II. The development of manufactory production.

Special attention the government of Peter I devoted to the construction of manufactories. To manage manufactories and help manufacturers, state bodies were created: the manufactory college and the berg college. The Berg Collegium was in charge of mining plants, i.e. mining and metallurgical enterprises, Manufacture - board - the rest of the industry.

The construction of state-owned, i.e. state manufactories. About half of the manufactories of the time of Peter the Great were built by the state, and in the first decades of the 18th century. only state-owned manufactories were built. With state assistance, the first private manufactories appeared. If firewood or charcoal was needed for manufactory production, the manufacturer was given a sufficient plot of wood.

The manufacturer and ore received free of charge. For the development of the mining industry in Russia, "mining freedom" was proclaimed: everyone received the right to develop ore resources in any possessions. If the landowner himself did not take care of the development of ore on his land, the law said, "then he will be forced to endure that others in his lands will seek and dig and remake ore and minerals."

The most traditional form of promoting industrial development in Western Europe there were protectionist customs tariffs - increased duties on the import of foreign goods. The first protectionist tariff in Russia came into effect in 1724.

A necessary condition for the creation of large-scale industry, as is known, is primitive accumulation, i.e., on the one hand, the accumulation of money, capital in the hands of future industrial capitalists, and on the other, the formation of an army of hired workers. in Russia in the early eighteenth century. the process of primitive accumulation was still far from complete.

There was not enough capital. The people who owned capital did not want to invest it in industry. Therefore, the government used violent measures to identify and mobilize capital. For example, if individual capitals were insufficient to found a manufactory, then a group of merchants was forced to unite in a "company" (company) and build a manufactory together. The desire of the capital owners themselves was not taken into account. For example, in 1720, in order to establish a cloth manufactory in Moscow, Peter I ordered that 14 people be united into a company. from different cities, and they were brought to the place under the escort of soldiers.

Capital that was not used on the farm was subject to confiscation. A decree was issued: a person who reports such hidden, unused capital receives a third of the hidden money, and the rest is confiscated by the state.

Thus, for example, the savings of the Shustov brothers were confiscated: during a search under the floor of their house, more than 4 poods of gold and 106 poods of silver coins were found.

On the other hand, loans and subsidies were widely used to stimulate investment in industry. Hoping to get extra money, rich people were more willing to get involved in industrial construction. In other cases, the state gave the enterprises built by the treasury into private hands. Having received a manufactory, its new owner became involved in industrial entrepreneurship, and he himself began to build manufactories. So, having received the Nevyansk plant in the Urals from the treasury, the Tula blacksmith Nikita Demidov built ten more mining plants.

If about half of the manufactories of the first quarter of the eighteenth century. was founded by the treasury, the rest were built on private, mainly merchant capital.

However, there were still capitals in Russia: they were accumulated by merchants due to non-equivalent trade. There were almost no free workers, the vast majority of the working population was in serfdom. Initially, Peter I assumed that manufacturing production would be provided by hired labor. When issuing permits for the creation of manufactories, the state demanded "to hire free people", but there were not enough hired workers. I had to deviate from the original decision and provide industry with the labor of serfs.

In 1721, the famous decree was issued on permission to buy villages with serfs for manufactories under construction and turn them into serf workers. This permission was given to merchants: the nobles had previously had the right to buy serfs and exploit their labor. In addition, it was the merchants who were the first private manufacturers. Allowing merchants to own serfs violated the class privilege of the nobles. Therefore, the land, the serfs and the manufacture itself were declared not the property of the merchant-manufactory, but only his conditional possession - the possession. The state was considered the legal owner of such a manufactory. Serf workers were attached not to the owner, but to the manufactory itself, and he did not have the right to sell them or use their labor outside the manufactory. All laws issued for state-owned manufactories automatically applied to sessional ones: the state determined the states, production rates, wages, etc.

Possession manufactories should be distinguished from patrimonial manufactories belonging to the nobility. In such manufactories, the labor of their own serfs was used. Noble patrimonial manufactories began to appear mainly after the death of Peter I. At state-owned manufactories, as well as at patrimonial and sessional ones, serf labor was used: workers were attached to enterprises and were obliged to work for them.

In addition, a certain number of state peasants were assigned to state and sessional enterprises. They remained peasants, but state taxes for them were replaced by the performance of auxiliary work at the manufacture. They were obliged to work for a certain period at the manufactory (cutting wood, burning coal, transporting various goods), then they went back to their villages. The position of the assigned was worsened by the fact that their villages were often located hundreds of kilometers from the place of work, and the time of the transition and back was not included in the period of working off. The peasants broke away from their farms for a long time, went bankrupt, and after that they were forced to switch to permanent work at the manufactory.

This was the beginning of "serf manufactory", a peculiar form of industry adapted to the conditions of serfdom and using feudal methods of labor exploitation.

After the death of Peter I, the government continues to stimulate the development of manufactories. As a result of this assistance and patronage, industrialists-manufacturers are merging with the feudal class. On the one hand, manufacturers receive the highest titles of nobility: the heirs of the blacksmith Demidov became princes, the heirs of the Stroganov peasant industrialists became barons. On the other hand, nobles - landowners are increasingly involved in industrial entrepreneurship. Having a manufacture is now considered quite respectable.

The practice of using serf labor in industry is being consolidated. A number of decrees are attached to serf enterprises "forever" and those workers who previously worked for them as hired workers.

However, not all Russian manufactories were serfs, not all were subjected to forced labor. In addition to patrimonial, possession and state enterprises, there were merchants. A merchant's manufactory is not necessarily a manufactory owned by a merchant. The possessions also belonged to the merchants, and the merchant could, for example, belong to a peasant. It is customary to call a merchant's manufactory with hired labor, without serf workers.

The main contingent of hired workers of such merchant manufactories were also serfs - quitrent peasants. From wages, such a peasant paid quitrent to his landowner, and thus was subjected to double exploitation: capitalist - on the part of the manufacturer and feudal - on the part of the landowner. Sometimes the landlords themselves rented out their peasants to manufacturers.

Merchant manufacture, which used only hired labor, was a quite clearly expressed form of capitalist production. However, serf manufactory with forced labor should not be considered entirely a feudal form of industry. The owner of such an enterprise invested a certain capital in it and received income in the form of profit from capital, and not feudal rent. The serf worker, unlike the peasant, was distant from the means of production. He existed at the expense of paying for his labor: the owner is forced to pay for the labor of serfs, ensuring the reproduction of the labor force, because the employed industrial labor, the worker could not simultaneously conduct a subsistence peasant economy. This capitalist content was clothed here in a feudal-serf form.

The worker sold his labor power not voluntarily, but forcibly. The capitalist entrepreneur was at the same time a feudal landowner, and his property was not only the manufacture, but also its workers. Feudal and capitalist elements intertwined in the production relations of serf manufactory.

Manufacturing in the 18th century achieved significant success, which was reflected in the export of Russia. If in the 17th century the composition of export goods was limited mainly to raw materials, already in 1726 52% of exports were manufactured goods, mainly canvas and iron.

The most intensively developed metallurgical and textile industries. The direct impetus for the construction of metallurgical plants in the Urals ("factories" at that time was customary to call enterprises such as manufactories) was the war with Sweden. It took a lot of metal to make weapons, and Russia imported metal from Sweden. I even had to pour church bells into cannons. Already before 1726. more than 30 metallurgical enterprises were built. Russia not only ceased to depend on metal imports, but even began to large quantities take it to England. The industrial revolution in England was based largely on Russian iron. At that time, England imposed duties on Russian iron that almost doubled its price. Significant progress in the XVIII century. reached the textile industry. Only under Peter I, about 30 cloth, linen and silk manufactories were built. Linen and canvas were produced in excess and exported abroad.

In addition to the metallurgical and textile industries, the glass, gunpowder, ship, stationery industries successfully developed. The rest of the industries (the production of clothing and footwear, furniture and agricultural implements) remained at the level of handicraft production.

The success of Russian manufactory was explained by its adaptability to serfdom. In the serf manufactory, there were relatively low labor costs: a serf worker could not leave the enterprise for a more generous owner.

Raw materials and fuel were especially cheap for the landowner-manufactory: if, for example, the owner of a metallurgical manufactory in England had to buy ore and charcoal from the owner of the land - the landlord, then for the Ural breeder the cost of raw materials and fuel was reduced to the cost of their procurement by cheap serf labor . Therefore, Russian iron was much cheaper than English. Thus, serfdom gave the owners of manufactories a monopoly on cheap labor, raw materials and fuel and was the basis for the rapid development of manufactory.

The 17th century began very unfavorably for Russian entrepreneurship. The civil war, the famine years, the adventures of impostors, the intervention raised the question of the very existence of statehood in Russia. The patriotic forces of the people were able to expel the interventionists and ensure the pacification of the country.

Unlike agriculture, industrial production has advanced more noticeably.

Manufactory is a large enterprise based on the division of labor and handicraft techniques.

17th century - the time when large-scale production was at the origins of its development. The first manufactories arose sporadically, covering far from all industries, their number was small. In a number of cases, large-scale production did not yet have clearly expressed signs of manufactory and was only a transitional form from simple cooperation to manufactory. One of the signs of the emergence of manufacturing production can be considered the exploitation of someone else's labor, hired or forced, as well as the presence of an organizer or head of production. “Every directly social or joint labor, carried out on a relatively large scale, needs to be managed to a greater or lesser extent ...” .

The organizer and head of large-scale production in Russia in the 17th century. the treasury of the feudal state or merchant capital, encouraged by the government, among which representatives of foreign capital predominated. This circumstance could not but affect the originality of the Russian manufactory of the time under consideration.

The prerequisites for the emergence of manufactory-type enterprises were created by the development of manufacturing industries, crafts, which in the 17th century. acquired a small-scale character, and in a number of cases they themselves began to show a tendency to enlarge production. Most of the large enterprises were concentrated in the central, most economically developed region, metallurgical manufactories prevailed among them. The Tula-Kashirskaya group of ironworks, the most significant in terms of the number of enterprises, took shape in the 30-50s. south of Moscow, where even in the previous century peasant houses in Serpukhov, Aleksinsky, Tula districts, blacksmith crafts of Tula were widely known.

One of the important prerequisites for the emergence of manufactories was that even in the 17th century. the free peasantry has not yet disappeared. It was replenished with fugitives from the fortress villages. In the north of the country, black-sowed volosts remained. The state included territories that did not know serfdom. The prerequisites for the emergence of manufactories were the intensive development of rural and urban crafts. Formation Russian market provided raw materials and marketing of manufactured goods. With the strengthening of absolutism, “state needs” appeared and it became possible to finance large-scale production at the expense of the treasury. The process of capital accumulation in Russia began. It was expressed in quick enrichment, mainly by merchants.

Manufactories appeared both in the mining and manufacturing industries. Metallurgy and metalworking, the defense industry, the textile production of potash and saltpeter - this is the sphere of distribution of manufactories in the 17th century.

Together with the emergence of manufactory in Russia, it was accelerated and to a large extent was the result of the mercantile policy of Russia. Manufactory, first of all, appeared in those industries whose development was determined by state needs, the interests of the treasury or the royal court. Meeting the military needs of the state has become the main task of metallurgical plants.

In addition to metallurgical manufactories, large enterprises arose in the central region in a number of manufacturing industries - textile, glass, stationery. Large-scale linen production is concentrated in the state settlements in Moscow (Kadashevskaya, Khamovskaya). In Moscow there were the first silk and cloth enterprises founded by the treasury or foreign merchants.

Along with family cooperation, which existed before, in a number of industries, other forms of cooperation developed. Among them, two forms can be distinguished. The first in its purest form expresses the sprouts of bourgeois relations - this is cooperation, headed by an entrepreneur (often a merchant), who uses the labor of hired workers and delivers products to the market (or to the treasury under contracts). The second is represented by enterprises where a group of persons is conducting a joint business on a share, warehouse basis. Each member of such a cooperative is (at least formally) an independent small commodity producer, they are united by the sale of products, carried out either by a trustee, or by each member of the artel in turn. Also, this form of cooperation can be combined with the partial involvement of third-party labor.

From a socio-economic point of view, the most difficult issue is the division of extended cooperation with unstable or weakly expressed signs of intra-production division of labor and small manufacturing enterprises. It is not surprising that "the distinction between these types of production is extremely difficult, which is natural in conditions initial stage the genesis of capitalism, it can be argued that many categories of industrial establishments in the XVII century. were on the way to becoming a manufactory.

Despite social deformation, manufactory was and remained an element of the emerging bourgeois economic system. It is also necessary to identify the specific features of the Russian version of manufactories. As you know, manufacture does not mean a complete separation of the worker from the land and the economy itself in general. This moment is especially typical for Russia, where the serf village was the main reserve of labor force.

The formation of manufactory in Russia was a natural, viable, historically conditioned process. This is not contradicted by the facts of the collapse or fragility of a considerable number of enterprises. The continuity of the manufacturing form of industry itself can hardly be in doubt. Significant shifts in the development of domestic industry of the XVII century. had a real form.

It should be mentioned that there are opinions according to which at that time the manufacture was an unstable, sporadic phenomenon, moreover, it was still weakly connected with the market, serving mainly the needs of the treasury and the palace department. Another point of view boils down to the fact that in the XVII century. there is an irreversible process of formation of the manufactory form of production, which later acquires a more distinct expression. Thus, the genesis of capitalist relations belongs to this century. There is every reason to date the beginning of the manufacturing stage of capitalism in Russia to the 17th century.

In the 17th century large enterprises spring up in almost all the most important branches of industry. The development of manufactories took place in those very regions where small-scale commodity production of the corresponding products was most widespread. Of course, one should not absolutize the role of small-scale commodity production as an unconditional and ubiquitous prerequisite for manufacture. It is known that the metallurgy of Southern Siberia, in the Altai mining district, and also near Nerchinsk had no connection with the local ore industry. AT Eastern Siberia an iron-smelting and iron-working manufactory also arose for the first time with the arrival of the Russians. Some types of industry essentially arose immediately on a manufacturing basis, such as printing, stationery and others.

Lack of scientifically based statistics in the 17th century. makes it impossible for us to give sufficiently accurate figures on the number of manufacturing enterprises (meaning centralized manufactories). For the 17th century 20 - 30 manufactories are called in the literature, but this is an underestimated figure. Apparently, we can talk about no less than 65 manufactories. The difficulty in identifying reliable information about the number of manufactories is aggravated by the fact that sources do not always provide exhaustive information about enterprises, as a result of which doubts arise about the legitimacy of classifying some of them as manufactories.

The change in Russian manufactory can hardly be qualified as "feudalization". We can talk about the impact of the feudal system on manufacture, about the existence of mixed socio-economic characteristics, but no more. Manufactory, with all its contradictions and layers of the era, "represented the way of capitalist society in the depths of feudalism."

Among the artisans, the most numerous group was made up of draft workers - artisans of urban settlements and black-moss volosts. They carried out private orders or worked for the market. Palace artisans served the needs of the royal court; state-owned and registered workers worked on orders from the treasury (construction work, procurement of materials, etc.); privately owned - from peasants, beavers and serfs - produced everything necessary for the landlords and estate owners. The handicraft on a rather large scale developed, primarily among the taxpayers, into commodity production.

Moscow was a major metalworking center - back in the early 1940s. there were more than one and a half hundred forges here. The best gold and silver craftsmen in Russia worked in the capital. The centers of silver production were also Ustyug the Great, Nizhny Novgorod, Veliky Novgorod, Tikhvin and others. Copper and other non-ferrous metals were processed in Moscow, Pomorie (the manufacture of cauldrons, bells of dishes with painted enamel, chasing, etc.).

The leading center of handicraft, industrial production, trade operations is Moscow. Here in the 40s. there were metalworkers (in 128 forges), fur craftsmen (about l00 craftsmen), various food making (about 600 people), leather and leather products, clothes and hats, and much more - everything that a large crowded city needs [2. 3 , 260].

A small group of metallurgical enterprises of the manufactory type arose in the 70s. in the Olonets region, where, as in the northwestern region of the Russian state in general, small-scale commercial production of iron and various iron products from marsh and lake ores was widely developed.

In the 17th century only the first steps were taken in the industrial development of the Urals. This region begins to attract the attention of the government, merchants, not only with fur trade, but also with the riches of the earth's interior. Looking for gold and copper ores expeditions were sent. In the 30s. as a result of the search for one of these expeditions, in which one of the richest trading people of the 17th century took part. N. A. Sveteshnikov, a copper deposit was found in the upper reaches of the Kama. The Pyskovsky copper smelter arose, at which the treasury was used as a driving force.

Metalworking is to a large extent converted into commodity production, and not only in the towns, but also in the countryside.

Blacksmithing reveals tendencies towards the enlargement of production, the use of hired labor. This is especially true for Tula, Ustyuzhna, Tikhvin, Veliky Ustyug.

Similar phenomena, although to a lesser extent, are observed in woodworking. Throughout the country, carpenters worked mainly to order - they built houses, river and sea vessels. Carpenters from Pomorye were distinguished by special skill.

The largest center of the leather industry was Yaroslavl, where raw materials for the manufacture of leather products were supplied from many districts of the country. A large number of small "factories" - handicraft workshops - worked here. The leather was processed by craftsmen from Kaluga and Nizhny Novgorod. Yaroslavl tanners used hired labor; some “factories developed into manufactory-type enterprises with a significant division of labor.

A feature of Russian manufactory of the 17th century. was the consumer nature of industrial production. Products of metallurgical, glass factories, textile enterprises, paper mills was intended primarily to meet the needs of the treasury. This general position could not be changed by individual cases of the production of products "for free sale", which did not go beyond the sphere of simple commodity circulation. In the absence of the commodity nature of industrial production, in which "the circulation of money as capital is an end in itself", neither an increase in entrepreneurial capital nor expanded reproduction could be carried out, which determined the fragility of the industrial establishments themselves.

Manufactory in the initial period of its emergence differed from handicrafts by a higher labor culture. This was expressed primarily in the existence of a division of labor within the production cycle, as well as in the emergence of the most important changes in production technology for that time, made possible by the use of hydropower.

With all its development, handicraft production could no longer satisfy the demand for industrial products. This leads to the emergence in the XVII century. manufactories - enterprises based on the division of labor between workers. If in Western Europe manufactories were capitalist enterprises, served by the labor of hired workers, then in Russia, under the dominance of the feudal serf system, the emerging manufacturing production was largely based on serf labor. Most of manufactories belonged to the treasury, the royal court and large boyars.

The most characteristic feature economic development Russia was in the defining role of the autocratic state in the economy, its active and deep penetration into all spheres of economic life. Established by Peter 1, Berg-, Manufactory-, Commerce College- and the Chief Magistrate were institutions of state regulation of the national economy, bodies for the implementation of the commercial and industrial policy of the autocracy.

There are two stages in industrial policy: 1700-1717. - the main founder of manufactories - the treasury; since 1717, private individuals began to establish manufactories. At the same time, the owners of manufactories were exempted from the state service.

At the first stage, priority was given to the production of products for military needs. At the second stage, the industry began to produce products for the population.

By a decree of 1722, urban artisans were united in workshops, but unlike Western Europe, they were organized by the state, and not by the artisans themselves, to manufacture products needed by the army and navy.

A higher form of industrial production was manufactory. As a result of the transformations of Peter I in the first quarter of the XVIII century. in the development of the manufacturing industry there was a sharp leap. Compared with the end of the XVII century. the number of manufactories increased by about five times and in 1725 amounted to 205 enterprises.

Particularly great successes were achieved in the metallurgical industry, which was caused by the need to arm the army and build a navy. Along with factories in the old regions (Tula, Kashira, Kaluga), factories arose in Karelia, and then in the Urals. It was during this period that the widespread development of iron and copper ores of the Urals began, which soon became the main metallurgical base of the country.

The smelting of pig iron reached 815,000 poods a year, according to this indicator, Russia took third place in the world, second only to England and Sweden. Large-scale copper production was organized. In second place were textile manufactories, which were developed in the center of the country. Leather enterprises also worked here, providing products primarily to the army.

Under Peter I, new industries arose in Russia: shipbuilding, silk spinning, glass and earthenware, and paper production.

The state played an important role in the development of large-scale industry. It built factories, helped private entrepreneurs, and provided manufactories with labor.

The manufactories used both civilian and forced labor of peasants who worked at the patrimonial enterprises of their landlords, as well as ascribed peasants from the state and palace villages. By a decree of 1721, merchants were allowed to purchase serfs for their factories, who later became known as sessional.

Thus, in the first quarter of the XVIII century. there was a leap in the development of large-scale production and in the use of free hired labor. This can be considered the second stage in the initial period of the genesis of capitalist relations in the industry of Russia (the first stage - the 17th century).

Trade. During the reign of Peter I received incentives for the development of domestic and foreign trade. This was facilitated by the development of industrial and handicraft production, the conquest of access to the Baltic Sea, and the improvement of communications. During this period, canals were built that connected the Volga and Neva (Vyshnevolotsky and Ladoga). Between the individual parts of the country, exchange increased, the turnover of Russian fairs (Makarievskaya, Irbitskaya, Svenskaya, etc.) grew, which manifested the formation of an all-Russian market.

For the development of foreign trade, not only the construction of the port of St. Petersburg was important, but also the support of Russian merchants and industrialists from the government of Peter I. This was reflected in the policy of protectionism and mercantilism, in the adoption of the the emperor himself took part in the development) the export of Russian goods abroad was encouraged and the import of foreign products was limited. Most foreign goods were subject to a very high duty, reaching up to 75% of the value of the goods. Income from trade contributed to the accumulation of capital in the field of trade, which also led to the growth of the capitalist structure. A common feature of the development of trade was to pursue a policy of mercantilism, the essence of which was to accumulate money through an active trade balance.

The state actively intervened in the development of trade:

• monopolies were introduced for the procurement and sale of certain goods: salt, flax, yuft, hemp, tobacco, bread, lard, wax, etc., which led to an increase in prices for these goods within the country and limited the activities of Russian merchants;
• often the sale of a certain commodity, for which a state monopoly was introduced, was transferred to a specific farmer for the payment of a large sum of money;
• direct taxes (customs, drinking fees), etc. were sharply increased;
• practiced the forced relocation of merchants to St. Petersburg, which at that time was an unsettled border town.

The practice of administrative regulation of cargo flows was applied, i.e. it was determined in which port and what to trade. The gross intervention of the state in the sphere of trade led to the destruction of the shaky foundation on which the well-being of merchants, primarily loan and usurious capital, rested.

Ministry of Education and Science Russian Federation

"Plekhanov Russian University of Economics"

Balakovo Institute of Economics and Business

Department of General Humanitarian Disciplines

abstract

By discipline: "Economic history"

On the topic: "Peculiarities of manufacturing production in Russia in the 17th-18th centuries".

Completed:

1st year student

Full-time education

Direction "Economics"

Profile "Finance and Credit"

Lebed K.A.

Head: Usanov N.I.

BALAKOVO 2014

Introduction

Conclusion

Introduction

The rise in the marketability of agriculture and the flourishing of urban handicraft production gave the Russian economy of the 17th century completely new features: handicraft turned into small-scale production. This rapid growth was due to all the previous development of the country. The strengthening of the craft, the creation of craft workshops using hired labor, gave a chance for the appearance already in the 17th century. manufactories - relatively large industrial enterprises that united artisan manufacturers who carried out the division of labor and used the most common mechanisms (water engines, looms, etc.). The oldest Russian manufactory was the Moscow cannon yard, as well as iron-smelting and iron-working factories in Tula, on Kral, in the Olonets region.

The purpose of my work is to identify the features of manufacturing production and analyze socio-economic changes in Russian society in connection with the emergence of manufactories. To achieve this goal, it is necessary to solve a number of tasks:

to consider the reasons that caused the later appearance of the domestic bourgeoisie in the economic and political arena in comparison with the advanced countries of the West;

to analyze changes in the development of manufactories in Russia in the XVII-XVIII centuries.

try to assess the manufacturing production of the era of Peter I.

For this, scientific literature was studied, including leading historians on this issue. One of the sources is the lectures of Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky. From his lectures we learn about the rich history of our Fatherland, including the activities of Peter the Great in the development of industry, trade and agriculture, as well as great attention in the lectures is devoted to the formation of manufactories.

Chapter 1

Manufactory (from the Latin manus - hand and factura - manufacturing) is a form of capitalist industrial production and a stage in its historical development that precedes large-scale machine industry. It is a production based on manual labor. But manufacture differs from simple cooperation in that it is based on the division of labor. Subsistence economy in its purest form did not exist even during the early feudal period, not to mention the 17th century. The peasant, like the landowner, turned to the market to purchase products, the production of which could be organized only where the necessary raw materials existed for this, such as salt and iron.

In the 17th century, as in the previous century, certain types of crafts were widespread. Everywhere the peasants wove linen for their needs, dressed leather and sheepskin, provided themselves with residential and outbuildings. The peculiarity of the development of small industry was given not by domestic crafts, but by the spread of handicrafts, i.e. production of products to order and especially small-scale commodity production, i.e. making products for the market.

The most important innovation in the industry of the XVII century. associated with the emergence of manufactory. She has three characteristics. This is primarily a large-scale production; Manufactory, in addition, is characterized by the division of labor and manual labor. Significant size enterprises that used manual labor, in which the division of labor was in its infancy, are called simple cooperation. If wage labor was used in cooperation, then it is called simple capitalist cooperation.

Artels of barge haulers, pulling plows from Astrakhan to Nizhny Novgorod or to the upper reaches of the Volga, as well as artels that built brick buildings, belonged to the type of simple capitalist cooperation. The most striking example of the organization of production on the principle of simple capitalist cooperation (under the indispensable condition that labor was hired) was salt making. The crafts of some owners reached enormous proportions: at the end of the century, there were 162 salt pans for the Stroganovs, 44 salt pans for the guests Shustovs and Filatovs, and 25 for the Pyskor Monastery. All other workers (a wood carrier, a stove-maker, a blacksmith, a driller of wells from which brine was extracted) did not participate in the production of salt. However, some historians classify salt industries as manufactories.

The first manufactories arose in metallurgy; water-working factories were built in places where there were three conditions for this: ore, wood and a small river that could be blocked by a dam in order to use the energy of water in production. Manufactory production was started in the Tula-Kashirsky region - the Dutch merchant Andrey Vinius in 1636 launched a water-working plant.

Let us note the most characteristic features of the emergence of manufactory production in Russia. The first of them is that large enterprises arose not on the basis of the development of small-scale commodity production into manufactory, but by transferring finished forms to Russia from the countries of Western Europe, where manufactory already had a century-long history of existence. The second feature was that the state initiated the creation of manufactories. In order to attract foreign merchants to invest in production, the state granted them a number of significant privileges: the founder of the plant received a cash loan for 10 years.

In turn, the factory owner was obliged to cast cannons and cannonballs for the needs of the state; products (pans, nails) entered the domestic market only after the state order was completed.

Following the Tula-Kashirsky district in commercial operation ore deposits of the Olonets and Lipetsk regions were involved. Water-working factories were founded by such large landowners as I.D. Miloslavsky and B.I. Morozov. At the end of the century, the merchants Demidov and Aristov joined the manufacturing industry. Metallurgy was the only industry in which, until the 90s. manufactories operated.

In the 17th century Russia has entered a new period in its history. In the field of socio-economic development, it was accompanied by the beginning of the formation of an all-Russian market.

In its emergence and development, the decisive factor was not manufactories, which covered only one branch of industry and produced an insignificant share of marketable products, but small-scale commodity production. Interregional ties cemented fairs of all-Russian importance, such as Makarievskaya near Nizhny Novgorod, where goods were brought from the Volga basin, Svenskaya near Bryansk, which was the main exchange point between Ukraine and the central regions of Russia, Irbitskaya in the Urals, where the sale and purchase of Siberian furs and industrial goods of Russian and foreign origin intended for the population of Siberia.

Moscow was the largest trading center - the center of all agricultural and industrial goods, from grain and livestock to furs, from peasant handicrafts (linen and homespun cloth) to a diverse range of imported goods from the countries of the East and Western Europe.

Upper layer merchants were guests and merchants of the living room and cloth hundreds. Guests are the richest and most privileged part of the merchant class. They were granted the right to freely travel abroad on commercial matters, the right to own estates, they were exempted from standing, taxes and some township services. The trading people of the drawing room and the cloth shop had the same privileges as the guests, with the exception of the right to travel abroad.

For the privileges granted, members of the corporations paid off with the state by fulfilling a number of burdensome assignments that distracted them from trading in their own goods - they were trade and financial agents of the government: they purchased goods, the trade of which was in a state monopoly, managed the customs of the country's largest shopping centers, acted as appraisers of furs and etc. The state monopoly on the export of a number of goods (furs, black caviar, potash, etc.), which were in demand by foreign merchants, significantly limited the opportunities for the accumulation of capital by Russian merchants.

Maritime trade with the countries of Western Europe was carried out through a single port - Arkhangelsk, which accounted for 3/4 of the country's trade turnover. Over the course of a century, the importance of Arkhangelsk, although slowly, increased: in 1604, 24 ships arrived there, and at the end of the century - 70.

The main consumers of imported goods were the treasury (weapons, cloth for uniforms of servicemen, etc.) and the royal court, which purchased luxury items and manufactory products. Trade with Asian countries was carried out through Astrakhan, a city with a colorful national composition, there, along with Russian merchants, Armenians, Iranians, Bukharans, Hindus traded, delivering silk and paper fabrics, scarves, sashes, carpets, dried fruits, etc. The main commodity here was raw silk, which was in transit to Western European countries.

Western European goods were also delivered to Russia by land, through Novgorod, Pskov, and Smolensk. Here trading partners were Sweden, Lübeck, the Commonwealth. The peculiarity of Russian-Swedish trade was the active participation of Russian merchants in it, who dispensed with intermediaries and delivered hemp directly to Sweden. However, the share of overland trade was small. The structure of foreign trade turnover reflected the level of economic development of the country: industrial products prevailed in imports from Western European countries, agricultural raw materials and semi-finished products prevailed in Russian exports: hemp, linen, furs, leather, lard, potash, etc.

Russia's foreign trade was almost entirely in the hands of foreign merchants. Russian merchants, poorly organized and less wealthy than their Western European counterparts, could not compete with them either in Russia or in the markets of those countries where Russian goods were imported. In addition, Russian merchants did not have merchant ships.

The dominance of foreign merchant capital in the domestic market of Russia caused acute dissatisfaction among Russian merchants, which manifested itself in petitions submitted to the government demanding that foreign merchants (English, Dutch, Hamburgers, etc.) be expelled from the domestic market. For the first time this demand was made in the petition of 1627 and then was repeated in 1635 and 1637. At the Zemsky Sobor in 1648-1649. Russian merchants again demanded the expulsion of foreign merchants.

The persistent harassment of Russian merchants was only partially successful: in 1649 the government deprived only the British of the right to trade within Russia, and the basis was the accusation that they "killed their sovereign Carlus the king to death."

Trade people continued to put pressure on the government, and in response to the petition of the eminent person Stroganov, on October 25, 1653, the Trade Charter was promulgated. Its main significance was that, instead of a multitude of trade duties (handling, driving, bridge, skid, etc.), he established a single duty in the amount of 5% of the price of the goods sold. The trade charter, in addition, increased the amount of duty from foreign merchants instead of 5%, they paid 6%, and when sending goods inside the country, an additional 2% . The trade charter, therefore, was of a protective nature and contributed to the development of internal exchange.

Even more protectionist was the New Trade Charter of 1667, which set out in detail the rules for trade by Russian and foreign merchants. The new charter created favorable conditions for trade within the country for Russian merchants: a foreigner who sold goods in Arkhangelsk paid the usual 5% duty, but if he wished to take the goods to any other city, the amount of the duty doubled, and he was allowed to conduct only wholesale trade. It was forbidden for a foreigner to trade foreign goods with a foreigner.

The new trade charter protected Russian merchants from the competition of foreign merchants and at the same time increased the amount of revenue to the treasury from collecting duties from foreign merchants. The compiler of the Novotrade Charter was Afanasy Lavrentievich Ordyn-Nashchokin. This representative of a seedy noble family became the most prominent statesman 17th century He advocated the need to encourage the development of domestic trade, the liberation of the merchants from the petty guardianship of government agencies, for the issuance of loans to merchant associations so that they could withstand the onslaught of wealthy foreigners. Nashchokin did not consider it shameful to borrow something useful from the peoples of Western Europe: "It's not a shame for a good person to learn from the outside, from strangers, even from their enemies."

Thus, the prerequisites for the formation of manufactory were: the growth of handicrafts, commodity production, the emergence of workshops with hired workers, the accumulation of monetary wealth as a result of the initial accumulation of capital. Manufactory arose in two ways:

) the union in one workshop of artisans of various specialties, due to which the product, right up to its final production, was produced in one place.

) association in a common workshop of artisans in the same specialty, each of whom continuously performed the same separate operation.

Chapter 2. The development of manufacturing production in Russia

Manufactory in Russia arose in the 2nd half of the 17th - 1st half of the 19th centuries. characteristic feature Russian manufactory was that it developed under the dominance of feudal-serf relations. The birth of manufactories became the main event in the economic life of the country in the 17th century. State-owned manufactories were the first to appear. In the 30s of the seventeenth century, the state built the first metallurgical enterprises in the Urals. These were typical copper-smelting manufactories with the use of water-acting mechanisms - "mechanical bellows" and "mechanical water hammers". . At that time, such state-owned enterprises as the Cannon Yard, where 100 craftsmen worked, the Armory (200 craftsmen), Khamovny Yard, a state-owned weaving manufactory, owned over 100 looms, already had the form of manufactories at that time.

Foreigners also built manufactories in Russia - paper, glass, silk, which mainly served the needs of the royal court and state institutions.

Thanks to the growth in the marketability of agriculture in the 17th century, another important qualitative shift took place - in trade. An all-Russian market is emerging. However, the industry of Russia had peculiar features due to its nature, history of origin and composition of the labor force. The money wages received by the workers employed on it, the use of tools belonging to the owner, the partial hiring of labor gave it capitalist features. However, the use of mainly serfs in Russian manufactory in the form of ascribed, quitrent or landlord peasants made the manufactory a serf, semi-feudal enterprise.

Manufactories, depending on whose ownership they were, were divided into state, merchant and landlord, they differed in the use of various categories of working people. The question of the labor force was one of the main ones during the period of the emergence of large-scale industry, since practically the entire working population of the country was enslaved and did not have the right to freely dispose of its labor force.

However, not all Russian manufactories were serf-owning, and forced labor was not used everywhere. Merchant enterprises, for example, were called not according to their affiliation, but according to the nature of the labor used in them: hired labor was used here without the use of serfs. The main contingent of workers in them were quitrent peasants. From wages, such a peasant paid dues to his landowner, and thus was subjected to double exploitation - capitalist on the part of the manufacturer and feudal on the part of the landowner.

The first manufactories arose in industries whose products were widely sold on domestic and foreign markets (salt production, distillation, production of yuft, etc.). In the same industries, largest number manufactures with a predominance of capitalist relations.

Most of the manufactories arose with the active assistance of the state. In the 17th century, with the assistance of the government, manufactories were created mainly in metallurgy (the factories of A. Vinius, P. Marselis - F. Akema, and others). In the first quarter of the 18th century, more than a hundred such manufactories arose.

Already in the 17th century, the government granted privileges to private entrepreneurs, and by the 20s of the 18th century, a whole system was formed to encourage entrepreneurship in the sectors of production needed by the state (financial subsidies, the transfer of manufactories created by the treasury into the hands of private owners, the provision of manufactories with labor and securing it to them , the purchase of all or a significant part of the production by the state, etc.). Manufactories in metallurgy, the so-called ukaznye, were almost completely serviced by forced labor of bonded peasants and other workers. The government also assigned peasants to private manufactories, and in 1721 allowed the owners of manufactories to purchase peasants.

The first half of the 18th - the first third of the 19th centuries were characterized by an increase in the number of capitalist manufactories, mainly in light industry, and an increase in the number of employees. The proportion of civilian workers increased in 1767 to 39.2%, in 1804 to 47.9%, and in 1825 to 54.4%. The beginning of the crisis of manufactories based on forced labor belongs to the same period. The growth of manufactories was accompanied by the concentration of production and an increase in the number of people employed in large enterprises. In 1789, in the village of Ivanovo, 633 workers were employed at 226 manufactories, 7 large manufactories, accounting for 3.1% of total number enterprises employing 245 people (about 40%). In the textile industry, scattered manufactory was most developed. The number of enterprises subordinated to the Manufactory College, and later to the Department of Manufactories, increased. The number of capitalist workers in the cotton industry grew rapidly (the number of workers increased from 1,900 in 1799 to 90,500 in 1835, more than 90% of them were civilian employees). In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, capitalist manufactories already dominated the silk and sailing linen industry. The cloth industry was still dominated by session and especially patrimonial manufactories. They produced mainly cloth for the army. The number of workers on them grew at the expense of patrimonial serfs. The mining industry remained the citadel of feudal relations.

At the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries, there were about 190 mining plants in Russia. They were served by 44.6 thousand serf artisans and about 30 thousand civilian employees. Auxiliary work was carried out by assigned peasants (319 thousand people). The bulk of these enterprises were concentrated in the Urals.

The development of manufactories in the 30s of the 19th century coincided with the beginning of the industrial revolution in Russia. In 1835-60, the transition to the factory began in sugar beet and some other industries. In a number of industries (calico printing, stationery) the number of manufactories is declining. But in most branches of industry during this period, the growth of manufactories, mainly at the expense of capitalist ones, continued. By 1860 civilian workers in the manufactory of the manufacturing industry accounted for about 80% of the total number of workers. Forced labor prevailed in ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy.

After the Peasant Reform of 1861, forced labor was abolished in industry, including manufactories. A significant part of them grew into factories, and those that survived became of secondary importance. In the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries, manufactory existed in many industries as an appendage of the factory or as a form of organization of production brought to life by the factory (for example, weaving matting, preparing paper boxes for packaging, etc.). In industries for which a system of machines had not yet been created (felting, furrier, the production of locks, samovars, accordions, etc.), manufactory remained the highest form of organization of production. In the conditions of Russia's diversified economy, manufactory retained its independent significance in many backward and outlying regions. She disappeared only after the victory October revolution 1917.

Thus, capitalist elements appear in the Russian economy. The process of primitive accumulation of capital begins, but it goes one-sidedly.

Capitals were accumulated, first of all, from merchants in the process of non-equivalent trade, especially in tax farms. However, the second necessary side of primitive accumulation - the ruin of the peasantry and their transformation into hired workers - was not observed. The peasants remained the property of their landlords, and therefore the accumulated capital, instead of investing in capitalist production, was often used to buy land and receive the title of nobility, which again returned them to the feudal mode of production.

Thus, a characteristic feature of Russian manufacture was that it developed in the dominance of feudal-serf relations. The first manufactories developed in industries, products that were widely sold in domestic and foreign markets.

Chapter 3. Reforms of Peter the Great in the field of industrial production and their social consequences

The first quarter of the 18th century was characterized by the further development of handicrafts and manufactory production, especially in large-scale industry. However, the previous achievements of economic life were still insufficient to eliminate the technical and economic backwardness of Russia in comparison with the advanced countries of Europe - England, Holland. The implementation of the tasks of domestic and foreign policy, which contributed to the significant strengthening of Russia and its transformation into one of the largest and most powerful European powers, was carried out by Peter I.

The prehistory of the manufacturing period in the industrial development of Russia is, on the one hand, the development of the serf patrimonial industry in the Russian state of the 17th century, and on the other, handicraft and handicraft small industry.

Although we can consider the beginning of the 18th century the first facet of the manufacturing period in the industrial development of Russia, this should not be understood in the sense that Russian manufactory and the developing large-scale industry arose only at the beginning of the 18th century, were created only by Peter and, moreover, "artificially" implanted by him. , without any prior economic training. On the contrary, already in the Russian state of the second half of the 17th century, along with the dominance of the small urban handicraft industry, forms of "large" (at that time) industry were emerging. Its first rudiments originate in large patrimonial farms in the form of various industrial productions working for a wide market (the enterprises of Morozov and others) or appear in the form of foreign enterprises created mainly to meet the military and other needs of the state.

But all the same, these rudiments and peculiar forms of "large-scale" industry had not yet been laid in the 17th century. the beginning of the manufacturing period in Russian industry. This beginning should be attributed precisely to the Peter the Great transformations, since the individual elements that were already there before and which are the necessary prerequisites for the emergence of manufactory, during the time of Peter the Great, resulted in an already complete system.

A characteristic feature of Russia in the development of industrial production under Peter I was the decisive role of the state. Manufactories, state-owned and private, as we already know, existed in the country even before Peter, but his intervention sharply accelerated the process of their distribution. During the first five years of Peter's reign, 11 metallurgical plants were built, and by 1712, the newly created and expanded arms factories fully provided the army participating in the Northern War with weapons. Textile, linen, leather, glass, paper, cloth, button, hat and other manufactories were created. Sheepfolds and stud farms were established. By the end of Peter's reign in Russia, there were about 200 manufactories, of which half were private - that is, 10 times more than it was before him. The industrial region in the Urals developed successfully.

Peter I directed the development of Russian industry along the same path along which it had developed before him, that is, along the path of further preservation and expansion of serf manufactory. Since his social policy was aimed at enslaving previously free groups of the population ("walking people , "different ranks of people ), which narrowed the reserve of hired labor, Peter was forced to allow the purchase of peasants to work in manufactories. This led to the formation of a new group of serfs, called "possession . Possession manufactories began to appear.

Possession manufactories, private manufactories in Russia, based on the possessory law. The organization of session manufactories was aimed at stimulating the development of industry during the emergence of large-scale manufactory. The largest number There were possessory manufactories in the metallurgical, cloth and linen industries. In terms of socio-economic essence, session manufactories were of the same type as patrimonial manufactories. IN AND. Lenin called the cloth establishments of a possession-patrimonial character "... an example of that original phenomenon in Russian history, which consists in the application of serf labor to industry." Possession manufactories existed until the 60s. 19th century.

Entire ascribed districts of state peasants were also created to carry out various "black works (transportation of products, burning charcoal, etc.), the use of recruits and convicts was allowed. With these measures, the autocracy firmly bound the emerging bourgeoisie, causing its future reactionaryness and political inertia.

State state-owned factories used the labor of state peasants, assigned peasants assigned to the factory, recruits, and free hired craftsmen. These factories served mainly heavy industry - metallurgy, shipyards, mines. At merchant enterprises, which produced mainly consumer goods, both sessional peasants and quitrent people worked, serfs in their position, but in relation to the entrepreneur, they acted as civilian labor.

much more active in the 18th century. there was a strengthening of the domestic market, caused by the development of manufactory production.

Peter's government pursued a policy that promoted a significant accumulation of capital, promoted the development of domestic trade and protected it from the competition of Western goods. This policy, characteristic of the manufacturing period, was called developed mercantilism and protectionism.

In addition, the serf nature of manufacturing production was combined with state regulation of the entire process of industrial development, from the location of enterprises to the definition of the product range. Handicraft production in the cities was constrained by the introduction of workshops, although in Western Europe these institutions were already disappearing. All Peter's innovations in the field social policy were aimed at strengthening the existing system. The peasantry was divided into serfs and state. Slaves were also counted among the serfs. Serfdom was tightened and actually turned into slavery. Posad people were divided into merchants and artisans. The nobility underwent the most changes. All small and large groups of service people "according to the fatherland" were united in the nobility. The estates were equated with the estates, the nobles had to enter the military service from a young age and carry it for life. Their promotion was regulated by the table of ranks. The nobility was replenished with the most devoted servants of the autocracy from merchants, state peasants and soldiers, who, having risen to the appropriate rank, received first personal and then hereditary nobility. Since it was in the hands of the nobility that the main means of production - land, as well as serfs, the state apparatus and the army, was in the hands, it was the ruling class.

As a result of Peter's reforms, the foundation was laid for "serf manufactory , a peculiar form of industry adapted to the conditions of serfdom and using feudal methods of exploitation.

Thus, the large-scale industry created by Peter the Great was placed in such conditions that it could not develop otherwise than along the path of serfdom. The conditions for the development of capitalism (and therefore for the formation of the bourgeois class) were severely limited. Peter's policy towards cities and trade also greatly hampered the development of capitalist relations here.

Oddly enough, serf manufactory also had its positive aspects in terms of the successful development of industrial production. The serf manufactory had relatively low labor costs: the serf worker could not have gone to a more generous master anyway. Raw materials and fuel were cheap for the landowner-manufacturer. If, for example, the owner of a metallurgical manufactory in England had to buy ore and charcoal from the owner of the land - the landlord, then for the Ural manufacturer, the costs of raw materials and fuel were reduced only to cheap procurement costs. Therefore, Russian iron was much cheaper than English, which contributed to some extent to the development of manufactory production.

After the death of Peter I, the government continues to stimulate the development of manufactories. As a result of this assistance and patronage, industrialists-manufacturers are merging with the feudal class. On the one hand, manufacturers receive the highest titles of nobility: for example, the heirs of the blacksmith Demidov became princes, the heirs of the industrial peasants of the Stroganovs became barons. On the other hand, the noble landlords are increasingly involved in industrial entrepreneurship.

The economic and financial policies of Peter led to various results. Guided by the thought of improving the situation and expanding the scope of people's labor, Peter was placed in a difficult position: the financial interests of the country directly contradicted the economic needs of the population. Trying to raise the economic well-being of the people, Peter at the same time was forced to severely exploit their ability to pay. The military and other needs of the state demanded immediate satisfaction, immediate and intensified collections, and the economic situation of the people could be improved only by prolonged efforts. That is why Peter achieved a more tangible result in what required a quick decision - in finance; meanwhile, in the matter of economic reforms, he managed to sow only the seeds of fruitful undertakings and almost did not see their shoots, on the contrary, he felt that his financial measures sometimes even more upset the very national economy, the prosperity of which he sincerely and strongly desired.

So, the acceleration received by the Russian economy from Peter's reforms continued to be felt throughout the 18th century, and in some areas until the middle of the 19th century. Almost all branches of the manufacturing industry, handicrafts, handicrafts continued to increase production. Of course, time required the introduction of certain changes, adjustments in economic policy, etc., but in general, industry and trade were gaining momentum.

manufactory russia reform petr

Conclusion

In conclusion, I want to say that the autocratic-feudal system to a greater extent united the development of the productive forces of Russia. The new phenomena of life came into sharp conflict with outdated social forms. Attached to the land, the peasant was the property of the landowner, who could buy, sell, exchange him. The peasant did not dare to leave for the city without the permission of the master. The landowner could at any time recall his quitrent peasant from the factory and, in the same way, inflict damage on industrial production. The earnings of such a peasant to a large extent went into the pocket of the landowner in the form of dues. The entrepreneurs themselves were often serfs in the past, or remained so until the ransom, although hundreds of hired workers worked at their enterprises. The factories of such peasant entrepreneurs sometimes remained the property of the landowner even after the peasant's personal liberation from serfdom.

All this led to the fact that, despite the rapid growth of manufactory production, the industry of Russia was in the pen for a long time. In the middle of the 18th century, unlike the advanced countries of Europe, industry and trade had not yet become the main occupation of the townspeople. The share of merchants and artisans accounted for only 40% of their total number. In the entire population of the country, the peasantry prevailed - 82.5%, the urban estates accounted for 4.5%. Russia still remained a purely agrarian country.

Of course, feudal manufacture cannot be considered entirely a feudal form of production. The owner of such an enterprise invested a certain capital in it and received income in the form of profit, and not feudal rent. He paid for the work of a serf, who could not simultaneously work in a factory to conduct subsistence farming. But the capitalist content of Russian manufactories was dressed in a feudal-serf form, and feudal and capitalist elements were intertwined in production relations.

Bibliography

1. Klyuchevsky V.O. Full course of lectures on national history. M., 2013

Polyansky F.Ya., The economic structure of manufactory in Russia in the 18th century, M., 2006

Smetanin S.I. Economic history of Russia. M., 1990

Tugan-Baranovsky M.I., Russian factory in the past and present M., 2008

Shmurlo E. History of Russia (862-1917) - M .: Agraf, 1997

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Cities remained the main centers of handicrafts, trade and large-scale production in the Urals. In the 17th century from major cities only Kungur appears in the Urals. It had a wooden kremlin, which housed churches and a command hut. On three sides it adjoined the settlement, protected from the south by two earthen ramparts. There was a streltsy garrison in the city. Kungur arose as a military-administrative center of the new black-sosh county, but quickly turned into a major center of trade, crafts and small-scale production. For the second half of the XVII century. its population doubled, and in terms of numbers it caught up, and at the beginning of the 18th century, and overtook the old urban centers. In the 17th century the development of Cherdyn slowed down and revived again at the end of the century in connection with the development of the transit route to the Pechora. Salt production in Solikamsk grew rapidly, and it became a major center of trade and crafts. As the salt brines were depleted, the Stroganov townships gradually lost their significance as urban centers, turning into rural settlements. Verkhoturye developed slowly. The growth of handicrafts and trade was held back here by the lack of minerals in the vicinity of the city, as well as regulation and extortion from the growing administrative apparatus. In the 17th century there was a process of development of fishing and peasant settlements into urban-type settlements. Since 1606, the main part of the population of the Stroganov settlement Novoye Usolye was busy servicing salt pans. In 1647 there were 10 operating breweries here. In the settlement, a craft also developed, serving the craft, part of the inhabitants were engaged in the sale of food, peasant shops and barns appeared in it. Sloboda turned into an urban-type settlement due to the development primarily of an economic function, although it also had administrative significance (the Stroganov clerk lived in it) and became the religious center of the district. The palace Novonikolskaya (Osinskaya) settlement developed in a peculiar way. In the 17th century more than half of its population were service people. Blacksmithing and leather crafts began to take shape in it, trading establishments appeared. In the XVIII century. This trade and craft rural settlement turned into an urban-type settlement. Fortified peasant settlements in the forest-steppe Trans-Urals, such as Shadrinskaya, Kamyshlovskaya, Irbitskaya, and others, found themselves in conditions similar to Osinskaya Sloboda. turned into centers of trade and crafts and grew into cities. In a number of branches of craft in the 17th century. there was a transition from working for the customer to working for the market, i.e. e. the transition to petty commodity production. There were more than 70 handicraft specialties in the cities. Metallurgy and metalworking developed rapidly. Most of the forges were located in Solikamsk (23). They were based on personal labor or family cooperation and worked for the needs of salt production and the local market, in particular, they made agricultural implements for the village. Most of the forges were owned by one owner, and only F. A. Eretin in 1624 owned two forges, four Bragin brothers - three, three Shestakov brothers - two 23. In the Trans-Urals, most blacksmiths were state artisans, received a salary (2 rubles. money, 3 quarters of rye and a quarter of oats a year) 24. Serving people used family or warehouse cooperation in the craft, and sometimes hired labor. In 1669, the Verkhoturye archer V. Makarov with three brothers and five sons “do the boiler business”, and for another archer, S. Nikitin, in addition to two sons, two walking working people worked in the forge” 25. “ The best people"Posadas had iron ore mining in the counties and subjugated ore smelters and blacksmiths, hiring "urgent working people", supplying bloomery iron to Kazan, to the Irbit Fair. According to the degree of specialization, among the urban crafts, the first place was taken by the manufacture of shoes and clothing (18 professions), the production food products , processing of agricultural raw materials (17) and wood processing (16). In terms of the number of artisans, the large cities of the Urals surpassed many Siberian cities, but were inferior to such craft centers of Pomorye as Veliky Ustyug, including in terms of the degree of specialization. There were 137 artisans in Kungur, 196 in Verkhoturye, and 95 in Solikamsk. the Ural cities and districts became markets for the handicraft products of the developed handicraft centers of Pomorie, and those, in turn, became consumers of raw materials that came from the Urals for processing. There was competition between imported handicrafts and those of local craftsmen in the Ural markets (31, pp. 129-141). Craft is also developing in the Ural village. The number of professions of rural artisans in the Urals in the 17th century. grows to 40. Most of them in the Urals have already become plowless, and in the Trans-Urals they still combined crafts with agriculture. Craftsmen usually lived in large settlements. In 1669, in the Nevyansk Sloboda, in addition to state-owned, 24 more artisans lived. Some professions of rural crafts were not found in the city (miners, tar, mat-workers, gratings, bast-workers, etc.). The main types of craft in the village were metallurgy and metalworking. In 1623, in the Stroganov settlement of Sludka, in two forges, peasants made bloomery iron from local swamp ore. The profession of a blacksmith was combined with the extraction of ore and metal. In 1624, the blacksmith of the churchyard of Saltanovo, Cherdyn district, P. Grigoriev, set up a smithy and a house next to the yard. Usually blacksmiths worked together with their sons. Occasionally hired labor was used. So, M. K. Remezov in the Nevyansk settlement, in addition to his son, kept in the forge a hired walking man S. Nazarov. Village blacksmiths made for the market and by order of the peasants and the treasury agricultural implements, police officers and prons for varnitsa for cash payment. The Kungur district became the center of peasant blacksmithing, in which at the end of the 17th century. more than 45 artisans worked. In the 17th century in the countryside, the number of artisans engaged in woodworking, river shipbuilding and the forestry industry is increasing. Folding artels of carpenters in the Nevyansk and Nitsinsk settlements "set barns for hire." Cherdynsky district becomes a major center of river shipbuilding. The ships were built by artels for free hire on the basis of a contract with cash payment. Contractors recruited specialists for individual operations in the manufacture of ships, apprentices and auxiliary workers. The work was carried out by order of the treasury or individual entrepreneurs. Contract sizes were sometimes quite significant. So, in 1697, an artel of eight people, headed by a peasant of the Solikamsk district, G. Mogarov, undertook to make eight large boats for the amount of 1,770 rubles. and almost half of it received in the form of an advance. For the treasury, peasant family artels of “lode masters” of Verkhotursky district 31 worked for the treasury. In Solikamsk and Cherdynsky districts, contracts were concluded for the preparation of firewood for varnits and timber. The state was the largest customer. In 1697, an artel of peasants from the Solikamsk district, headed by M. Kretikov, received a contract for the state salt mine at Zyryanka for 41,800 sazhens of firewood for 6,420 rubles. in addition to sons and grandchildren, a hired walking man worked at the sheepskin of the Nevyansk settlement S. Yemelyanov, just like the shoemaker O. Gavrilov. At the end of the XVII century. Kungur district became a major center of leather production. Peasants produced a significant part of the products for the market. Small producers were subordinated to buyers, who organized production according to the type of dispersed manufactory. The Cherdyn peasants made grindstones and bars, which were sold in large quantities on the Ustyug market 33. The transformation of handicrafts into small-scale production testified to the social stratification of the peasantry. However, the level of rural craft as a whole was still low. It did not satisfy the needs of local markets and could not compete with the products of urban crafts. In the 17th century regular searches for ores and other minerals begin in the Urals. In 1617, the Stroganov serf Yakov Litvinov discovered deposits of cuprous sandstones on the Yaiva and Kama rivers near the village of Grigorovo. Later, the Pyskorsky copper smelter appeared here. In 1628, a blacksmith of the Nevyansk prison found at the confluence of the river. Nitsa in the river. Neivu deposits of marsh iron ore, which was later used at the Nitsa ironworks. In 1663, another deposit of copper ore in the northern part of the Verkhotursky district near Lake. Vargan was discovered by archers I. Blinov, I. Kharitonov, T. Ivanov, M. Kopyshov and mine explorer M. Tokarev. In the 17th century the Bogoslovsky plant worked on this ore. Several ore deposits in different parts of the Urals were explored by the miner D. A. Tumashev. He also found deposits of mica, building stone and precious stones in different districts of the Urals. In the 17th century begins the development of small-scale production into simple cooperation and manufacture. Simple cooperation appears in three forms: enterprises headed by entrepreneurs, exploiting the labor of hired workers, supplying products to the market; warehousing cooperation, uniting several small commodity producers, and an artel at a state-owned enterprise, which does not give products to the market. The first type of cooperation was, for example, a small enterprise of the peasant I. Nemtin, who hired workers for coal mining and charcoal burning and traded in iron own production. In Orel-gorodok, a large pottery workshop was excavated, which produced dishes, toys, tiles, bricks, and tiles. It united several craftsmen, Russians and Komi-Permyaks, who supplied products not only to the Stroganovs and the treasury, but also to the market - cooperation of the second type. The third type of cooperatives were hired artels who received wages from the treasury and carried out, on its order, searches and experimental development of minerals. In 1663, an expedition to search for silver ore was working in the Verkhotursk district, which included several "workers of Cherdyns, hired people." In 1693, 100 working people were employed in the mines of the clerk of the clerk's chamber Y. Lapin for the extraction of mica for delivery to the treasury. In the 17th century major construction work begins in the Urals. In 1698, the artel of brick-makers of the Moscow pottery settlement of 23 people, headed by T. Gusev, took a government contract for the construction of stone buildings in Verkhoturye. Wages were paid in cash in kind. The builders received a cash advance, and the rest was to be received monthly and daily, depending on the quality of work. T. Gusev was not only a contractor, but also the author of the project for a large stone structure in Verkhoturye - the Trinity Cathedral. He founded the school of Verkhoturye masons. The construction of stone buildings in cities caused the development brick production . The professions of masons, brick-makers, and tilers appeared. In the 17th century there are the first-born of the Ural metallurgical industry - small peasant "factories". The remains of such a small iron-working industry were found during excavations near Stary Kungur on the river. Ireni on the western slope of the Urals and along the rivers Neiva and Nitsa on its eastern slope, where there was a whole settlement of metallurgists - Rudnaya Sloboda (now the village of Rudnoye), whose inhabitants have long been digging ore and smelting iron in small houses - raw furnaces. In 1630 on the river. The first domnitsa was laid down in Nice, and in 1631 the first state-owned ironworks began its work. It had four small houses, in which iron was mined in a raw way, several forges and barns. The plant used forced labor of 16 peasant families resettled in the village. They were exempted from taxes and received 5 rubles. salary per year, subject to the completion of the "lesson" of 400 pounds of iron. However, even the relatively high wages did not satisfy the workers, and they fled. The government forcibly drove "walking people" to the "iron case". Such one-time mobilizations covered many dozens of people. The plant has existed for over half a century. In 1669, the ascribed peasants of the Nitsinskaya settlement worked as "ore business peasants" in the extraction of ore. The Nitsinsk plant was a small manufactory and handed over finished products to the treasury. In 1634, the Pyskorsky state-owned copper-smelting plant, the first in Russia, was founded. It used a more advanced technique than in peasant metallurgy: it was water-operated. Its construction was carried out by peasants for free hire. Qualified personnel were invited from Moscow and other cities. A Russian specialist was at the head of the plant, and foreign craftsmen came for consultation. In 1640, the plant was moved to a more convenient place - down the Kama on the river. Kamgorka (Pyskorka), where a dam, a mill, a smelter and other structures were built. The work was led by smelters who received high salaries. Among them was Alexander Tumashev, one of the discoverers of copper ores. The plant smelted up to 600 pounds of copper per year. In the late 1940s, it closed due to the depletion of ores and a fire that destroyed the factory buildings. In 1669 on the river. Neive, the Tumashev brothers founded a new plant, which produced about 1,200 pounds of iron per year. It was handed over to the treasury, but the main part went to the local market. In addition to iron, agricultural tools (coulters) were produced, which were sold to the peasants. The plant had a house with three hearths and a forge. He worked only on the hired labor of the peasants of the Verkhoturye district and "walking people." In 1671, 23 people worked here. In 1680 the plant was closed. The Tumashevs were representatives of the emerging Russian industrial bourgeoisie. The master of the state-owned factory became a private breeder. In 1640, on the right bank of the river. Vishera in the Cherdyn district, near the marsh ores, a state-owned Krasnoborsk ironworks arose, working on primitive technology - one house with two furnaces. There was a small village nearby. Peasants from the Cherdyn district worked at the plant. Due to the depletion of ores, the plant also soon closed. In 1682, in the Verkhotursk district, on the Zheleznyanka river, at its confluence with the Iset, the iron industry of the Dalmatov Monastery arose. Here, the peasants have long mined iron in a blooming way. During the excavations, a domnitsa, four furnaces and other buildings were found. For the season received up to 300 pounds of iron. The monastery peasants worked, and the products went to the needs of the monastery. The first Ural factories were state-owned or patrimonial enterprises, they were a transitional form from simple cooperation to manufactory. In their construction, production and auxiliary work, peasants worked, becoming working people for hire or coercion. Part of the peasants did not break with agriculture, they had arable land and hayfields near the factories. The largest production on an all-Russian scale was the salt industry of Kamskaya Salt. At the end of the XVII century. more than 200 breweries worked here and up to 7 million poods of salt were boiled annually. The salt industry was a complex industry with a significant division of labor (up to 30 individual specialties of workers). Salt cooking required skill based on the experience of many generations of salt workers. The workforce in the salt industry was formed from the impoverished population of the Kama Salt, as well as people from Cherdyn and more remote counties of Northern Pomerania. By the end of the XVII century. the number of working people in the salt mines reached 4 thousand people, mostly they were hired black-eared and privately owned peasants. The Stroganovs were dominated by the forced labor of serfs. The working and living conditions of working people in the salt works were difficult, harmful gases were released during salt cooking, burns and injuries were frequent. In the 17th century there is a concentration of crafts in the hands of two townsmen families: the Surovtsevs and the Rostovshchikovs. Together with the Ksenofontov family, as a result of intense competition, they forced out all newcomers trading people. At the end of the century, G. D. Stroganov, who owned 162 salt pans, concentrated the bulk of the salt industries in his hands. Novoye Usolye and Chusovskie towns became the centers of the Stroganov salt-making. Treasury received significant income from salt works. State Zyryansky craft in the second half of the 17th century. consisted of 36 breweries and boiled annually about 1 million pounds of salt. In 1697, it passed into the hands of G. D. Stroganov, who became a monopolist in the production and sale of salt. The salt industry was at the stage of manufactory production with a far-reaching division of labor, and had permanent strong ties with a broad market. Here, mixed forms of labor were used - serfs and civilians. In the 17th century in the Urals, as well as throughout the country, there is an increase in market relations, more and more industrial and agricultural products are drawn into the trade turnover. Stable ties between local markets lead to the formation of stable prices for network economy products. At first, the government did not interfere in pricing, allowing trading "freely ... as the price rises." In 1622, a ban was introduced on buying bread at a cheap price for resale and a specified price was set at 1 ruble. for a five-pound quarter of rye. In the middle of the XVII century. forced purchase prices for bread for the treasury were introduced. However, the peasants refused to sell bread at these prices. They fought for the right to sell "at a free" price, which in the local markets was higher than the official one. In the second half of the XVII century. there was a difference in prices in grain-producing and grain-consuming counties. In Kungur district, a quarter of rye cost half as much as in Solikamsk district. Buyers played a leading role in trade. They bought bread from peasant farms and took it in large quantities to the market, outside their county, while the peasants sold bread only at the local market. The Kungur district took a prominent place in the system of the all-Russian market. Its agricultural products were exported to many regions of Siberia, Pomorye and the Volga region. Kungur skins were sent to the largest leather centers of the country - Yaroslavl and Kazan. In the 17th century there are auctions in villages and settlements. Bread, cattle, livestock products and hay were traded by the peasants of the Pyshminskaya, Nitsinskaya, Aramashevskaya and other settlements of the Trans-Urals. In the middle of the XVII century. peasants accounted for 3/4 of all merchants in the settlements of the Verkhoturye district. For some of them, trading has become a profession. In 1621, three peasant families were constantly trading with the Vogulichi, the annual turnover of which ranged from 30 to 100 rubles. In 1669, two brothers in the Podgornaya Sloboda had the nickname Merchants and "fed ... around the bazaar by the embassies." Most of all bread, working and dairy cattle, fish and furs were sold in the Irbit settlement. In 1643, the permanent Irbit Fair appeared in it, where Siberian furs were exchanged for Russian and foreign goods. At this fair, not only merchants and buyers of the Ural districts traded, but also large merchants from the Volga region and the center of the Russian state. Ural furs constantly entered the markets of the northern settlements of Pomorye. In 1636, F. Moskva, a Solikamsk man, brought 13,000 squirrels to Ustyug. In 1655, fish was brought from the Pomeranian cities to the cities of the Kama region. Cherdynets A. Semyonov bought in Solvychegodsk 6 pounds of salted halibut and a pound of cod fat. Not only free peasants were engaged in trade, but also Stroganov's serfs. At the end of the XVII century. in the Cherdyn customs, more than 10 appearances of Stroganovo peasants were noted, who brought goods for sale from the Makaryevskaya fair. The importance of the salt market of the Kama Salt has increased. In the 20s of the XVII century. customs duties on salt amounted to about 900 rubles. per year, and in the 80s rose to 7470 rubles. Nizhny Novgorod was a transshipment center, from where Permian salt went to the Upper Volga and Oka cities. Salt was traded by the Stroganovs, large merchants G. Nikitnikov, N. Sveteshnikov and others, local merchants of the living room hundred S. Eliseev, F. Surovtsev, A. Rostovshchikov. Guests A. Kirillov and G. Shustov were selling their salt in Kaluga. Cities were the main centers of trade. Various trading establishments were concentrated in them: shops, counters, shelves, barns, taverns. In the first quarter of the XVII century. in Solikamsk there were 69 such establishments, in Cherdyn - 32, in Verkhoturye - 13. Peasants were drawn into the city trade. In the second half of the XVII century. the importance of Kungur, which had 32 trading establishments, increased. Here they traded Vyatka spoons and sieves, Pechora sharpeners, Moscow Muscovite goods, Nizhny Novgorod fabrics, oriental silks and morocco imported from Astrakhan. Cherdyns monopolized trade with the Pechora region. In Solikamsk at the beginning of the 18th century. there were already 138 trading establishments. 36 out-of-town trading people lived here. In the customs books of Ustyug, Salt Vychegodskaya and Totma for 30 years (1650-1679), 118 appearances of residents of the Ural settlements were recorded. The customs books of the Verkhoturye uyezd also recorded numerous appearances of merchants from the Kama and Pomor settlements, the cities of the Volga region and the center of the state. Trade in local markets with non-Russian population is increasing, including iron products of Russian crafts and bread. The development of trade led to the growth of water and horse-drawn transport. Every year, salt caravans went along the Kama to the Volga. Thousands of hired laborers were employed on them: pilots, water pourers and "yaryzhek" loaders and barge haulers. Pyskorsky monastery bought rowboats, sledges, carts in local markets, on which the monastery peasants transported the purchased goods. Merchants hired peasants and townspeople to carry horses along the busy route from Solikamsk to Verkhoturye. In the 17th century there were preconditions for the transformation of the Urals into a major mining center of the country. Agriculture not only provided local population cheap foodstuffs, but also gave them an excess sufficient to supply the non-agricultural population of factories, which ensured low labor costs and promised great benefits to entrepreneurs. The peasants produced raw materials for processing at small-scale enterprises and manufactories. Local markets for manufactured goods have emerged. In the 17th century there were already cadres of people with technical experience in metallurgy, salt production and other types of production. They could be used in the construction of large factories and the organization of work on them. At state-owned metallurgical enterprises in the 17th century. there has been a trend towards the use of forced labor in the form of registration, which was later widely developed. There was an experience of private entrepreneurship in metallurgy. At peasant, private and state-owned enterprises, the technical level of production in metallurgy was still low. The hot-melt (raw-drum) method of obtaining iron with manual labor in metal processing prevailed, the copper foundry of the Pyskorsky plant using water-acting mechanisms, using the labor of skilled craftsmen, was more advanced and specialized. The highest technical level has been achieved in salt production. Creation of the firstborn of the Ural mining industry in the XVII century. served as a prerequisite for the transformation of the Urals in the XVIII century. in the main industrial area in Russia.