"The woman is created for a man, not a man for a woman" - such a postulate ...
We continue to print "the concept of a new educational and methodological complex for domestic history"From Russian historical society. Fourth section - " Russian empire In the XIX-early XX centuries, "is focused on the pupils of the ninth grade.
The nineteenth century was the time of social, legal, intellectual, institutional, economic restructuring of the entire European space. The corresponding changes were rapidly occurring in Russia. After the victory in the Patriotic War of 1812, Russia finally became the leading player in the European arena.
Government policy was the most important factor in the acceleration of economic development. Gradually, the process of destruction of the personality was happening, the class boundaries were "blurred", including with the assistance of power. However, the current government was not fundamentally ready for full-scale political reform. The preservation of the archaic texture system, the authoritarian model of control slowed down the socio-economic and military-technical development of the country, led to its lag from direct competitors and ended up the cause of defeat in the Crimean War.
Unresolved problems They led to the awareness of the need for large-scale reforms (the abolition of serfdom, Zemskaya, urban, judicial, military reforms, education reform). They also provoked the radical circles of the public to develop alternative paths of development of Russia, which implied "dismantling" revolutionary through the historically established system of relations.
It is important to avoid the concentration of attention exclusively on activities state power Or at the confrontation of it and "society". The fate of reforms largely depended on the daily interaction of the state with public forces. An example of such interaction and consequence of the incompleteness of the previous transformations became Stolypin reforms.
The main processes of Russia's history unfolded against the background of the socio-political struggle, the activity of mass and national movements, sharpened during the crises, including international (Russian-Japanese war, the first Russian revolution, the first world War), partly the resulting revolutionary shocks of 1917.
In the illumination of the history of Russia XIX-early XX centuries. special attention It is planned to pay a person, his everyday practices, labor culture and consumption, legal and political culture. It is necessary to illuminate new trends in the culture of various social strata, residents of the city and village, center and various regions of the country. Under the "culture" is understood not only "high" culture (science, literature and art), but also the sphere of everyday life, as well as the "mass culture", the emergence of which was in Russia (as in other countries), one of the most important aspects of the modernization process.
In accordance with the general theoretical foundations of the standard, it is important to show a balanced to the national and confessional policy of the state, avoiding stereotypes (exploitation of the colonies as colonies, on the one hand, and complete harmony of the interests of the center and the outskirts - on the other). Reality left a place and confrontation, and cooperation of national elites.
World of the Russian Empire in the XIX century
Epoch 1812
Projects of liberal reforms of Alexander I. External and internal factors. MM Speransky. Patriotic War of 1812 - the most important event Russian and world xIX history in. Foreign hiking of the Russian army. Increasing the role of Russia in the world after the victory over Napoleon and the Vienna Congress. Liberal and protective trends. Union of salvation, union of prosperity, northern and southern societies: their program and tactics. The first experience of an open public speech: the Decembrist uprising on December 14, 1825. Causes of defeat.
Political regime Under Nicolae I: State Conservatism
Registration of official ideology. Uvrovsky Triad. The problem of the relation "Russian" and European began. State regulation of public life: police footwear, administrative reforms, Codifications of laws. Formation of a professional bureaucracy. Enlightened bureaucracy: at the origins of a liberal reformation. Russia and the "Holy Union". Russian-Iranian and Russian-Turkish war. Eastern question. Disintegration of the Vienna system in Europe. Crimean War. Defense of Sevastopol. Paris Congress.
Transformations Alexander II: liberal measures and strong power
Cancellation of serfdom and great reforms of the 1860-1870s: the beginning of the formation of civil society and its structures. Liberal and conservative policy and experience of the West. The main trends of the flame economic development. Railway construction: Strengthening the unity of the Empire. "Dictatorship of the heart": Politics M.T. Loris Melikova.
Multi-vector Empire Policy. Main spheres and directions of geopolitical interests. Russian-Turkish war, the liberation of Bulgaria. Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. Strengthening the status of the Great Power.
Alexander III autocracy
The ideology of the original development of Russia. Reforms and "counter doors". Conservative stabilization policy. Modernization and "catching development". Forced industry development. Financial policy. The increase in the imbalances of economic development.
Local self-government and autocracy: interaction and confrontation. Independence of the court and the royal administration.
Cultural space of the Russian Empire in the XIX century.
National roots of domestic culture and Western influences. The main styles in artistic culture: romanticism, classicism, realism. The golden age of Russian literature. Formation of the Russian music school. Music flowering and theater. Painting: classicism, romanticism, realism. Movements. Architecture: Russian ampir, classicism. Increasing the role of art in public life. Place in world culture XIX century.
Development of science and technology. Geographical expeditions (opening Antarctica). Schools and universities. The rights of universities and the power of the trustees. The formation of national scientific schools and their contribution to world scientific knowledge.
Literature and press. The role of a printed word in the formation of public opinion. Printing and censorship. Structures of everyday life. Folk culture.
Imperial society. Village and city
Rural world - the foundation of the empire
Traditions and innovations in the life of the village. The consequences of the peasant reform of 1861. Community land tenure. Peasant and landowner economy. Cooking "noble nests." Social types Peasants and landowners. Nobleman-entrepreneurs.
City and its inhabitants: Urbanization processes
Moscow and Petersburg: dispute of two capitals. Old and new cities. Industrial, commercial and administrative (provincial and county) centers. The influence of urbanization on traditional cultures of the peoples of the country. The originality of the urban landscape. Typology of citizens. Clauds and new social groups.
Man and Society: Formation of Civil Consciousness
Castly privileges and duty. Overlooking class borders. Western education and an educated minority: the crisis of traditional worldview. Evolution of noble opposition. Formation of generation of enlightened people: from freedom for few to freedom for all.
Main flow of social thought
Western and Slavic movie. "The Ruisers of the Dum" and "New People": the formation of ideology and ethics of the left radicalism. Popolis and Social Democrats. "Reaction" and conservatism: attempts to dress up. Poreless liberalism. Zemskaya "Fron", underground, emigration: forms of political opposition. Intelligentsia and its characteristics. Public movement, civil initiatives and formation of public policy.
Ethnocultural appearance of the Empire
The space of the empire. Peoples of Russia
Expanding government borders in the XIX century. Features of administrative management in the regions. Attachment Finland. Creation of the kingdom of Polish. Polish uprisings (1830-1831, 1863). Accession of Georgia and Transcaucasia. Caucasian War. Accession Central Asia. Main regions of the country (European North, Volga region, Ural, Siberia and the Far East, Caucasus, Central Asia). The role of national regions in the life of the Empire. The interaction of national cultures and peoples.
National Religious Features
The Russian Empire is a polyethnic and multi-condation state. Orthodox Church and main confessions (Islam, Judaism, Buddhism). National policies and fate of the peoples of Russia.
Empire crisis at the beginning of the twentieth century
Dynamics and contradictions of national development
The economic growth. New geography of the economy. Urbanization and appearance of cities. Domestic and foreign capital, its role in the industrialization of the country. Russia is the global exporter of bread. Agrarian question.
Demographics, social stratification. Decomposition of class structures. Formation of new social strata. Bourgeoisie. Workers: Social characteristics and struggle for rights. Medium urban layers. Intelligentsia. Types of rural land tenure and economy. Landowners and peasants. Shifts in the peasant consciousness and psychology.
Imperial Center and National Regions. Ethnic elites and national-cultural movements. National Party and Fractions in the State Duma. Orthodox Church and traditional Religions of Russia in the conditions of a changing society.
Russia in the system international relations. Politics in the Far East. Russian-Japanese war of 1904-1905.
The first Russian revolution. Start of parliamentarism
The struggle of professional revolutionaries with state structures. Political terrorism. Forms of social protests in Russia late XIX-early XX century.
Start first russian revolution. "Bloody Sunday." Performances of workers, peasants, middle urban layers, soldiers and sailors. "Boyloginsky constitution". All-Russian October political strike. Manifesto 17 October 1905.
Formation multi-party system. Political parties and mass movements. Governance games in the fight against the revolution. Liberal parties. Left parties and organizations. National Party. Tips and trade unions. December armed uprising.
Electoral law on December 11, 1905. Election campaign in the State State Duma. The main state laws on April 23, 1906. Activities I and II of the State Duma: Results and lessons.
Society and power after the revolution
Revolution Lessons: Political Stabilization and Social Transformations. P.A.Stolapin: System Reform Program, Scale and Results. Nicholas II and his environment. The incompleteness of transformations and increasing social contradictions. III and IV. The State Duma. Idean-political spectrum. Public and social lift.
"Silver Age" of Russian Culture
New phenomena in fiction and art. Worldview values \u200b\u200band lifestyle. Poetry of the beginning of the XX century. Painting. "World of Art". Architecture. Sculpture. Drama Theater: Traditions and innovation. Music. "Russian seasons" in Paris. The origin of Russian cinema.
The discovery of Russian scientists. Achievements humanitarian Sciences. Formation of the Russian philosophical school. The contribution of Russia began XX century. to world culture.
Education and science. Education and enlightenment: an attempt to overcome the gap between the educated society and the masses.
Concepts and terms:
Modernization, industrialization, urbanization, autocracy, bureaucracy, Slavophilism, Western, theory of official nationality, population, nihilism, liberalism, conservatism, socialism, radicalism, anarchism, marxism, nationalism, nation, multiparty, constitutionalism, parliamentarism, revolution, classicism, ampir, Romanticism, symbolism.
Personalia:
Emperors: Alexander I, Nikolai I, Alexander II, Alexander III, Nicholas II.
State and military figures: M.M.Stransky, A.A.Arakcheev, M.I. Kutuzov, M.B. Barklay de Tolly, P.I. Bagrition, S.S. Yuvarov, A.K. Benkendorf, P.D. Kiselev, V.A. Kornilov, P.S.Nakhimov, Vel.Kn. Konstantin Nikolaevich, N.A. Milutin, D.A. Miliktutin, M.T.Loris-Melikov, P.A.Valuyev, M.D. Scobel, K.P.Pobedonossev, S.Yu.Vitte, V.K. . Leve, P.A.Stolıpin, S.O. Makarov.
Public figures: P.I. Testor, K.F. Yelelev, N.M.Muraviev, P.Ya. Schadaev, A.S. Leakov, I.S. Sksakov, K.S.Ksakov, I.V. Kireevsky, N. Ya.Danilevsky, A.I.Grenz, P.L. Lavrov, P.N. Tkachev, M.A. Bakunin, S.L.Perovskaya, B.N. Chicherin, K.D. Kowelin, M.N. Katkov, K.N. Leontyev, G.V. Plekhanov, V.I. Zasulich, G.A.Gapon, V.M.Purishkevich, V.V. Shulgin, P.N. Mimilyukov, P. B.struv A.I.Guckov, M.V. Urzianko, V.M. Chernov, B.V. Savinkov, Yu.O. Martov, V.I. Lenin.
Cultural figures: G.R. Derzhavin, V.A. Zhukovsky, I.A. Krylov, E.A. Bratsky, A.S. Pushkin, M. Yu. Lermontov, V.G. Belinsky, N.V.Gogol, I.S.Turgenev, I.A. Throtharov, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, L.N. Tolstoy, F.M.Dostoevsky, N.G. Chernyshevsky, N.A.Nekrasov, F.I. Tyutchev, A.A.Fet, A.P.chekhov, I.A. Bunin, D.S. Melezhkovsky, A.A. Block, O.E.Madelshtam, M.I.TSvetaeva, V.V. Majakovsky, V.S. Solviev, S.N. Bulgakov, N.A. Bardyaev, K.I. SROSI, A.N.Voronichin, K.A.Ton, F. A.Shettel, K.P. Brulylov, I.N. Kramskaya, O.A. Kiprensky, V. A. Tropinin, V.G. Monov, I.E. Pepin, V.M.vasnetsov, V.A. Serov, M.A.Vrubel, M.I. Glinka, A. S. Dargomyzhsky, N.G.Rubinshtein, P.I. Tchaikovsky, M.P. Musorovsky, N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov, S.V. Rachmaninov, A.N.Skryabin, F.I.Shalyapin, S.P. Dyagilev, M. Veipa, Seraphim Sarovsky, Metropolitan Filaret (Drozdov), Metropolitan Macarium (Bulgakov), Ambrose Optina.
Science figures: N.M. Karamzin, N.I.Lobachevsky, D.I. Mendeleev, N.N.zinin, N.D. Zelinsky, P.N. Yablokkov, A.N.Lodigin, A.S. Popov, N.Ipirogov, I.I.Mechnikov, I.P. Pavlov, P.N. Lebedev, I.M. Schechenov, K.A.Timiryazev, M.M. Kovalevsky, T.N.Granovsky, M.P. Podogodin, S.M.Solviev, V.O. Klechevsky, A.A.Shakhmatov, N.P. Pavlov-Silvansky, L.P. Carsawin.
Industrialists and patrons: P.M. and S.M. Tretyakov, pp and V.P. Ryabushinsky, S.I. Mamontov, Morozovy Dynasty, S.I. Bichkin, A.A. Bahrushin.
Travelers: I.F. Trruzenshtern, F.F. Bellinghausen, Yu.F. Lisyansky, M.P.Lazarev, G.I.nevela, N.M. Przhevalsky.
Events / dates:
1801-1825 years - The Board of Alexander I
1811 year - the establishment of the Tsarskostsky Lyceum
1812. - Bucharest World with Ottoman Empire
1813-1814 years - Foreign hikes of the Russian army
1815 year - Vienna Congress
1817-1864 - War in the North Caucasus
1821 year - Education of the Northern and South Societies
1824. - Opening of the Small Theater in Moscow
1825 year - Opening of the Bolshoi Theater in Moscow
1825-1855 years - The Board of Nicholas I
1826 year - Opening of non-child geometry N.I.Lobachevsky
1828 year - Turkmannya world with percia
1829 year - Adrianopol world with the Ottoman Empire
1837-1841 - Reform of management of state peasants P.D.Kislev
1853-1856 years - Crimean War
1856 year - Paris Treaty
February 19, 1861 - Edition of the manifesto on the liberation of peasants and "Regulations on the peasants who came out of serfdom"
1862 year - Institution of the St. Petersburg Conservatory
1863-1864 - uprising in Poland
1864 year - Judicial Reform
1864 year - Zemskoy reform
1866 year - Institution of the Moscow Conservatory
1869 year - Opening of the Periodic Law chemical elements D.I. Ielaveyev
1870 - The emergence of the "Partnership of Mobile Art Exhibitions"
1870 - City reform
1877-1878 years - Russian-Turkish war
1878 year - Berlin Congress
1881-1894 - The Board of Alexander III
1881 year - edition of the "Regulations on measures to guard state order and public peace
1884 year - publication of a new university charter
1890 year - publication of the new Zemsky
1891-1892 years - Hunger in Russia
1892 year - Creating a Tretyakov Gallery
1894 year - Conclusion of the Union with France
1894-1917 - The Board of Nicholas II
1897 year - Introduction of the Golden Ruble
1898 - Education of the Moscow Art Theater
1904-1905 years - russian-Japanese war
August 6, 1905 - Manifesto on the establishment of the Law of the State Duma
October 17, 1905 - The Highest Manifesto on Giving Freedomies and the Institution of the State Duma
February 20 - June 3, 1907 - Activities of the State Duma and the publication of electoral law June 3, 1907
1907 year - The final design of the Entente
1907-1912 - work III of the State Duma
1912-1917 - work of the IV State Duma
At the beginning of the XIX century. The initiator of broad transformations in the field of state power and social relations was made by Emperor Alexander I (1801-1825). Characteristic feature His reign was the struggle of two currents: the liberal and conservative, the availing of the emperor between them. After joining the throne, Alexander canceled restrictions on the import and export of goods and books, a trip abroad, confirmed the humble diploma to the nobility, restored the relationship with England, returned from the link and removed Opal from all officers and officials affected by Paul.
To discuss state issues in 1801, at the emperor, an indispensable council was formed - the deliberative body of 12 people at the same time under Alexander I there is a unlawful committee - a circle of young friends of the king, which included P.Shokanov, N. Novosil residents, V.Kochekay, A. Chartorsky. They discussed the issues of reforming Russia, the abolition of serfdom, the Constitution.
In 1803, a decree "On Free Bakery" was issued. In accordance with it, the landowners could be released on the will of the fortress peasants with the land for the ransom. Decrees 1804-1805 Restricted serfdom in the Baltic States. Forbidden to sell peasants without land.
In 1803, a new position appeared "On Device educational institutions"Over the years of the reign of Alexander, 5 new universities were opened. University charter 1804 secured the autonomy of universities.
The manifesto 1802 instead of the college was established by 8 ministries. In 1808-1812 Preparation of projects of reorganization state system The control was focused on the Ministry of the Interior and went under the leadership of M.M. Speransky. In 1809, he presented the reform project "Introduction to the deposit of state laws". The project provided for the separation of the authorities. The highest legislative authority was announced by the State Duma, which led the network of volost, district and provincial dooms. The highest executive authority possessed the emperor, in which the State Council was established as a deliberative body. The Senate turned into a senior judicial authority.
In 1810, the State Council was established - the law-based body. In 1810, developed by the Speransky "General Establishment of Ministries", which determined the composition, the limit of power and responsibility of ministries.
The hatred of the courtiers and officials caused by the Speransky Decree of 1809, according to which all the persons who had court chin should have chosen any real service, i.e. The court chin turned only to the honorary title, lost the status of the position. Speransky also carried out a number of measures aimed at improving finance. In 1812, Speransky was fired from civil service and exiled to Nizhny Novgorod, and then to Perm.
Foreign policy Russia at the beginning of the XIX century. Defined mainly to the situation that was in Europe.
In 1805, Russia again joined the antifranzu coalition. Russian army with allies suffered a defeat under Austerlitz. In 1806, battles occurred at Pultush and Preice Eilau. The battle of Friedland in 1807. She graduated from this war and completed the defeat of the Russian army.
In the summer of 1807, Russia and France signed a Tilzite peace treaty and the union treatise against England. It was the first meeting of Alexander I and Napoleon. Russia agreed to mediation in France's negotiations with the UK, and France took on the role of an intermediary at the conclusion of peace between Russia and Turkey. Russia was obliged to bring his troops from Moldova, Valahia and recognized the sovereignty of France over the Ionical Islands. The parties agreed to conduct joint actions in the war against any European power. It was stipulated that if the United Kingdom does not accept the mediation of Russians or agree to conclude the world, Russia will have to break diplomatic and trade relations with it. Napoleon, for his part, took over the obligations to speak on the side of Russia against Turkey.
The United Kingdom responded with refusal to offer Alexander I on mediation. Staying faithful than the signed agreement, Russia declared England war. France in violation of its contractual obligations in the Balkans secretly encouraged Turkey in hostilities against Russia. War with England did not meet the interests of Russia. The termination with her trade and political ties has fallen into the country's economy. The formation of the Duchy of Warsaw was for France by a bridgehead at the Russian border.
In 1804, due to controversial territories began russian-Iranian war. During the campaign 1804-1806. Russia took Khanate to the north of R, Araks (Baku, Kuban, Ganja, Derbent, etc.) The transition of these territories to Russia was enshrined in the Gulistan Peace Treaty 1813.
During the Russian-Turkish War (1806-1812) in Dardanesev and Afonov sea battles In 1807, the Russian fleet defeated the Turkish squadron. In 1811, the newly appointed by the Commander-in-Chief of General M.I. Kutuzov won a decisive victory during the guide. In 1812, the Bucharest Mirny Treaty was signed. Turkey was inferior to Russia Bessarabia, an autonomous Serbian principality was created.
In 1808-1809. There was the last Russian-Swedish war in the history of the relations of these states. Its result was the signing of the Friedrichsgam Treaty, according to which all Finland, together with the Aland Islands, entered the Rights of the Grand Principality became part of the Russian Empire. The Russian-Swedish border was established on the combat bay and the rivers Torneo and Moroio.
Territory and population of the Russian Empire in early 19th century
At the beginning of the 19th century. The territory of Russia amounted to more than 18 million km2, and the population is 40 million people. The Russian empire ᅟ was a single territory.The bulk of the population is in the central and western provinces; On the territory of Siberia - just over 3 million people. And in the Far East, the development of which ᅟ was just beginning, deserted lands extended.
The population differed on national, estate and religious affiliation.
Peoples of the Russian Empire: Slavic (Russian, Ukrainians, Belarusians); Turkic (Tatars, Bashkirs, Yakuts); Finno-Ugors (Mordva, Komi, Udmurts); Tongussian (EVENA and Evenki) ...
More than 85% of the population of the country professed Orthodoxy, a significant part of the peoples - Tatars, Bashkirs, and others - were followers of Islam; Kalmyks (Low Globes) and Buryats (Transbaikalia) adhered to Buddhism. Many peoples of the Volga region, the North and Siberia retained pagan beliefs.
At the beginning of the 19th century. The Russian Empire includes countries of Transcaucasia (Georgia, Azerbaijan, Armenia), Moldova, Finland.
The territory of the empire shared on the province, counties and parish.
(In the 1920s, the province in Russia was transformed into the edges and regions, the counties - to the districts; parliament - rural areas, the smallest administrative-territorial units, were abolished during the same years). In addition to the provinces, there were several governorate-general, including one or more provinces or regions.
Political system
The Russian Empire, the entire 19th century remained an autocratic monarchy. The following conditions were followed: the Russian emperor was obliged to confess Orthodoxy and get the throne as a legal heir.In the hands of the emperor, all power in the country was focused. At his disposal was a huge number of officials who, in aggregate, were a great strength - bureaucracy.
The population of the Russian Empire was divided into class: non-detrunities (nobility, clergy, merchants) and submitted (meshness, peasantry, Cossacks). Belonging to the estate was inherited.
The most privileged position in the state occupied the nobility. The most important privilege was the right to ownership of serfs.
Smallopomy (less than 100 shower of peasants), the overwhelming majority;
Large competition (over 1 thousand shower of peasants) there were approximately 3,700 families, but they had half of all the fortress peasants. Among them were stood with Sheremetev, Yusupov, Vorontsov, Gagarins, Golitsyn.
In the early 1830s, 127 thousand noble families were numbered in Russia (about 500 thousand people); Of these, 00 thousand families were the owners of serfs.
The composition of the nobility was replenished at the expense of representatives of other class groups who managed to advance by service. Many nobles led the traditional lifestyle described by Pushkin in the novel "Eugene Onegin". At the same time, quite a few young nobles sang under the influence of the ideas of the enlightenment, the sentiments of the Great French Revolution.
At the beginning of the 19th century. The free economic society founded in 1765 continued. It united major practitioners, naturalists, draws them into a solution economic problems, announcing competitive tasks (preparation of beets, development of tobacco production in Ukraine, improving the treatment of peat and others.
However, Barskaya psychology and the opportunity to enjoy cheap fortress work limited business manifestations in the noble environment.
Clergy.
The privileged estate was the clergy.
At the beginning of the 18th century. The nobility was forbidden to join the spiritual estate. Therefore, the Russian Orthodox clergy in social terms - in the overwhelming majority - stood closer to the lower layers of the population. And at 19 in. The clergy remained a closed layer: the children ᅟ priests were trained in the Orthodox diocesan schools, seminary, married the daughters of the people of the spiritual title, continued the case of fathers - the service in the church. Only in 1867 to enter the seminary was allowed the young men of all classes.
Part of the clergy received state salary, but most priests existed due to the pleasants of believers. The lifestyle of the rural priest was little difference from the life of the peasant.
The community of believing small territories was called the arrival. Several parishes were a diocese. The territory of the diocese, as a rule, coincided with the provincial. The highest organ of church administration was the Synod. Its members were appointed by the emperor from among the bishops (the heads of the Diocese), and the newsletter stood a secular official - Ober-Prosecutor.
The centers of religious life were monasteries. The Trinity-Sergiyev, Alexander Nevsky Lavra, Optina Desert (in the Kaluga province), etc. Posted on Ref.rf is especially honored.
Merchants.
Mercury depending on the size of the capital was divided into closed groups - Guild:
The merchants of the 1st Guild had a predominant right to conduct foreign trade;
The merchants of the 2nd Guild led a major internal trade;
The merchants of the 3rd Guild were engaged in small urban and county trade.
Mercury was freed from the filings, corporal punishments; On the merchants of the first two guilds did not spread the recruit meal.
The merchants either invested their capital and produced, or allowed to "benogenous things."
Merchants prevailed among the Russian bourgeoisie: merchants - wealthy peasants who received special "tickets" to the right to trade. In the future, a merchant or a rich peasant could become a manufacturer or a manufacturer who invests its capital in industrial production.
Craftsmen, small traders, home shops and restaurants, employees belonged to an unprivileged class - mesh. In the 17th century They were called landing people. Promenban was paid by grades, put recruits into the army and could be subjected to corporal punishments. Many breasts (artists, singers, tailors, shoemakers) joined Artel.
Peasants.
The most numerous estate was the peasantry, to which more than 85% of the country's population.
Peasants:
State (10 - 15 million) - stateless, that is, belonged to the treasury, considered "free rural ordinary people", but who carried out natural subsidy in favor of the state;
Landlord (20 million) - owned, serfs;
Specific (0.5 million) - belonging royal family (Funny intercourse and state anemas).
But what category the peasants treat, their work was hard, especially in summer, during field work.
Half of all peasants constituted landlords (serfs) peasants. The landowner could sell them, to give, pass by inheritance, impose on them a duty at their own discretion, dispose of the property of peasants, regulate marriages, punish, link to Siberia or donate out of turn into recruits.
Most of all serfs numbered in the central provinces of the country. It was not at all the serfs in the Arkhangelsk province, in Siberia from the number barely exceeded 4 thousand people.
Most of the landlord peasants of the Central Industrial Gubniy paid the lifts. And in the agricultural areas of the Black Earth and Volga provinces, in Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine - almost all landlord peasants were worked out by the Barchina.
In search of earnings, many peasants left the village: they were engaged in crafts, others went on manufactory.
There was a process of stratification of the peasantry. Gradually allocated independent peasants: the usurists, buyers, merchants, entrepreneurs. The number of this village top was still insignificant, but its role is great; The rustic rustic rogue often held a whole district in Kabal. In the treasury village, the bundle manifested more than in the landlock, and in the landowner - stronger among the rural peasantry and weaker among the bargaining.
At the end of 18 - at the beginning of the 19th century. In the midst of the fortress peasants, entrepreneurs were distinguished, subsequently those who became the Dynasties of the famous manufacturers: Morozov, Huchkov, Malini, Ryabushinsky.
Peasant community.
In the 19th century, primarily in the European part of Russia, the peasant community was preserved.
The community (peace) seemed to be rented by the owner (landlord, treasury, specific departments) land, and the peasants-community users used it. The field sections of the peasants received equal (in terms of the number of eaters of each yard), while they were not given a land share on women. In order to observe ᅟ equality, the periodic redistributes of the Earth have obedient (for example, in the Moscow province, redistributes were accomplished 1 - 2 times in 20 years).
The main document proceeding from the community was the "verdict" - the decision of the peasant gathering. The gathering on which Men-Communities gathered, solved the issues of land use, choosing the headman, the appointment of guardian of the orphans and others. Neighbors helped each other and difficulty and money. The fortress peasants depended from the barin, and from the barbecue. They were "connected by hand and legs."
Cossacks.
A speciallysis group was Cossacks, which not only carried military service, but also engaged in agriculture.
Already in the 18th century The government fully subordinate to the Cossack Volinets. Cossacks were enrolled in a separate military estate, which were attributed to individuals from other classes, most often - state peasants. The authorities have formed new Cossack troops for the protection of borders. By the end of the 19th century. In Russia, there were 11 Cossack troops: Don, Teresk, Ural, Orenburg, Kuban, Siberian, Astrakhan, Zabaikalskoye, Amur, Semirechensk and Ussuriyskoye.
Due to revenues from his farm, the Cossack was to completely "gather" for military service. He served with his horse, outfit and cold weapons. At the head of the troops stood ᅟ Optical (appointed) Ataman. Each village (village) was elected by the Stanic Ataman. Ataman of all Cossack troops was considered the heir to the throne.
Socio-economic development of the country.
By the end of the 18th century. In Russia, the domestic market is formed; Everything is more active international trade. The serfdom, drawn into market relations, is modified. Until ᅟ as long as it was natural, the needs of the landowners were limited by the fact that it was produced on their fields, vegetable groceries, livestock courtyards, etc. Operation of the peasants had clearly indicated limits. When it became a real opportunity to turn the products produced in the goods and get money, the needs of the local nobility begin to grow uncontrollably. The landowners rebuild their farm ᅟ so as to maximize its productivity by traditional, serfdom.In the black earth areas that gave excellent yields, the enhancement of operation was expressed in expanding the Bark scarce through the peasant posts and the increase in the barbecue. But this rooted the peasant economy. After all, the peasant handled the land in the land, using his inventory and his cattle, and he himself represented value as an employee's insight, because he was full, Silen, healthy. The decline of his farm beat and on the economy of the landlord. As a result, after a noticeable lift at the turn of the 18th - 19th centuries. The landowner economy gradually falls into the strip of hopeless stagnation. In the Non-Earth region, the facilities made an increasing profit. Therefore, the landowners were prone to turn their farm. Strengthening the exploitation of peasants was expressed here in a constant increase in cash loss. Moreover, it is often a lifestyle, it was established above the real profitability of the Earth allotted by the peasant to use: the landowner was calculated ᅟ to earn its fortress on the expense of fishing, waste - work in factories, manufactory, in various fields of urban economy. These calculations were fully justified: in this region in the first half of the 19th century. Growing cities, the factory production of the new type is developed, which is widely used by a voltage labor. But attempts to use these conditions to increase the profitability of the farm, led to him self-dispersion: increasing the monetary lifts, the landowners inevitably leave the peasants from the ground, turning them partly in artisans, in part of the voltage workers.
In an even more difficult situation, the industrial production of Russia was. At this time, the decisive role was played inherited from 18 V. Industry of old, fortified ᅟ type. At the same time, she did not have incentives for technical progress: the amount and quality of products were regulated from above; The number of attributed peasants was strictly suitable for the established production volume. The fortress industry was doomed to stagnation.
At the same time, enterprises of other ᅟ type appear in Russia: they are not related to the state, they work on the market, use free-free labor. Such enterprises arise primarily in light industrywhose products already have a massive buyer. Their owners are getting rich fisosals; And there are peasants-peasants work here. Behind this production was the future, but the domination of the serf system was shy. Owners industrial enterprises Usually themselves were in the fortress dependence and were forced to be a significant part of the income in the form of a long time to give the owners of landowners; Workers legally and in essence ᅟ them remained the peasants, striving, earning on the lifts, return to the village. The growth of production was hampered by a relatively narrow market of sales, the expansion of which, in turn, was limited to serfs. So, in the first half of the 19th century. The traditional economy system clearly slowed down the development of production and prevented the establishment of new relations in it. The serfdom turned into an obstacle to the normal development of the country.
Table of Contents Open Close
1. Russian Empire by the early 19th century, territory, population, socio-economic development of the country.
2. The decomposition and crisis of the feudal-serf system in Russia in the first half of the 19th century.
3. Industrial coup in Russia
4. Paul I: the main directions and results of internal and foreign policy.
5. Palace coup on March 11, 1801 and its features.
6. Liberal period of the reign of Alexander I
7. Project of state transformations M.M. Speransky.
8. Internal policy of Russia 1801-1825.
9. Decembrist movement
10. Social and political thought of Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century: conservative and liberal directions.
11. Revolutionary public thought of "Nikolaev" Russia. Slavophiles and Westerners
12. Social and political life of Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century in the assessments of domestic and foreign historiography.
13. The main directions and results of Russia's foreign policy in the first quarter of the 19th century.
14. Patriotic War of 1812: the reason, the move, the results, historiography.
15. Caucasian problem in the 19th century Russian politics.
16. Crimean War 1853-1856.
17. "Nikolaevskaya Russia": features of domestic political development.
18. Foreign Policy of Nicholas I: Eastern and European Direction.
19. The peasant question in Russia is the first half of the 19th century.
20. Cancel of serfdom in Russia
20.1 Results and consequences Cancellation of serfdom
21. Reforms of Zemsky and City Self-Government in Russia and their results
22. Judicial reform: Preparation, ideas, results.
23. Military reforms of the 70s of the 19th century in Russia.
24. Peasant reform of 1861 in domestic and foreign historiography.
25. Socio - economic development of Russia of the Empire in the flag.
26. Social and political movement in the pureformal period.
27. Internal policy of the Russian Empire in 1881-1894. Alexander III and its estimates in historiography.
28. Foreign policy of the Russian Empire in the second half of the 19th century. Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878.
29. Foreign policy of the Russian Empire in the second half of the 19th century. Central Asian and Far Eastern regions.
The history of mankind is a continuous struggle for the territorial domination. The Great Empires arose on the political map of the world, they disappeared from it. Some of them were destined to leave behind an indelible mark.
Persian Empire (Empire of Aheremenidov, 550 - 330 BC.)
The creator of the Persian Empire is considered Cyrus II. He began his conquest in 550 BC. e. With the subordination of the Mussel, following which Armenia, Parfia, Cappadocia and the Lidia Kingdom were conquered. It did not interfere with the expansion of the Empire Kira and Babylon, whose powerful walls fell in 539 BC. e.
Conquering neighboring areas, Persians tried not to destroy the conquered cities, but if possible, to preserve them. Cyrus restored the captured Jerusalem, like many Phoenician cities, having retaliated the return of Jews from the Babylonian captivity.
The Persian Empire at Cyre spread its possessions from Central Asia to the Aegean Sea. Only Egypt remained not conquered. The country of Pharaohs conquered the heir to Kira Cambismue II. However, his heyday of the Empire reached in Daria I, which with the conquest switched to internal politician. In particular, the king divided the empire for 20 satrapy, which completely coincided with the territories of captured states.
In 330 BC e. The weakening Persian Empire fell under the onslasis of Alexander Macedonian troops.
Roman Empire (27 BC. E. - 476)
Ancient Rome was the first state in which the ruler received the title of Emperor. Starting from Octavian Augustus, a 500-year history of the Roman Empire had the most direct impact on European civilization, and also left a cultural trail in the countries of North Africa and the Middle East.
The uniqueness of the ancient Rome is that he was the only state whose possessions included all the Mediterranean coast.
During the flourishing period of the Roman Empire, its territory extended from the British Isles to the Persian Gulf. According to historians estimates, by 117 the population of the empire reached 88 million people, which was approximately 25% of the total number of inhabitants of the planet.
Architecture, construction, art, right, economy, military case, principles state Device Ancient Rome is what the foundation of the entire European civilization is based on. It was in the imperial Rome that Christianity took the status of state religion and began its distribution worldwide.
Byzantine Empire (395 - 1453)
The Byzantine Empire does not have equal in the duration of its history. Burning at the sunset of antiquity, it existed until the end of the European Middle Ages. For more than a thousand years, Byzantium was a kind of binding link between the civilizations of the East and the West, having an impact on both the states of Europe and Malaya Asia.
But if Western European and Middle Eastern countries inherited the richest material culture Byzantium, the Old Russian state turned out to be the successor of its spirituality. Konstantinople fell, but the Orthodox world gained his new capital in Moscow.
Located at the crossroads of trade routes, the rich Byzantium was linedly land for neighboring states. Having reached maximum borders in the first centuries after the collapse of the Roman Empire, then she was forced to defend their possessions. In 1453, Byzantium did not resist the more powerful opponent - the Ottoman Empire. With the capture of Constantinople, the road to Europe for the Turk was opened.
Arab Caliphate (632-1258)
As a result of Muslim conquests in the VII-IX centuries in the entire Middle East region, as well as individual regions of Transcaucasia, Central Asia, North Africa and Spain, the theocratic Islamic State Arab Caliphate arose. The period of the Caliphate entered the story called the "Golden Age of Islam", as the time of the highest heyday of Islamic science and culture.
One of the Caliphs of the Arab state Umar I was purposefully fastened for the caliphate the nature of the militant church, encouraging in his subordinates a religious zeal and forbidden them to own land property in conquered countries. Umar it motivated that "the interests of the landowner enhanced it to peaceful activities than to the war."
In 1036, the invasion of the Seljuk Turkings was destructive for the Khaliphat, but Mongols tried the defeat of the Islamic state.
Khalif An-Nasir, wanting to expand his possessions, asked for help to Genghis Khan, and he did not know the way to ruin the Muslim East of the Multiple Mongolian Horde.
Mongol Empire (1206-1368)
Mongol Empire - the largest in the territory state Education in history.
During its power - by the end of the XIII century, the empire extended from Japanese Sea To the shores of the Danube. The total area of \u200b\u200bownership of Mongols reached 38 million square meters. km.
Given the huge size of the empire, the management of it from the capital - Karakorum was almost impossible. It is no coincidence after the death of Genghis Khan in 1227, the process of gradual separation of the conquered territories for individual uluses began, the largest of which was the Golden Horde.
The economic policy of the Mongols in the captured lands was primitive: its essence was reduced to the case of tribute to the conquered peoples. All the assembled came to maintain the needs of a huge army, according to some data that had reached half a million people. Mongolian cavalry was the most deadly weapon of Genghizids, before which managed to resist not many armies.
Intended by the empire, the Identas Reset - they stopped the expansion of Mongols to the West. This soon followed the loss of the conquered territories and the seizure of the dynasty of the Ming of the Main Caucarma.
Sacred Roman Empire (962-1806)
The Sacred Roman Empire is an interstate education that existed in Europe from 962 to 1806. The core of the Empire was Germany, to which the Czech Republic, Italy, Netherlands, and some regions of France, were joined during the highest heyday of the state.
In almost the entire period of the existence of the empire, its device had the nature of the theocratic feudal state, in which the emperors claimed the highest power in the Christian world. However, the fight against the papal throne and the desire to possess Italy significantly weakened the central government of the empire.
In the XVII century, Austria and Prussia were put forward in the leading position in the Sacred Roman Empire. But very soon antagonism of the two influential members of the Empire, who lied to the conquest policies threatened the integrity of their general house. The end of the empire in 1806 laid the stringing France led by Napoleon.
Ottoman Empire (1299-1922)
In 1299, the Turkic state was created in the Middle East, the Turkic state was created, which was destined to exist more than 600 years and radically affect the fate of the countries of the Mediterranean and Black Sea regions. The fall in 1453 of Constantinople became the date when the Ottoman Empire finally entrenched in Europe.
The period of the highest power of the Ottoman Empire falls on the XVI-XVII century, but the greatest conquests of the state achieved with Sultan Suleiman magnificent.
The borders of the Empire of Suleiman I were fed from Eritrea in the south to the speech by compolonged in the north, from Algeria in the West to the Caspian Sea in the East.
The period from the end of the XVI until the beginning of the 20th century was marked by bloody military conflicts between the Ottoman Empire and Russia. Territorial disputes of the two states mainly unfolded around the Crimea and Transcaucasia. The end of them put the first world war, according to the results of which the Ottoman Empire, separated between the countries of the Entente ceased to exist.
British Empire (1497--1949)
The British Empire is the largest colonial power in both the territory and population.
The greatest scales of the empire reached the 30th of the 20th century: the land area of \u200b\u200bthe United Kingdom along with the colonies numbered 34 million 650 thousand square meters. km., As for about 22% of the earthly sushi. The total number of the population of the empire reached 480 million people - every fourth resident of the Earth was subjects to the British crown.
The success of the British colonial policy promoted many factors: strong army and fleet, developed industry, the art of diplomacy. The expansion of the empire has significantly affected the world geopolitics. First of all, this spread throughout the world of British technologies, trade, language, as well as forms of government.
Decolonization of Britain occurred after the end of World War II. The country was among the winning states, but it turned out to be on the verge of bankruptcy. Only thanks to the American loan of $ 3.5 billion, the United Kingdom could overcome the crisis, but at the same time lost world domination and all his colonies.
Russian Empire (1721-1917)
The history of the Russian Empire originates on October 22, 1721 after the adoption by Peter I of the title of Emperor of All-Russian. From this time until 1905, the monarch began at the head of state, the monarch was endowed with an absolute fullness of power.
According to the area, the Russian Empire was inferior only by Mongolian and British Empires - 21,799,825 square meters. km, and was the second (after the British) population - about 178 million people.
The constant expansion of the territory is a characteristic feature of the Russian Empire. But if the promotion is east for the most part Peaceful nature, in the West and south, Russia had to prove their territorial claims to Russia - with Sweden, a response, the Ottoman Empire, Persia, the British Empire.
The growth of the Russian Empire is always perceived by the West with a special alertness. The negative perception of Russia contributed to the emergence of the so-called "testament of Peter the Great" - a document fabricated in 1812 by French political circles. "The Russian state must establish power over the entire Europe," this is one of the key phrases of the will, which will still be long for the minds of Europeans.
