What are reference points in geodesy. Meaning of the word rapper

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Sometimes scientific or other specific concepts are used in areas not related to the original. This happened with the geodetic term "reference point". According to the definition, a geodetic benchmark is a mark or sign fixed at a specific point on the earth's surface. The coordinates and height of this place are calculated by leveling relative to a known and generally accepted value.

Height level systems

In Russia and some countries former USSR The Kronstadt footstock is considered to be the zero mark for reading the surface level. All geodetic signs indicated on the maps of these countries are calculated according to the Baltic system of heights adopted in 1977. In the regions of the Far East, calculations are carried out according to the Okhotsk system of heights. Its error relative to the BSV is less than one meter.

Footstock is a rail with divisions for determining the water level in a river or other body of water. Sometimes permanently installed footstocks, as reference points and reference points in geodesy, are used by scientists to observe changes in the water level in the seas, for the movements of the layers of the earth's surface along the vertical.

About the Kronstadt footstock and determination of the sea level

Initially, the change in the height of the Gulf of Finland was marked by horizontal notches on the walls of channels and basins, on the surfaces of locks. When a special service was organized in Kronstadt in 1777, water observations were carried out according to the marks of the footstock from the bottom

Long-term (since 1731) and regular notes, observations of fluctuations in the water levels of the Gulf of Finland were processed by the hydrographer M.F. Reinecke in 1840. Based on the averaged readings calculated by him, a horizontal line was carved on the stone support of one of the bridges across the Obvodny Canal. A few decades later, a metal plate with a horizontal mark was fixed at this level, practically coinciding with the zero reading of the foot rod.

Transfer of sea level to land

This level indicator was transferred to the mainland territory with the help of leveling along the St. Petersburg - Oranienbaum railway line and “tied” with a bolt mark to one of the buildings at the Baltic Station. It was this bolt that since 1892 has been the main benchmark for all leveling measurements in the country.

In 1946 on the territory Soviet Union a unified system of coordinates and heights was introduced. The level of the Baltic Sea with a mark corresponding to zero on the Kronstadt footstock was taken as the initial one. This is the control reference point of the state leveling system. From the mark, heights and depths are calculated for all domestic maps and sailing directions, orbits for spacecraft flights are determined.

Varieties of benchmarks in geodesy

On the ground, the reference point is indicated by a structure in the form of a pyramid of stones, boards or metal tubes. Depending on the purpose, there are several types of benchmarks:

Centuries are distributed in accordance with a special scheme throughout the country. They are installed according to the instructions in the given geographical points. They are used mainly for scientific purposes.
Fundamental ones are equipped along all leveling lines of the first class (between age-old ones) and along the most critical lines of the second class. The distance between the points is from 50 to 80 km. They are laid exclusively in the ground in the form of reinforced concrete pillars and pylons. Since the fundamental benchmark can only be used in certain cases, an ordinary benchmark satellite with accurate transferred data is installed not far from it. It is used as a support for leveling grades 3 and 4.
Ordinary benchmarks are wall, rock and ground. Fixed at a distance of 3.5 to 7 km from one another, these signs can be laid along all leveling lines.

The system of interconnected fundamental and ordinary reference points forms the GGS - the state geodetic network.

Cartographic designation of geodetic signs

On the maps, the reference point is marked with special icons. They are distinguished as follows:

for astronomical points;
for GGS points;
for central points fixed on the territory;
for survey network points;
for points of the state leveling geodetic network.

All these points are marked on the real surface of the Earth with metal pyramids or ordinary benchmarks. Geodetic centers indicating the location of the point are applied to maps by coordinates, that is, as accurately as possible, with indications of elevation marks.

What is a reference point? Elevations included in the general geodetic network, mounds, hills or free-standing buildings with spiers, towers or bell towers are designated by conventionally accepted combined icons. GGS points in maps with a large scale indicate absolutely everything. Astronomical points, which are landmarks, are indicated only in cases where they are starting points in a given area.

Triangulation (reference) points, their installation

The installation of permanent signs is carried out by the State Geodetic Leveling Network. The ground parts of the benchmarks are mutually visible to each other at a certain distance. The design and height of signs depend on the purpose, local conditions, soil and distances from one point to another.

Geodetic points can be made in the form of metal or wooden pyramids, stone or reinforced concrete pillars. The height of each structure depends on the binding location. Any benchmark serves as a tripod or support for the measuring instrument and the observer.

The underground part of such a structure is made in the form of a foundation monolith filled with concrete. A mark cast from metal is built into the point itself, which is the center of the point. The inscription on the latter indicates the number and type of this item. The name of the organization that performed the work and the year of installation are cast together with a mark (usually cast iron).

Construction and reference marks

Disk-shaped benchmarks, made by cast iron, are installed in the walls of industrial buildings, locks, and abutments. This is done to monitor the static state of large structures. On disk stamps, in addition to inscriptions, there are protrusions intended for installation. The purpose of geodetic marks can be divided into the following categories:

reference, or control, which are the basis for determining the position of the established brands, taking into account the safety and stability over a long time;
auxiliary - these are intermediate signs for transferring coordinates and values between deformation and reference marks;
deformation marks, which are fixed directly on the walls of the observed structures or buildings (with spatial changes in the position of the object, these marks move with it).

Fixed points in construction are a guarantee of timely detection of the mobility or instability of a large object, such as a hydroelectric dam or a high-rise building.

Who needs it all

Thanks to the interconnected system of designated points, a state geodetic network is formed. Special catalogs contain lists with specified coordinates of all such points. This information is used by topographers to study the surface of the planet, in engineering and geodetic surveys, for various needs of the country's economy.

Lists indicating the values of the coordinates are brought to the officers of the army along with topographic maps. Artillerymen are also well aware that the reference point is a mark indicating a known height, a kind of support for shooting on the ground.

The reference points on the Celsius temperature scale are considered to be the values of boiling and freezing of water at sea level.

In business, this concept is used to describe a certain state of affairs where certain actions can lead either to complete failure or to success.

Health, entrepreneurship

Since the reference point is a kind of reference indicator, a “hook”, this concept can be used in many areas of human life.

Investigating the causes of frequent stress in people who constantly live in megacities, scientists have found that the unnatural visual environment is to blame. The distribution of right angles and lines, buildings of a uniform color, a large number static objects negatively affects emotional condition person. The psychophysiological direction in science, called visual ecology, claims that the absence hallmarks architectural decorative elements overloads

The eye must highlight, fix some point, detail, element in the visual space, so that the brain perceives environment as comfortable, close to natural and harmonious. Only then does a person have a feeling of aesthetic and emotional satisfaction.

Benchmarks in business are like airbags. They can be used to increase the competitiveness of the enterprise. If we take as a basis some marketing techniques or the state of affairs in the current period, we can identify comprehensive measures that need to be taken to change the situation for the better.

Fixing the route in height

Lecture 14

14.1. Fixing the route in height

14.2. Leveling tasks

14.3. Work with the level at the station

14.4. Leveling ravines

14.5. Cross-section leveling

14.6. Leveling across the river

14.7. Track leveling control

14.8. Questions for self-control

Along the entire route broken on the ground, but outside the work area, points are fixed, called benchmarks. They can be temporary or permanent. Temporary benchmarks- these are pillars buried below the freezing depth. A cross is attached at the bottom. Such a benchmark is called temporary ground. As a temporary benchmark, you can use tree stumps with a diameter of 0.5 m or more. Temporary benchmarks are placed along the route every 2–3 km, and after 20–30 km they arrange permanent benchmarks. It is especially necessary to arrange them at the beginning and at the end of the route, at stations, near future bridges and tunnels. Permanent benchmarks can be wall or ground.

Benchmark (from French repere - sign, starting point) - a sign that fixes a point on the earth's surface, the height of which relative to the original level surface is determined by leveling.

AT Russian Federation the heights of the benchmarks are calculated relative to the zero of the Kronstadt footstock. The benchmarks of the state leveling network serve as starting (reference) points for determining the heights of intermediate points on the earth's surface during topographic surveys and various kinds of survey work, and are also used for scientific purposes when studying the difference in sea levels.

Benches according to their importance are divided into:
1) secular 2) fundamental 3) ordinary

Centuries-old benchmarks are distributed throughout the country, according to a special scheme, in places established by the instruction, mainly for scientific purposes. The depth of the bookmark is determined by the occurrence of rocks.

The fundamental benchmarks, which are reinforced concrete pylons, are laid into the ground every 50-80 km on all leveling lines of the 1st class, as well as on the most important lines of the 2nd class and near the most important offshore water measuring installations.

Ordinary benchmarks, laid after 5-7 km on leveling lines of all classes, are divided into ground, installed in the ground, rock (fixed in rocks) and wall, laid in the walls of capital structures. AT hard-to-reach areas the distance between benchmarks can be increased to 6-7 km, and in seismically active areas it should be reduced to 3-3.5 km.

Wall anchors are fixed in the built-up area wherever possible. Fastening is carried out in the bearing parts of stone or concrete structures at a height of less than 0.3 m using leveling marks.

1. GROUND REPER
Ground benchmarks must be placed mainly within dry areas composed of draining sandy and coarse-grained soils. It is not allowed to lay benchmarks on landslide slopes and sites with the presence of solifluction phenomena or underground ice,
When constructing permanent ground benchmarks in areas with heaving soils of the active layer (clayey, silty sands, etc.), it is necessary to pay attention to ensuring the stability of the benchmarks. Special attention. To reduce the impact of heaving soil, the upper part of the benchmark within the active freezing - thawing layer is made of a reduced section or the top of the benchmark is placed below the soil surface. The lower part of the benchmark, placed in permafrost or thawed soil, is made with dimensions that ensure the stability of the benchmark from buckling (Fig. 1).

Rice. 1. Scheme of the device of a soil benchmark for use in areas with merging permafrost:
1 - perforated pipe of the benchmark; 2 - wooden cork; 3 - peat or moss; 4 - local soil; 5 - surface permafrost soil after installing the rapper

When using tree stumps as benchmarks, it must be taken into account that they are subject to alternating seasonal movements as a result of the impact of heaving soils.
The ground benchmark, intended for laying in areas with shallow permafrost (see Fig. 1), is a metal pipe with an outer diameter of approximately 60 mm and a wall with a thickness of at least 3 mm

Benchmark (geodesy)

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Rapper in France

rapper(fr. repere sign, starting point) in geodesy- a sign that fixes a point on the earth's surface, the height of which relative to the original level surface is determined by leveling. In the Russian Federation, the heights of the benchmarks are calculated relative to the zero of the Kronstadt footstock. Benchmarks are divided into fundamental and ground.

The fundamental benchmarks, which are reinforced concrete pylons, are laid in the ground every 50-80 km on all leveling lines of the 1st class, as well as on the most critical lines of the 2nd class and near the most important offshore water meters. Ordinary benchmarks, laid every 5-7 km on leveling lines of all classes, are divided into unpaved, installed in the ground; wall, laid in the walls of capital structures; rocky, laid in rocky soil. Centuries-old benchmarks are laid at the intersection points of leveling lines of the 1st class.

Fundamental and ground benchmarks located on the territory of the country form the state leveling network. The benchmarks of the state leveling network serve as initial (reference) points for determining the heights of intermediate points on the earth's surface during topographic surveys and various kinds of survey work, and are also used for scientific purposes when studying the difference in sea levels.

In Russia, the Baltic system of heights is used in the Far East. At the end of the 1980s, the mark of the Kronstadt footstock was transferred to the coast of the Far Eastern seas, the expected error was approximately 1 meter.

brand

brand- point of the leveling network, which serves to fix the point, the height of which above sea level is determined by leveling. The stamp is a cast metal disk with a diameter of 8 to 10 centimeters, built into the wall of a permanent (usually stone) building or bridge. In the center of the disk there is a hole with a diameter of about 2 mm, which determines the position of the mark. Its number is cast on the stamp, as well as the name of the organization that carried out the leveling work. Unlike a benchmark, a brand can be deformable. A mark attached to a part of the structure of a structure (foundation, column, wall) in order to measure settlement, heel or shear of the foundation.

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See what "Reper (geodesy)" is in other dictionaries:

- (French repère “sign, starting point”) Benchmark (geodesy) Benchmark (geometry) Fixed point (physics) Benchmark (artillery) See also Rapper rap performer ... Wikipedia

Reper (French repére sign, starting point) Reper (geodesy) In mathematics Reper (differential geometry) Reper (affine geometry) See also Rapper rap performer ... Wikipedia

Benchmark ground - – leveling benchmark, the base of which is set below the depth of freezing, thawing or movement of the soil, serving as a high-altitude geodetic base in the creation (development) of geodetic networks. [SP 11 104 97] Rubric… …

Wall anchor- - leveling benchmark installed on load-bearing structures capital buildings and structures. [SP 11 104 97] Term heading: Geodesy tools Encyclopedia headings: Abrasive equipment, Abrasives, Roads ... Encyclopedia of terms, definitions and explanations of building materials

Leveling benchmark- - geodetic sign, which defines the point of the leveling network. [RTM 68 13 99] Term rubric: Geodesy tools Encyclopedia rubrics: Abrasive equipment, Abrasives, Highways … Encyclopedia of terms, definitions and explanations of building materials

Reper (French repère - mark, sign, starting point) in geodesy, a sign that fixes a point on the earth's surface, the height of which relative to the original level surface is determined by leveling. In the USSR, R. heights are calculated ... ...

- (Greek geōdaisía, from gē Earth and dáiō I divide, I share) the science of determining the shape, size and gravitational field of the Earth and measurements on the earth's surface to display it on plans and maps, as well as to carry out various ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

geodesy- ▲ Applied science regarding, determine (implicit), position, material body geodesy is the science of determining the spatial position of objects. triangulation. polygonometry. mine surveying. surveyor. surveyor. gravimetry. |… … Ideographic Dictionary of the Russian Language

I Reper (French repère mark, sign, starting point) in geodesy, a sign that fixes a point on the earth's surface, the height of which relative to the original level surface (See Level surface) is determined by leveling (See ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

- (French herege sign, starting point) 1) R. in geodesy geodesy, a sign that fixes the point of the leveling network. At the place of laying, R. can be wall and ground. 2) R. in mathematics in space (on a plane) is a set of three (two) vectors with ... ... Big encyclopedic polytechnic dictionary

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Reference points in geodesy

Benchmark (from French repere - sign, starting point) - a sign that fixes a point on the earth's surface, the height of which relative to the original level surface is determined by leveling.

In the Russian Federation, the heights of the benchmarks are calculated relative to the zero of the Kronstadt footstock.

The benchmarks of the state leveling network serve as starting (reference) points for determining the heights of intermediate points of the earth's surface when topographic surveys and various kinds survey work, and are also used for scientific purposes when studying the difference in sea levels.

Benches according to their importance are divided into:

1) age-old

2) fundamental

3) privates.

Centuries-old benchmarks are distributed throughout the country, according to a special scheme, in places established by the instructions, mainly for scientific purposes. The depth of the bookmark is determined by the occurrence of rocks.

The fundamental benchmarks, which are reinforced concrete pylons, are laid into the ground every 50–80 km on all leveling lines of the 1st class, as well as on the most important lines of the 2nd class and near the most important offshore water meters.

Ordinary benchmarks, laid after 5--7 km on leveling lines of all classes, are divided into ground, installed in the ground, rock (fixed in rocks) and wall, laid in the walls of capital structures.

In hard-to-reach areas, the distance between benchmarks can be increased to 6-7 km, and in seismically active areas it should be reduced to 3-3.5 km.

Wall anchors are fixed in the built-up area wherever possible. Fastening is carried out in the bearing parts of stone or concrete structures at a height of less than 0.3 m using leveling marks.

Rock benchmarks: ordinary - in design and installation are absolutely similar to the centers of the geodetic network, fundamental - are found as an exception.

Ground benchmarks: ordinary - in design and installation are absolutely similar to the GGS centers, fundamental - are a massive reinforced concrete monolith made immediately at the laying site right in the pit.

Since the fundamental benchmark can only be used for leveling I and II classes, a satellite benchmark is installed nearby, which is an ordinary benchmark, to which the mark from the fundamental benchmark is transmitted with class II accuracy and which is used instead of the fundamental one as a reference for leveling classes III and IV.

In Russia on Far East the Baltic system of heights is used. In the late 1980s, the mark of the Kronstadt footstock was transferred to the coast of the Far Eastern seas, the expected error was approximately 1 meter.

Types and designs of benchmarks, their manufacture and laying

The diverse physical and geographical conditions of the country determine different types benchmarks that correspond to certain areas.

A detailed description of the design of benchmarks, methods of their manufacture and laying is described in the "Rules for laying centers and benchmarks at points of geodetic and leveling networks", M., "Kartgeocenter" - "Geodesizdat".

rocky and wall benchmarks include in the leveling lines of all classes one day after their laying, ground benchmarks on the leveling lines of III and IV classes - no earlier than 15 days after backfilling the pit.

In the permafrost distribution zone, ground benchmarks laid by drilling and thawing of soil are included in leveling not earlier than two months after their laying, and by excavation - in the season preceding leveling.

On leveling lines of classes I and II, ground benchmarks, as a rule, are laid a year before leveling.

In order to reduce or eliminate corrosion of the metal parts of the benchmarks, galvanized or enameled pipes should be used, if possible. In case of their absence on metal pipes apply an anti-corrosion coating. An anti-corrosion coating is also applied to the surface of concrete benchmarks if they are laid in a particularly aggressive soil environment. To reduce the effect of frost heaving, the outer surfaces of the benchmarks laid in the ground must be covered with anti-heaving agents. Benchmarks are protected in accordance with the requirements federal law"On Geodesy and Cartography" and "Regulations on Protected Zones and Protection of Geodetic Points on the Territory of the Russian Federation", approved by Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation N 1170 of October 7, 1996

Benchmarks are subject to inspection on the ground within the time limits stipulated normative documents Roskartografiya for the survey and restoration of points of geodetic and leveling networks. stable, incompressible rocks.

Centuries-old benchmarks can be rocky and unpaved. The types of age-old benchmarks depend on the depth of the rock. The safety of the age-old benchmark is ensured by the quality of the bookmark, the quality factor of the materials from which it is made, as well as the location and external design.

If the rock is at a depth of up to 120 cm, then a group of four rock benchmarks of the 173k type (Fig. 1, a) is laid, located at a distance of 25-50 m from each other. The heights of adjacent benchmarks must differ from each other by at least 15 cm.

The benchmark consists of a grade (stainless steel or bronze) and a concrete well with a lid. The dimensions of the well depend on the depth of the rock. When the rock comes out to the surface external dimensions well 50x50 cm. If the depth of the rock is 50 cm or more, this is a well with a diameter of 100 cm.

When the rock lies at a depth of 120 to 500 cm, a century-old benchmark of type 174k is laid (Fig. 1, b), which consists of a pylon (granite or high-quality concrete) with a parallelepiped shape and a cross section of 35x35 cm, a concrete slab (anchor) with dimensions of 100x100x40 cm and a well with a diameter of more than 100 cm.

Two grades (horizontal and vertical) are cemented into the upper part of the pylon at a distance of 20 cm.

The upper end of the pylon is located at a depth of 100 cm from the ground. A concrete slab is made at the place of installation of the benchmark and the third brand is cemented into it.

Before backfilling the pit with soil and installing the well, the excesses between all grades are measured with an accuracy of 1 mm.

The benchmark in the well is covered with gravel, and at a distance of 100-150 m from it, a fundamental benchmark with a satellite is installed.

A century-old tubular benchmark of type 175k (Fig. 2) is laid at the occurrence of incompressible rocks at a depth of more than 500 cm.

The benchmark is laid in a well with a diameter of ~25 cm.

It consists of a metal pipe with a diameter of 8-15 cm with a wall thickness of at least 1 cm, buried in incompressible rocks by 120 cm.

The reference pipe ends with a steel tip at least 250 cm long with three anchor disks.

The reference pipe with the help of concrete poured into the well is fastened to incompressible rocks.

The reference pipe is located in a protective pipe with a diameter of 16-23 cm with a wall thickness of at least 1 cm. protective tube separated by an oil seal and bitumen, at the top - by a rubber diaphragm and bitumen. At the upper end of the reference tube, at a distance of 20 cm from each other, two marks of a slightly oxidizing material (horizontal and vertical) are strengthened. The upper end of the benchmark is located at a depth of 100 cm from the surface of the earth. A fundamental benchmark with a satellite is laid next to the century-old benchmark at a distance of 100-150 m.

Fundamental benchmarks

Fundamental benchmarks, depending on the laying conditions, are divided into ground benchmarks (reinforced concrete, asbestos-cement, tubular metal) and rock ones.

Fundamental benchmark type 161 op. a sign (Fig. 3) for the area of \u200b\u200bseasonal freezing of soils is made in a pit. A reinforced concrete pylon measuring 30x30 cm is integral with a concrete slab (anchor). Grades made of low-oxidizing material (bronze, of stainless steel) or cast iron grades with hemispherical liners made of low-oxidizing material.

It is allowed to replace the reinforced concrete pylon with an asbestos-cement pipe with an outer diameter of at least 25 cm. A metal frame is installed inside the pipe and filled with concrete.

To increase the connection of the base of the asbestos-cement pipe with the anchor at a distance of 15-20 cm from the base, two mutually perpendicular rods with a diameter of 1.0-1.5 cm and a length of 60 cm are inserted until the pipe is filled with concrete. The upper face of the concrete slab is placed 60 cm below the boundary of the largest soil freezing, and the upper part of the pylon - 100 cm below the ground.

Above the benchmark, at a depth of 30 cm from the surface of the earth, an identification mark is laid. concrete slab 30x30x10 cm in size. The benchmark is made in a pit, the depth of which corresponds to the depth of the upper edge of the slab. For a concrete slab (anchor), they dig a recess in the soil of natural density. To do this, a tetrahedral recess is made at the bottom of the pit, the side walls of which are expanded downwards (Fig. 3).

The dimensions of the slab with vertical side faces are 115x115x40 cm. sign and 114 op. the sign is shown in Fig.4. If the rock comes to the earth's surface or lies at a depth of up to 130 cm, then two grades with a height difference of more than 100 mm are cemented into it at a distance of more than 500 cm from each other. In the event that stamps cannot be pawned on different height, then only one brand is laid, next to which a concrete slab is installed on a cement mortar with a second brand. When the rock lies at a depth of more than 130 cm, then a reinforced concrete pylon with a slab (anchor) is cast on it. The dimensions of the slab are 80x80x30 cm. Marks made of low-oxidizing material are placed in the upper faces of the pylon and the slab. The pylon is cast in such a height that its upper face is located 100 cm below the surface of the earth.

Fundamental rock benchmarks in the area of permafrost soils are laid of the same types as in the area of seasonal freezing, but the length of the reinforced concrete pylon should be such that its upper plane is at ground level. If the rock lies at a depth of up to 50 cm from the surface of the earth, then a mark is laid in the rock. The mark is closed with collapsible rock slabs, without soil admixture. In hard-to-reach areas, the pylon can be replaced with an asbestos-cement pipe with an outer diameter of at least 25 cm. The pipe is filled with concrete and securely fastened with metal frame with reinforced anchor anchor.

For the manufacture of a benchmark in the area of permafrost, quick-setting cement and additives that accelerate the setting of concrete are used. If at the time of laying the benchmark the surface of the rock has negative temperature, then before casting the anchor, the concrete and the rock are heated.

The excess between the main and additional grades of the fundamental benchmark is determined with an accuracy of 1 mm. The fundamental ground benchmarks for the northern zone of the permafrost region with a thawing depth of up to 150 cm are similar to ordinary soil benchmarks, but the base of the benchmark is located 400 cm below the thawing boundary. The fundamental benchmarks at a thawing depth of 150 cm or more are the same as in the area of seasonal freezing of soils, but their pylons are made so long that its upper part is at ground level. The base of the benchmark is located 1 m below the boundary of the greatest thawing of the soil, but not less than 250 cm from the surface of the earth. The reinforced concrete pylon of the benchmark can be replaced by an asbestos-cement pipe with an outer diameter of at least 25 cm. Using a metal frame, the pipe is fastened to the anchor of the benchmark and filled with concrete.

If during the work no permafrost soils are found, then the depth of laying the benchmark is increased by 50 cm, and the upper end of the pylon with the mark is placed (due to this increase) 50 cm below the ground surface. It is not allowed to lay fundamental metal tubular benchmarks in the pit and use metal anchors instead of concrete ones in all regions of the country.

Ground and wall benchmarks

permafrost benchmark identification soil

Ground benchmarks types 160 op. sign and 162 op. a sign (Fig. 5, 6) in the area of seasonal freezing of soils, as a rule, is laid in drilled wells with a diameter of 50 cm. in advance. It is allowed to use square-section plates measuring 50x50 cm.

A mark should be cemented into the upper face of the pylon (Fig. 7). In the middle of the concrete slab, a recess is made 20x20x15 cm in size, into which a reinforced concrete pylon is installed. The pylon can be replaced by an asbestos-cement pipe with an outer diameter of at least 16 cm, filled with concrete with reinforcement. A brand is inserted into the upper face of the pipe.

When using an asbestos-cement pipe, to increase the connection of its base with the anchor, two mutually perpendicular rods 1.0-1.2 cm thick and 25 cm long are inserted at a distance of 7-10 cm from the pipe base.

When installing the pipe in the anchor hole, the ends of the rods are placed in the corners of the recess. AT southern zone areas of seasonal freezing of the soil use concrete slabs (anchors) 20 cm high, in the northern - 35 cm. The border between these zones runs along the Valuyki-Rossosh-Kamyshin-Pallasovka line.

It is allowed to lay benchmarks in wells with a diameter of 35 cm, but in this case the height of the concrete anchor in the southern zone should be 50 cm, in the northern zone - 80 cm.

The upper edge of the concrete slab (anchor) of the leveling benchmark of classes I, II, III and IV should be 30 cm below the depth of the greatest freezing of the soil, regardless of the diameter of the well. All bench marks must be 50 cm below the ground. It is allowed to manufacture an anchor by pouring liquid concrete into the well.

The depth of the well is the same as when laying the benchmarks made in advance. Concrete is poured into wells with a diameter of 50 cm, respectively, by 20 or 30 cm, and into wells with a diameter of 35 cm - 30 or 70 cm. concrete mortar insert a pylon or asbestos-cement pipe. The length of the pylon or pipe must be such that the mark falls at a distance of 50 cm from the ground.

It is possible to fill the wells with soil without waiting for the anchor concrete to set, provided that a layer of sand (loose soil) with a thickness of at least 10 cm is backfilled onto the liquid concrete.

It is allowed to replace reinforced concrete pylons with metal pipes with a diameter of 6 cm with a wall thickness of at least 0.3 cm or with a rail section (Fig. 6).

In this case, a concrete slab (anchor) and a pipe (rail) are fastened together at the place of manufacture of the benchmark. The metal pipe should have four pins protruding from it by 10 cm.

When laying benchmarks at the bottom of a well or pit, a layer of cement mortar with a thickness of at least 3 cm is poured under the base of the slab.

Reinforced concrete benchmarks laid in aggressive soils are made of dense concrete.

In areas of moving sand, benchmarks of type 15 are used (Fig. 8), which are screwed into the ground to a depth of at least 400 cm. The benchmark consists of a galvanized pipe, the upper end of which with a mark is placed 80 cm above the ground. A protective plate is attached to the pipe. Digging ditches in this case is prohibited.

In wetlands, the leveling lines are fixed with soil tubular benchmarks using pipes with a diameter of 6 cm with a wall thickness of at least 0.3 cm. A screw anchor with a diameter of at least 15 cm or a drilling spiral tip (auger, coil) with a diameter of at least 10 cm and a length of at least 50 cm.

The pipe is screwed to such a depth that the screw anchor enters the underlying water-saturated layer of dense rock by at least 150 cm, but in all cases the depth of the benchmark should not be less than the depth of the greatest freezing of the soil plus 100 cm. In the presence of mechanisms of shock-vibration action on in wetlands, it is possible to lay benchmarks consisting of several drill rods or pipes screwed together with a diameter of 4-6 cm with a wall thickness of at least 0.3 cm.

A metal cone is welded to the lower end of such a benchmark. The rods (pipe) are driven into the ground to such a depth that the cone enters the rock underlying the water-saturated layer by at least 300 cm. The upper end of the rod (pipe), to which the mark is welded, is located 30 cm below the surface of the earth.

The moment of entry of a screw anchor (spiral tip or cone) into a dense underlying water-saturated layer of rock is determined by a sharp slowdown in the rate of sinking of the benchmark into the ground. A wooden frame 200x200 cm in size and 50 cm high is built around the benchmark, filled with peat or mineral soil. A metal identification pole 100 cm long with a security plate is installed in the log house.

In the northern and middle zone of the permafrost region, tubular metal benchmarks of type 150 are laid in drilled or thawed wells (Fig. 9). Metal pipes are used as a benchmark. The pipe diameter is 6 cm, the wall thickness of the pipe is not less than 0.3 cm.

A brand is welded to the upper end of the pipe, and a multi-disk anchor is welded to the lower end, consisting of a metal disk and eight half-disks 0.5-0.6 cm thick and 15 cm in diameter.

For better screwing (pressing) of the pipe into the ground, the metal disk has blades.

The pipe is not filled with concrete.

On the outer surface of the pipe, an anti-corrosion and anti-rock coating is applied, and on the inner surface only an anti-corrosion one.

With a soil thawing depth of up to 125 cm, the base of the benchmark is located 200 cm below the thawing boundary.

If the thaw depth is 125 cm or more, then the base of the benchmark should be 300 cm below the thaw boundary.

If there are stony inclusions in the soil that make it difficult to drill and thaw wells, tubular benchmarks of type 165 op. the sign (Fig. 10) is laid in the pits.

Instead of a multi-disk, a concrete anchor is made with a diameter of 48 cm and a height of 20 cm.

The base of the concrete anchor is placed 100 cm below the boundary of the greatest thawing of the soil.

For all benchmarks in the area of permafrost soils, the upper end of the pipe with a welded mark is placed at the level of the ground surface.

In the southern zone of the permafrost region, the boundary runs along the Vorkuta-New Port-Khantayka-Suntar-Olekminsk-Aldan-Ayan line, only tubular benchmarks with concrete anchors are laid. If during the work permafrost soils are not found, then the depth of laying the benchmark is increased by 50 cm and the upper end of the pipe with the mark is located (due to this increase) 50 cm below the ground surface.

It is forbidden to use metal anchors instead of concrete anchors in the southern zone of the permafrost region.

In a rock located on the surface or lying at a depth of up to 70 cm, a soil benchmark of type 9 op. sign (Fig. 11), which consists of a mark on the cement mortar. A reinforced concrete or tubular identification pole with a security plate is installed 100 cm from the benchmark. Identification pole is fixed in the rock cement mortar applied anti-corrosion coating and painted. Around the identification pole and above the benchmark, if it is on the earth's surface, they lay out a tour of stones 50 cm high and up to 1 m in diameter. If the rock lies at a certain depth, then the stamp is covered with rock, and then the tour is laid out.

If the rock lies at a depth of more than 70 cm, then a benchmark of type 176 op. sign (Fig. 11). A reinforced concrete pylon with a slab (anchor) is installed on the rock. The pylon is cast in such a height that its upper face is 50 cm below the ground. In the area of permafrost soils, it is allowed to lay a tubular benchmark with a concrete anchor instead of a reinforced concrete rock benchmark.

If there is a sheer cliff near the benchmark at a distance of up to 50 m, then on it oil paint bright colors draw a triangle with sides 100 cm, inside which indicate the number of the benchmark and initial letters organization doing the work.

Into the walls artificial structures, buildings and the vertical surface of the rock are laid with wall benchmarks of type 143 (Fig. 12, 13).

When making a wall benchmark and stamps (Fig. 7, 12, 13), the initial letters of the name of the organization that performed the leveling and the number of the benchmark are cast on the signs.

The wall benchmark shown in Fig. 12 is laid on the leveling lines of classes I and II, and the one shown in Fig. 13 is laid on the leveling lines of classes III and IV.

External design of benchmarks. The external design of the age-old benchmark consists of a reinforced concrete well with a protective cover and a lock; a mound made of stones; an index monolith and a fence of four sections of rail (reinforced concrete pillars with a section of 20x20 cm) with anchors laid to a depth of 140 cm and protruding 110 cm above the ground (Fig. 14).

It is allowed to use another external design that ensures the reliable preservation of the age-old benchmark.

The design of the fundamental benchmark in the area of seasonal freezing of the soil consists of a ditch rectangular shape(Fig. 15) and a reinforced concrete identification pole (Fig. 16) with a security plate (Fig. 17) with a thickness of at least 0.8 mm. The plate should be turned towards the benchmark. A mound 30 cm high with a diameter of 150 cm is made above the benchmark. The part of the identification pillar protruding above the ground is painted with oil paint of bright colors. The cross section of the ditch along the lower base is 20 cm, along the upper base - 120 cm, depth - 70 cm. The name of the organization and the reference number are signed on the identification pole with black paint (for example, Roskartografiya, 1274). A mound of stones 150x150 cm 70 cm high is laid out above the rocky fundamental benchmark.

The base of the identification pole is cemented with the rock or in the rock.

In the area of permafrost soils, the external design of the fundamental benchmarks is the same as that of the ground benchmarks, but in forested areas they put a tubular metal identification pole (Fig. 9 and 10), and within a radius of 100-150 m from the benchmark on trees at a height of 150-250 cm make ten marks with bright paint, which should look towards the benchmark. The external design of the ground benchmark (Fig. 18) is a ditch and an identification pole in the form of a reinforced concrete pylon with a slab (anchor) installed 80 cm from the benchmark. In forested areas it is allowed to install wooden identification poles.

The size of the lower base of the ditch is 20 cm, the upper one is 120 cm, the depth is 50 cm, the length is 1280 cm. A barrow 30 cm high with a diameter of 100 cm is poured over the benchmark. section 16x16 cm. Plate diameter 48 cm, thickness 15 cm (Fig. 16).

The connection of the pylon with the plate is the same as that of the benchmark. The base of the slab is placed 80 cm below the ground. When using an anchor with a diameter of 34 cm, its height is increased to 25 cm, and the laying depth is up to 90 cm. A security plate is securely attached to the identification pole (when casting the pylon) (Fig. 17). The inscription on the plate is cast, stamped or applied by punching.

When installing the identification pole, the guard plate must be turned towards the benchmark.

The part of the identification pole protruding above the ground is painted with oil paint of bright colors (red, orange, yellow). Black paint on the pole indicates the number of the benchmark and the name of the organization that laid it. The identification pole may be tubular. A metal plate is welded to the upper part of the pipe, to which a security plate is bolted. The pipe over the anti-corrosion coating is painted within the protruding part with bright-colored oil paint.

On the reverse side of the plate, the number of the benchmark and the initial letters of the organization that laid it are inscribed with black paint. A plug is welded to the upper end of the pipe.

The lower end of the pipe must have a concrete (metal) anchor with a diameter of 48 cm and a thickness of 15 (0.5) cm, buried in the ground by 100 cm. When using an anchor with a diameter of 34 cm, its height is increased to 25 cm, and the laying depth is up to 90 cm. The top of the tubular identification pole should be 100 cm above the ground.

In the forested areas of the permafrost region, as well as in the swampy areas of the region of seasonal freezing of soils above the ground benchmark, a frame is constructed from logs 200x200 cm in size, 50 cm high (Fig. 19).

The log house is filled with soil and moss, which are taken no closer than 15 m from the benchmark. A wooden pole 70 cm long is installed in a log house above the benchmark, and a metal identification pole next to it, ten marks are made with bright paint within a radius of 100-150 m from the benchmark on trees at a height of 150-250 cm.

In the tundra, a mound 200x200 cm in size and 50 cm high is built of earth and moss above the benchmark. The mound is covered with a layer of turf. Above the benchmark, a wooden pole 70 cm long is installed, and next to it is an identification pole. Land, moss and turf are taken no closer than 15 m from the benchmark.

In the area of permafrost, depending on how the benchmark is laid, by drilling (thawing) or in a pit, an identification metal pole is installed at a distance of 100 or 70 cm from the benchmark (Fig. 9, 10). The lower end of the pipe must have an anchor, which is buried in permafrost soil by at least 50 cm. top the identification mark is placed 100 cm above the ground and painted with oil paint in bright colors. For digging pits, drilling wells, driving piles and screwing pipes can be used various mechanisms(Appendix 8). Documentation compiled upon completion of work on laying benchmarks:

a report with an explanatory note; log bookmarks of benchmarks;

· a list of fixed benchmarks and a diagram of their location (on the map the most large scale);

· acts of delivery of benchmarks under supervision for safety;

photographs of buildings and rocks in which wall benchmarks are laid;

· maps at a scale of 1:25000 and larger, aerial photographs showing the locations of the laid and surveyed benchmarks, outlines. The scale of the outline is chosen in such a way that the nearest landmarks indicated in the description of the location of the benchmark fit on it. The outlines are compiled visually, according to maps, aerial photographs in the usual conditional topographic signs, horizontal lines are drawn on them conditionally, only to show the nature of the relief.

A separate document contains determination schemes and observation materials for the instrumental determination of the coordinates of fundamental, secular and ordinary benchmarks and a list of benchmark coordinates along the leveling lines.

The coordinates of secular and fundamental benchmarks determined by instrumental methods are given with an error of no more than 1.0 m, ordinary benchmarks and marks with an error of no more than 10 m.

Literature

1. Z.?.S?rsembekova, “?Aza? university» 2013

2. M.B.N?rpeisova, Astana 2009

3. Poklad G.G. Geodesy M: Nedra, 1988.

4. Neumyvakin Yu.K. etc. Geodesy. Topographic surveys M.: Nedra, 1991.

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