camps in the world - "the imperialist and anti-democratic camp, which has as its main goal the establishment of world domination and the defeat of democracy, and the anti-imperialist and democratic camp, which has as its main goal the undermining of imperialism, the strengthening of democracy and the elimination of the remnants of fascism." The creation of the Cominformburo meant the emergence of a single center for the leadership of the world communist movement. In Eastern Europe, the communists completely take power into their own hands, many opposition politicians go into exile. Socio-economic transformations on the Soviet model begin in the countries.
Berlin Crisis
The Berlin Crisis became the stage of deepening of the Cold War. Back in 1947. Western allies set a course for the creation of the territories of the American, British and French occupation zones of the West German state. In turn, the USSR tried to oust the allies from Berlin (the western sectors of Berlin were an isolated enclave within the Soviet zone of occupation). As a result, the “Berlin Crisis” occurred, i.e. transport blockade of the western part of the city by the USSR. However, in May 1949, the USSR lifted restrictions on transportation to West Berlin. In the autumn of the same year, Germany was divided: in September the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) was created, in October the German Democratic Republic (GDR). An important consequence of the crisis was the establishment by the US leadership of the largest military-political bloc: 11 states of Western Europe and the United States signed the North Atlantic Mutual Defense Treaty (NATO), according to which each of the parties undertook to provide immediate military assistance in the event of an attack on any country that is part of block. Greece and Turkey joined the pact in 1952, and the FRG in 1955.
"Arms race"
Another characteristic feature of the Cold War was the "arms race". In April 1950, the directive of the National Security Council "U.S. National Security Goals and Programs" (SNB-68) was adopted, which was based on the following provision: "The USSR is striving for world domination, Soviet military superiority is increasingly increasing, in connection with than negotiations with the Soviet leadership are impossible. Hence the conclusion was drawn about the need to build up the American military potential. The directive focused on a crisis confrontation with the USSR “until there is a change in the nature Soviet system". Thus, the USSR was forced to join the arms race imposed on it. In 1950-1953 the first armed local conflict involving two superpowers took place in Korea.
After the death of I.V. Stalin, the new Soviet leadership, headed by G.M. Malenkov, and then took a number of major steps to mitigate international tension. Declaring that "there is no such controversial or unresolved issue that could not be resolved peacefully", the Soviet government agreed with the United States to end the Korean War. In 1956 N.S. Khrushchev proclaimed a course to prevent war and declared that "there is no fatal inevitability of war." Later, the Program of the CPSU (1962) emphasized: “The peaceful coexistence of socialist and capitalist states is an objective necessity for the development of human society. War cannot and should not serve as a way to resolve international disputes.
In 1954, Washington adopted the military doctrine of "massive retaliation", which provided for the use of the entire power of the American strategic potential in the event of an armed conflict with the USSR in any region. But in the late 50s. the situation changed dramatically: in 1957 the Soviet Union launched the first artificial satellite, in 1959 it commissioned the first submarine with a nuclear reactor on board. In the new conditions for the development of weapons nuclear war lost its meaning, since it would not have had a winner in advance. Even taking into account the superiority of the United States in the number of accumulated nuclear weapons, the nuclear missile potential of the USSR was enough to inflict "unacceptable damage" on the United States.
In the circumstances of the nuclear confrontation, a series of crises occurred: on May 1, 1960, an American reconnaissance aircraft was shot down over Yekaterinburg, the pilot Harry Powers was captured; in October 1961, the Berlin crisis erupted, the "Berlin Wall" appeared, and a year later the famous Caribbean crisis occurred, which brought all mankind to the brink of nuclear war. The onset of détente was a peculiar outcome of the crises: on August 5, 1963, the USSR, Great Britain and the USA signed in Moscow an agreement banning nuclear weapons tests in the atmosphere, in outer space and under water, and in 1968 an agreement on the non-proliferation of nuclear weapons.
In the 60s. when the Cold War was in full swing, in the face of confrontation between two military blocs (NATO and the Warsaw Pact since 1955), Eastern Europe was under the complete control of the USSR, and Western Europe was in a strong military-political and economic alliance with the United States, the main the arena of the struggle between the two systems became the countries of the "third world", which often led to local military conflicts around the world.
"Discharge"
By the 1970s, the Soviet Union had reached approximate military-strategic parity with the United States. Both superpowers acquired the possibility of "guaranteed retaliation", i. causing unacceptable damage to a potential adversary by retaliatory strike.
In his message to Congress on February 18, 1970, President R. Nixon outlined three components of US foreign policy: partnership, military force, and negotiations. The partnership concerned allies, military strength and negotiations - "potential adversaries."
What is new here is the attitude towards the enemy, expressed in the formula "from confrontation to negotiations." On May 29, 1972, the countries signed the “Fundamentals of Relations between the USSR and the USA, emphasizing the need for peaceful coexistence of the two systems. Both sides pledged to do everything possible to prevent military conflicts and nuclear war.
The structural documents of these intentions were the Treaty on the Limitation of Anti-Ballistic Missile Systems (ABM) and the Interim Agreement on Certain Measures in the Field of Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms (SALT-1), which establishes a limit on the build-up of weapons. Later, in 1974, the USSR and the USA signed a protocol under which they agreed to missile defense of only one area: the USSR covered Moscow, and the USA covered the base for launching interballistic missiles in the state of North Dakota. The ABM Treaty was in effect until 2002, when the US withdrew from it. The result of the policy of "détente" in Europe was the holding of the All-European Conference on Security and Cooperation in Helsinki in 1975 (CSCE), which proclaimed the renunciation of the use of force, the inviolability of borders in Europe, respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.
In 1979, in Geneva, at a meeting between US President J. Carter and the General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU, a new treaty on the limitation of strategic offensive arms (SALT-2) was signed, reducing the total number of nuclear launchers to 2,400 and providing for curbing the process of modernizing strategic weapons. However, after the entry of Soviet troops into Afghanistan in December 1979, the United States refused to ratify the treaty, although its clauses were partially observed by both sides. At the same time, a rapid reaction force was being created to protect American interests anywhere in the world.
Third World
Apparently, in the late 70's. in Moscow, there was a point of view that in the conditions of the achieved parity and the policy of "détente", it is the USSR that has the foreign policy initiative: there is an increase and modernization of conventional weapons in Europe, the deployment of medium-range missiles, a large-scale build-up of naval forces, and active participation in supporting friendly regimes in countries third world. Under these conditions, a course of confrontation prevailed in the United States: in January 1980, the president proclaimed the "Carter Doctrine", according to which the Persian Gulf was declared a zone of American interests and the use of armed force was allowed to protect it.
With the coming to power of R. Reagan, a large-scale modernization program was undertaken various types weapons using new technologies, which had the goal of achieving strategic superiority over the USSR. It was Reagan who famously said that the USSR is an "evil empire", and America is "a people chosen by God" to carry out a "sacred plan" - "to leave Marxism-Leninism in the ashes of history." In 1981-1982 restrictions on trade with the USSR were introduced, in 1983 the program of the strategic defense initiative or the so-called "star wars" was adopted, designed to create a multi-layered defense of the United States against intercontinental missiles. At the end of 1983, the governments of Great Britain, Germany and Italy agreed to deploy American missiles on their territory.
End of the Cold War
The last stage of the Cold War is associated with major changes that took place in the USSR after the new leadership of the country came to power, led by a policy of "new political thinking" in foreign policy. The real breakthrough was highest level between the USSR and the USA in November 1985, the parties agreed that "a nuclear war should not be unleashed, there can be no winners in it", and their goal is "to prevent an arms race in space and stop it on Earth." In December 1987, a new Soviet-American meeting was held in Washington, which ended with the signing of the Treaty on the Elimination of Intermediate and Shorter-Range Nuclear and Non-Nuclear Missiles (from 500 to 5.5 thousand km). These measures included regular mutual control over the implementation of agreements, thus for the first time in history an entire class of the latest weapons was destroyed. In 1988, the concept of "freedom of choice" was formulated in the USSR as a universal principle of international relations, the Soviet Union began to withdraw its troops from Eastern Europe.
In November 1989, during spontaneous protests, the symbol of the Cold War was destroyed - concrete wall separating West and East Berlin. In Eastern Europe, a series of "velvet revolutions" is taking place, the communist parties are losing power. On December 2-3, 1989, a meeting was held in Malta between the new US President George W. Bush and M.S. Gorbachev, at which the latter confirmed the "freedom of choice" for the countries of Eastern Europe, proclaimed a course for a 50% reduction in strategic offensive weapons. The Soviet Union was giving up its zone of influence in Eastern Europe. Following the meeting, M.S. Gorbachev declared that "the world is emerging from the era of the Cold War and is entering into new era". For his part, George Bush emphasized that "the West will not try to extract any advantage from the unusual changes taking place in the East." In March 1991, the official dissolution of the Department of Internal Affairs took place, in December the collapse of the Soviet Union took place.
