Detailed decision Paragraph § 76 by biology for students of grade 10, authors Kamensky A.A., Kriksunov E.A., Book V.V. 2014.

1. What is habitat?

Answer. Having (habitat) is a combination of biotic, abiotic and anthropogenic (if available) environmental factors on any particular territory or aquatorium, which is formed at the site of the primary complex of abiotic factors - Ecotopa. Having a view or population - important component His / her ecological niche. In relation to the terrestrial animal, the term is considered synonymous concepts to the region (habitat of the species) and the biotop (habitat of the community).

Having characterized by various severity of environmental factors, but having similar vegetable cover, are called biologically equivalent. Their existence is possible due to partial compensation of factors to each other.

T. Saouthwood (1977) proposed to classify habitats by the nature of the change in time factors, allocation of the following:

unchanged - environmental conditions remain favorable indefinitely long;

predictably seasonal - there is a regular change of favorable and unfavorable periods;

unpredictable - favorable and unfavorable periods have different duration;

ephemeral - with a short favorable period.

2. What is the food chain?

Answer. Food (trophic) chain - rows of plant species, animals, mushrooms and microorganisms that are associated with each other relationship: food - consumer (sequence of organisms in which there is a phased transfer of a substance and energy from the source to the consumer).

The subsequent link organisms eaten the organisms of the previous link, and thus the chain power transfer and substance is carried out under the basis of the cycle of substances in nature. Each time transfer from the link is lost most of (up to 80-90%) of potential energy dissipating in the form of heat. For this reason, the number of links (species) in the power circuit is limited and does not exceed 4-5.

3. What is interspecific struggle?

Questions after § 76

1. What is the difference between the concepts of "habitat" and "ecological niche"?

Answer. The position of the species that it takes place in biogeocenosis, the complex of its relations with other types and requirements for abiotic factors The medium is called an ecological niche. The concept of "ecological niche" should be distinguished from the concept of "habitat". In the latter case, we are talking about a part of the space where the species lives and where there are necessary abiotic conditions for its existence. The ecological niche of the species depends not only on abiotic conditions, it characterizes the entire lifestyle, which the view can lead in this community. Under the figurative expression of the ecologist Y. Oduma, habitat is the address of the species, and the ecological niche is his "profession". Distinguish the fundamental (or potential) and realized niche. Fundamental ecological niche - a set of optimal conditions under which this species May exist and reproduce. Realized niche - conditions where the species is actually found in this ecosystem, it always makes some part of the fundamental niche.

For reproduction and long existence of many species of animals great importance It has a distinction of niche at different stages of ontogenesis: caterpillars and imago scrapers, larvae and beetles of the May Khushchek, tadpoles and adult frogs do not compete with each other, as the habitat differs and are included in different power chains.

Intervida competition leads to a narrowing of an ecological niche, does not allow its potency to manifest. Intravidal competition, on the contrary, contributes to the expansion of an ecological niche. Due to the increase in the number of species, the use of additional feed, the development of new habitats, the emergence of new biocenotic connections.

2. May Lie different types Having one ecological niche?

Answer. No can not. In one place of habitat lives a large number of organisms of different types. For example, a mixed forest is a habitat for hundreds of species of plants and animals, but each of them has its own and only one "profession" is an ecological niche.

In the forest, a similar habitat has a squirrel and the squirrel, but their niches are completely different: the squirrel lives mainly in the crowns of trees, feeds on seeds and fruits, and breeds. The entire life cycle of the moose is associated with a sub-boost space: powered by green plants or their parts, reproduction and shelter in thickets.

Ecological niche elements:

food (types);

time and ways of nutrition;

breeding place;

place of shelter.

Environmental niches exist according to certain rules:

the wider requirements (limits of tolerance) of the species to any or many environmental factors, the greater the space that it can occupy in nature, which means that its distribution;

if any mode of any, at least one ecological factor, in the habitat of individuals of one species has changed in such a way that its values \u200b\u200bgo beyond the limits of the niche, then this means the destruction of the niche, that is, the limitation or inability to preserve the view in this habitat. Other important patterns are connected with the concept of "ecological niche" - each species has its own, only inherent in the environmental niche, that is, how many species on earth, so much and ecological niches (2.2 million species of living organisms, of which 1.7 million species of animals). Two different types (even very close) cannot occupy one ecological niche in space;

each ecosystem has species that claim the same niche or its elements (food, shelter). In this case, competition is inevitable, the struggle for the possession of the niche. Such relations reflect the Rule of Gause: if two types with similar environmental requirements (nutrition, behavior, reproduction places) come into competitive relationships, then one of them should die or change its lifestyle and take a new ecological niche.

Environmental niche is a combination of all the requirements of the form (population) to the conditions of the environment (composition and mode of environmental factors) and the place where these requirements are performed.

Environmental niches of joint living species can be partially overlapping, but completely never coincide, because At the same time, the law of competitive exception is entered into force.

3. Can one kind of occupying different ecological niches? What does it depend on?

4. What is the significance of environmental niches in the community's life?

Answer. The concept of an ecological niche is very useful for understanding the laws of joint existence of species. For example, anything green plantBy taking this or that participation in the formation of biogeocenosis, ensures the existence of a number of ecological niches. Among them, there may be niches, including organisms that feed on the roots tissues (cornered) or leaf tissues (sheets and juice), flowers (flowers), fruits (fruits), root secretions (eccrisotrophs), etc. All together they constitute a holistic system of various use. vegetable mass of the body. At the same time, all heterotrophs eating vegetable biomass are almost not competing among themselves.

Each of these niches includes heterogeneous group of organisms. For example, nematodes are also included in the ecological group of cornests, and the larvae of some beetles (May Khrushche, Nutcaln), and in the niche of the sucking juices of the plant - bugs, ho.

Environmental niches of animal feeding on plant biomass

Groups of species in the community with similar features and niches of the same property, some authors are called guilds (Guild of Korneedov, Guild of Night Predators, Guild of Padalchikov, etc.).

Consider Figure 122. One or different niches Do the herbivores in African savannah? Justify your answer. Consider Figure 123. One or different niches occupy dragonfly and its larva? Justify the answer.

Answer. In the savannah, animals occupy different environmental niches. Ecological niche is a place occupied by a biocenosis view, which includes a complex of its biosotic ties and requirements for the factors of the medium. The term introduced in 1914 by J. Greennell and in 1927 by Charles Elton.

Environmental niche is the sum of the factors of the existence of this species, the main of which is its place in the food chain.

Environmental niche can be:

fundamental - determined by the combination of conditions and resources, allowing the mind to maintain a viable population;

implemented - the properties of which are due to competing species.

This difference emphasizes that interspecific competition leads to a decrease in fecundity and viability and that in the fundamental ecological niche there may be such part, which is not able to live as a result of interspecific competition and successfully multiply.

Environmental niche can not be empty. If niche is empty as a result of extinction of some kind, then it is immediately filled with another species.

The habitat usually consists of individual sites ("spots") with favorable and unfavorable conditions; These spots are often accessible only temporarily, and they arise unpredictably both in time and in space.

Free sites or "bars" in habitats arise unpredictably in many biotopes. Fires or landslides can lead to the formation of waste in forests; The storm can bargain the open section of the sea coast, and the voracious predators anywhere can destroy potential victims. These liberated areas are invariably set out again. However, the most first settlers will not necessarily have those species that for a long time are able to successfully compete with other species and displace them. Therefore, the coexistence of transient and competitive species is possible for so long as uncomplicated areas appear with a suitable frequency. The transitional form is usually the first to populate a free plot, mastering it and multiplies. A more competitive species populates these areas slowly, but if the settlement began, over time, it wins the transitional appearance and multiplies.

The doctrine of environmental niches has a huge practical value. When introduced into the local flora and fauna ingenic species, it is necessary to find out which environmental niche they occupy in their homeland whether they will have competitors in the deployment places. The widespread dissemination of ondatra in Europe and Asia is explained precisely the lack of rodents in these regions with a similar way of life.

Related species living together, there is a very subtle distinction between ecological niches. So grazing in african savannah Hoping is different in different ways to use pasture feed: Zebras are mainly breaking the tops of herbs, the antelopes of the GNU feed the fact that they leave the zebras to them, the gazelles pluck the lowest herbs, and the topi's antelopes are satisfied with dry stems remaining after other herbivores. Due to the separation of NIS, the total bioproductivity of such a complex one is growing in the species composition of herd. The peasant flock consisting of cows, sheep, goats is significantly more efficient, from an ecological point of view, uses meadows and pastures than the single herd, monoculture - the least effective method Agriculture.

If you compare the adult insect and dragonfly larvae, you can draw conclusions:

1) The larvae usually serve as a stage intended for settlement and ensuring the spread of the species.

2) The larvae differ from adults and nutrition biology, and in their own habitat, and according to methods of movement (flying dragonfly and its floating larvae), peculiarities of behavior. Due to this, one species can throughout life cycle Use the capabilities provided by two ecological niches. This increases the chances of survival of the species.

3) they can adapt to various conditionsawaiting them in the second life, they possess physiological endurance.

Sinecology examines the relationship between individuals of populations different species and their fitness to the conditions external environment. Ecologists found that the organisms included in living communities are tied to certain spatial coordinates, in which they interact with each other and parts of the biosphere: water, soil, atmosphere.

This place in biogeocenoses is called ecological niche. Examples considered in our article are designed to prove that it is inherent in each biological species and is a consequence of the interaction of the body with other individuals and environmental factors.

Environmental characteristic of type

Everything without exception in the process of phylogenesis is adapted to specific abyotic factors. They limit the habitat of the population. How community of organisms interacts with the conditions of habitat and with other populations is its environmental characteristic, whose name is an ecological niche. Examples of animals, the life cycle of which occurs in different spatial and trophic areas of biogerocenosis, are dragonflies related to the type of arthropod, insect class. Adults - Imago, being active predators, mastered air shellWhereas their larvae are niads breathing habies, are hydrobionts.

Characteristic of ecological niche species

The author of the classical labor "Basics of Ecology" Y. ODUU proposed the term "ecological niche", which it uses to study biotic bonds of the population at all levels of its organization. According to the scientist, the situation of the individual is wildlife, that is, its life status is an ecological niche. Example illustrating this definition- Plant community called pioneers. They possess special physiological and vegetative properties that allow them to be easily conquered free territories. These include drossing creeping, they form primary biocenoses, which change over time. ADUD called the place of the body in nature by its address, and the image of life is a profession.

Model J. Hutchinson

Refer to the definition of the term "ecological niche". An example illustrating it - a white deer whose life cycle is associated with a sub-bootable space - thickets perennial shrubs. They serve as an animal not only the power source, but also protection. Created by Hatchinson model of the hyperoballing section of the biogeocenosis is the cell of the life support of the population. In it, organisms can dwell for a long time, avoiding the external environment. Studies of the scientist conducted by him on the basis of the created mathematical model provide ideas about the optimal borders of the existence of communities of living organisms in ecosystems.

Principle Gause

It is also called the rule of competitive exception and is applied to describe two forms of the struggle for the existence - intraspecific and interspecific, studied in the 19th century, Ch. Darwin. If populations have intersecting needs, for example, trophic (that is, the total feed base) or spatial (overlapping habitats - Areals), on which their number depends, the time of the coexistence of such communities is limited. This will ultimately lead to exile (displacing a less adapted population) and the resettlement of more adapted and rapidly breeding organisms of another species.

For example, an individual of the species gradually displaced the population of the black rat. They are currently small and dwell near the reservoirs. Three parameters characterize the concept of "ecological niche". An example explaining this statement considered by us earlier, namely: the view of the gray rats settled everywhere (spatial placement), it is omnivorous (food diet) and hunts both during the day and at night (separation of activity in time).

Another example characterizing the rule of competitive exception: the first settlers who came to Australia brought with them the population of European bees. In connection with the development of beekeeping, the number of these insects has increased dramatically, and they gradually displaced the native Australian bee from the areas of its permanent habitat, which put this appearance on the edge of extinction.

A similar case occurred with the populations of a home rabbit, brought with the same primer discovers of the continents. The abundance of food, wonderful climatic conditions and the lack of competition led to the fact that the individuals of this species began to capture the habit of other populations and multiplied in such quantities that crop crops began to exterminate.

Place of biological species in the ecosystem

We will continue to answer the question of what is an ecological niche. An example that gives the most complete answer - this is the life status of the plant clover meadow. His distribution area - Europe, North Africa, middle Asia. The populations are optimally growing on sufficiently moistened meadows, at temperatures +12 ... + 21 ° C. They form a long-term dispersion or forest litter and are produced in the nutrition chains of biogeocenosis.

Doctrine on ecological niche

The optimal and real space of the population existence

Recall that the combination of organisms with individuals of other populations and the conditions of the external environment is an ecological niche. An example of soil bacteria-saprofrofs that feed on a dead organic and purification of land, as well as improving its agrochemical properties, confirms the fact that the formation of a large number of biotic ties with other inhabitants of the soil: insect larvae, plant roots, mushrooms. The vital activity of soil bacteria directly depends on the temperature and humidity of the soil, its physico-chemical composition.

Other inhabitants are nitrifying bacteria-chemotrofas - form-resistant plants of plants of the bean family: alfaling, vika sowing, lupine. All listed parameters, both biotic and environmental conditions, are a realized ecological niche of bacteria. It is part of a potential (fundamental niche) of biogeocenosis, which is a complex of optimal conditions in which the view could exist indefinitely for a long time.

Rules of mandatory fill in the multidimensional section of the ecosystem

If biogeocenosis has been sharply exposed to extreme abiotic phenomena, such as fires, floods, earthquakes, or negative human activity, some of its sites become free, that is, the populations of plants and animals that have previously dwelling here. The emergence of new life forms - Sukzesia - leads to the change of the part of the biogerocenosis, the name of which is an ecological niche of plants. Examples of its settlement after a fire indicate that one-two-year-old seam is replaced. herbate plants With high vegetative energy: Cypria, Ivan-tea, coltsfoot and others, that is, the liberated part of the space immediately populates new species.

In this article, we studied in detail such a concept as an ecological niche of the body. Examples considered by us confirm that it is a multidimensional complex adapted for optimal habitat of plant and animal populations.

Introduction

In this paper, I want to introduce you to such concepts as an ecological niche, limiting factors, more about the law of tolerance.

Environmentalists? Českaya nig - a place occupied by the type of biocenosis, including the complex of its biosotic ties and requirements for the factors of the medium.

The concept of an ecological niche was introduced to designate the role that one or another plays the community. Under the ecosisha should be understood the lifestyle and, above all, the method of nutrition of the body.

Environmental niche is an abstract concept, this is a combination of all environmental factors, within which the existence of a species in nature is possible. This term was introduced in 1927 by Charles Elton. It includes the chemical, physical and biotic factors needed by the body for life, and is determined by its morphological adaptability, physiological reactions and behavior. IN different parts Lights and in different territories there are species that are unequal in systematic relations, but similar to ecology - they are called environmentally equivalent.

Environmental niche is a place occupied by the view (more precisely, its population) in the community (biocenosis). The interaction of this species (population) with the community partners in which it is included in the quality is articulated, determines its place in the cycle of substances caused by food and competitive biocenosis. The term "ecological niche" is proposed by the American scientist J. Grinell (1917). The interpretation of an ecological niche as the position of the type of supply chains of one or more biocenoses was given by the English ecologist C. Elton (1927). A similar interpretation of the concept of an ecological niche allows the quantitative characteristic of an ecological niche for each type or for its individual populations.

The limiting factor is a factor of the medium that goes beyond the endurance of the body. The limiting factor limits any manifestation of the body's vital activity. With the help of limiting factors, the state of organisms and ecosystems is regulated.

The law of tolerance of Shelford - in ecology - the law, according to which the existence of the species is determined by the limiting factors that are not only in a minimum, but also at the maximum. The law of tolerance expands the law of the minimum of the libid.

The law of the minimum of Y.Libiha - in ecology is a concept that the existence and endurance of the body is determined by the weakest link in the chain of its environmental needs.

According to the minimum law, the vitality of organisms limit those environmental factorsThe quantity and quality of which are close to the necessary organism or ecosystem minimum.

Ecological niche

Any type of organisms is adapted for certain conditions of existence and cannot arbitrarily change the habitat, food diet, power, time of reproduction, asylum, etc. The whole complex of relations to such factors determines the place that nature has identified this body, and the role he has to play in a universal process. All this is united in the concept environmental niche.

Under the environmental niche, the body of the body is in nature and the whole image of its livelihoods, its life status, enshrined in his organization and adaptations.

IN different time The concept of an ecological niche attributed different meaning. At first, the word "niche" was designated the main unit of the distribution of the form within the space of the ecosystem, dictated by the structural and instinctive limitations of this species. For example, proteins live on trees, moose - on Earth, some species of birds nest on the branches, others in the duplach, etc. Here, the concept of ecological niche is interpreted mainly as habitats, or a spatial niche. Later, the term "niche" was given the meaning of the "functional status of the body in the community." Basically, it concerned the place of this species in the trophic structure of the ecosystem: the type of food, time and place of food, who is a predator for a given organism, etc. Now it is called a trophic niche. Then it was shown that the niche can be viewed as a kind of hyperoblization in multidimensional space, built on the basis of habitat factors. This hyperoballing limited the range of factors in which this species may exist (hyperpriced niche).

That is, in a modern understanding of the ecological niche, at least three aspects can be distinguished: the physical space occupied by the body in nature (habitat), its attitude towards the factors of the medium and to the living organisms adjacent to it (communications), as well as its functional role in the ecosystem. All these aspects are manifested through the structure of the body, adaptation, instincts, life cycles, life "interests", etc. The body's right to choose its ecological niche is limited by a rather narrow framework, fixed by him from birth. However, his descendants can claim other environmental niches if appropriate genetic changes have occurred.

Using the concept of an ecological niche, the rule of competitive exclusion Gause can be rephrased as follows: two different types cannot occupy one ecological niche and even enter into one ecosystem; One of them should either die or change and take a new ecological niche. By the way, the intraspecific competition is often strongly reduced precisely because at different stages of the life cycle, many organisms occupy different ecological niches. For example, a tadpole is a vegetative animal, and adult frogs living in the same pond are predators. Another example: insects at the stage of the larvae and an adult individual.

On one territory in the ecosystem can live a large number of organisms of different types. These may be nearby species, but each of them is obliged to take its unique ecological niche. In this case, these species do not enter into competitive relations and in a certain sense become neutral to each other. However, often environmental niches of different types can overlap at least one of the aspects, for example, by habitat or nutrition. This leads to an interspecific competition, which is usually not a rigid nature and contributes to the clarity of the distinction of environmental niches.

Thus, a law is implemented in ecosystems, a similar principle of Pauli's prohibition in quantum physics: in this quantum system In the same quantum state, more than one fermion can be located (particles with a half-heer spin, type of electrons, protons, neutrons, etc.). The ecosystems also quantize environmental niches, which seek to clearly localize in relation to other environmental niches. Inside this environmental niche, that is, inside the population, which occupies this niche, the differentiation of more private niches continues, which occupies each particular part, which determines the status of this individual in the life of this population.

Does such differentiation occur at lower levels of the systemic hierarchy, for example, at the level of a multicellular organism? Here you can also select various "types" cells and smaller "Taurus", the structure of which determines them functional purpose inside the body. Some of them are stationary, their colonies form organs, the purpose of which makes sense only in relation to the body as a whole. There are also the moving simplest organisms living, seemingly their "personal" life, which nevertheless fully satisfies the needs of the entire multicellular organism. For example, the red blood calves make only the fact that they "know how": oxygen is associated in one place, and in another place it is released. These are their "ecological niche". The vital activity of each cell cell is built in such a way that, "living for yourself", it is at the same time working for the benefit of the whole organism. This work is not at all tired, just as we do not tire the process of food intake, or a beloved business (if, of course, all this is in moderation). Cells are arranged so that in a different way they simply cannot live, just as the bee cannot live without collecting nectar and pollen (probably it brings her some pleasure).

Thus, the whole nature "from the bottom of the back" seems to be permeated with the idea of \u200b\u200bdifferentiation, which in the ecology has undertaken to the concept of an ecological niche, which in a certain sense is similar to the organ or subsystem of a living organism. These "organs" are formed under the action of an external environment, that is, their formation is subordinated to the requirements of the overseystem, in our case - the biosphere.

Ecological niche - The view of the biogeocenosis, determined by its biotic potential and a set of factors of the external environment to which it is adapted. This is not only a physical space occupied by the body, but also its functional role in the community (position in the food chain), and its place relative to external factors.

In the structure of the ecological niches, 3 components are distinguished:

1. Spatial niche (habitat) - "address" of the body;
2. Trophic niche - characteristics food and the role of the type in the community - "Profession";
3. Multidimensional (hyperpric) ecological niche - the range of all conditions in which a person or population lives and reproduces.

Distinguish fundamental (potential) nichewhich the body or the form could occupy in the absence of competition, predators in which the abiotic conditions are optimal; and implemented niche - The actual range of the conditions of the body's existence, which is less or equal to the fundamental niche.

The rule is obligatory to fill an ecological niche.
The empty ecological niche is always and necessarily is naturally filled. In saturated biogeocenoses, life resources are used most fully - all environmental niches are occupied. In unsaturated biogeocenoses, life resources are disposed of partially, they are characterized by the presence of free ecological niches.

Environmental duplication - The occupation of the freed ecological niche to another species capable of performing the same functions in the community as the disappeared view. It follows from this that knowing the distribution of species on ecological niche in the community and the parameters of each ecological niche can be described in advance the view that one or another niche can occupy.

Environmental diversification - The phenomenon of the separation of an ecological niche as a result of interspecific competition. It is carried out in three parameters:
- on spatial placement
- by fooddower
- on the distribution of activity in time.
Due to diversification, there is a displacement of signs - the individuals of two close species are more similar to among themselves in those parts of the ranges where they are found separately than in the sections of the joint residence.

Specifications of an ecological niche:
1. Width
2. Overlapping this niche with neighboring

Width of ecological niche - relative parameter that is evaluated by comparing with the width of an ecological niche of other species. Evuribionts usually have broader environmental niches than the uncoobion. However, the same ecological niche may have a different width of various directions: for example, according to spatial distribution, food relations, etc.

Overlapping ecological niche It occurs if various types of habitat use the same resources. The overlapping can be complete or partial, one or more of the parameters of the ecological niche.

If the ecological niches of the organisms of two species are very different from each other, then these species having the same habitat will not compete with each other (Fig. 3).

If environmental niches partially overlap (Fig. 2), their joint coexistence will be possible due to the presence of specific devices.

If an ecological niche of one species includes an ecological niche of another (Fig. 1), there is intensive competition, the dominant competitor will displace his opponent to the periphery of the adaptability zone.

Competition leads to important environmental consequences. In nature, each species is simultaneously exposed to interspecific and intraspecific competition. Internship in its consequences is the opposite of intraspecific, as it narrows the area of \u200b\u200bhabitats and the quantity and quality of the necessary medium resources.

Internal competition contributes to the territorial distribution of species, that is, the expansion of the spatial ecological niche. The end result is the ratio of interspecific and intraspecific competition. If interspecific competition is greater, the area of \u200b\u200bthis species decreases to the territory of optimal conditions And at the same time increases the specialization of the species.

Environmental niches

Ecological niche Call the position of the species, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ oi.occupies B. general System Biocenosis, a complex of its biosotic connections and requirements for abiotic environmental factors. Environmental niche displays the participation of the type in biocenosis. In this case, it means not the territorial placement, but functional manifestation The body in the community. According to the expression of C. Elton (1934), ecological niche - 'is \u200b\u200ba place in live, surroundings, the attitude of a species to food and to enemies''''''. The concept of an ecological niche turned out to be very fruitful to understand the laws of the joint life of species. In addition to C. Elton above its development, many environmentalists worked, among them D. Greennell, Khatchinson, Yu. Odum, etc.

The existence of a species in the community is determined by the combination and action of many factors, but in determining the affiliation of organisms to any niche proceed from the nature of these organisms, from their ability to produce or supply food. So, the green plant, taking part in the addition of biocenosis, ensures the existence of a number of ecological niches. These are niches covering organisms that feed on the tissues of the roots or tissues of leaves, flowers, fruits, densities of roots, etc. (Fig. 11.11).

Fig. 11.11. Placing environmental niches confined to the plant:

1 - cornests; 2 - eating root sequencies; 3 - leafles; 4 - stems, 5 - fruit; 6 - seeds; 7 - flowered; 8 - pollens; 9 - squid; 10 - Crees

(by I. N. Ponomareva, 1975)

Each of these niches includes heterogeneous group of organisms. Thus, the ecological group of cornests includes nematodes, and the larvae of some beetles (Nutcaln, May Khrushchka), and in the niche of the sucking juices of plants - bugs, ho. Environmental niches 'Sustainees'''l or' Evoloomy large group Animals, among whom insects are particularly numerous (vertices, woods, cores, Usachi, etc.).

It should be noted that among them there are also those that feed on wood alive plants or only the bark - those and others belong to different environmental niches. Specialization of food resource species reduces competition, increases the stability of the community structure.

Exist different types Resource section.

1. Specialization of morphology and behavior in accordance with the family: For example, the beak in birds should be adapted for catching insects, dropping holes, splitting nuts, breaking meat, etc.

2. Vertical session, for example, between the inhabitants of the canopy and the forest bedding.

3. The horizontal section is, for example, between the inhabitants of various micrometoschitations. Each of these types or their combination leads to the separation of organisms into groups, less competing among themselves, as each of them occupies its niche. For example, there is a section of birds on environmental groupsbased on the place of their nutrition: air, foliage, trunk, soil. Further subsection of these groups based on the main type of food is shown in Fig. 11.12.

Fig. 11.12. Section of birds on environmental groups based

on the place of their power supply: air, foliage, trunk, land

(according to N. Green et al., 1993)

Specialization of the type of nutrition, the use of space, time of activity and other conditions is characterized as a narrowing of its ecological niche, and inverse processes - as its expansion.

To narrowing or expanding the environmental niche of the community big influence Review competitors. G. F. Gauz formulated The rule of competitive exception for similar types of ecology should be expressed in such a way that two types do not get along in one ecological niche. The way out of competition is achieved by the discrepancy between the requirements for the environment, a change in lifestyle or, in other words, is the distinction between environmental niche species. In this case, they acquire the ability to coexist in one biocenosis. Thus, in the mangrove thickets of the coast of South Florida, a variety of herons live and often on the same shakes feeding fish to nine different species. At the same time, they practically do not interfere with each other, as they are in their behavior - in what hunting sites they prefer and how they catch fish, the devices produced, allowing them to occupy various niches within the same and the same shames. The green quax passively loses his fish, sitting on the roots of mangrove trees protruding. The Louisiana Heron makes sharp movements, shaking the water and blowing the hidden fish. Snow Heron in search of mining slowly moves from place to place.

The most sophisticated way of fishing is enjoyed by a red heron, which first draws away the water, and then wide open the wings, creating a shadow. At the same time, firstly, she herself sees well in the water, and, secondly, scared fish take shadow for the shelter, rushed to it, getting straight into the beak of the enemy. The size of a large blue heron allows it to hunt in places that are not affordable for her smaller and short-legged congor. Insectivorous birds in the winter forests of Russia, rustling in the trees, due to the different nature of the search for food also avoid competing with each other. Fresh and food gather food on the trunks. Freshly examine trees rapidly, rapidly grabbing insects, seeds, which were in large crack cracks, and small foods thoroughly shake on the surface of the trunk of the slightest shutters, in which their thin-shaped beak penetrates. In the European part of Russia, there are similar types of blue, the isolation of which is due to the differences in habitats, facilities of feeding and production sizes. Environmental differences are reflected in a number of small details of the external structure, incl. in changes in the length and thickness of the beak (Fig. 11.13).

In winter, in mixed pieces, big sages lead a wide search for food on the trees, in the bushes, on the stump, and often in the snow. Tits-Gaughty examine mostly large branches. Long-tailed blinds are looking for food at the ends of the branches, and small cutters carefully examine the tops of the coniferous crowns.

Numerous detachments of animals feeding on the grass are in their composition steppe biocenoses. Among them are many large and small mammals, such as hoofs (horses, sheep, goats, saigas) and rodents (Susliki, Surki, Miseumoid). All of them constitute one large functional group of biocenosis (ecosystem) - herbivores. At the same time, research shows that the role of these animals in the consumption of vegetable mass is not the same, since they use different composite parts of herbal cover in their nutrition.

Fig. 11.13. Foodstathes in various types of cyanitsa

(according to E. A. Kriksunov et al., 1995)

So, large hoofs (now these are pets and saigas, and before mastering the steppes - only wild species) only partially, selectively eaten food, mainly the high, the most nutritious herbs, biting them on considerable height (4-7 cm) from the soil surface. Surbs living here are choosing food among herbal, spoken and modified by hoofs, going to him, which was not available to them. Surbs are posing and feeding only where there is no high-finger. Smaller animals - Susliki - prefer to collect food where even stronger is disturbed by the grass. Here they collect what remains of the feeding of ungulates and Surkov. Between these three groups of herbivore animals forming the zoecenosis, the section is observed in the use of biomass of grassy cover. Relations that have developed between these groups of animals are not competitive. All these types of animals use different composite parts of the plant cover, 'everyday'''' that is not available to other herbivores. Districted participation in eating herbage or placement of organisms in various environmental niches provides a more complex structure of biocenosis in a given territory, providing a more complete use of living conditions in natural ecosystems and maximum consumption of its products. The joint existence of these animals is characterized not only by the lack of competitive bonds, but on the contrary, provides high numbers. Thus, in recent decades, the increase in gophers and their resettlement - the result of increased domestic grazing in steppe areas due to the increase in livestock. In the location, devoid of grazing (for example, reserved land), there is a reduction in the number of Surkov and Suslikov. In areas with a rapid rustling of herbs (especially in highly old sites), Surki leave the SovP, and the gophers remain in minor quantity.

In plants living in one tier, environmental niches are similar, which contributes to the weakening of competition between plants of various tiers and necessitates the development of various ecological niches. In biocenosis, different types of plants occupy different environmental niches, which weakens interspecific competitive tensions. The same type of plants in various natural zones May occupy different ecological niches. So, pine and blueberries in Bor-box, water plants (Restes, Kubashka, Watercraft, Ryaski) are posted together, but are distributed through various niches. The saddler and blueberries in the forests of a moderate band are typical shadow shapes, and in Festourprot and Tundra grow on open spaces and become light. The environmental niche of the species is influenced by interspecific and intraspecific competition.

In the presence of competition with closely related or environmentally friendly types of collaboration zone is reduced to otsemajor borders (Fig. 11.14), i.e. the view extends to the Master< благоприятных для него зонах, где он обладает преимуществом пс сравнению со своими конкурентами. В случае если межвидовая конкуренция сужает экологическую нишу вида, не давая проявиться в полном объёме, то внутривидовая конкуренция, напротив, способствует расширению экологических ниш. При возросшей численностщ вида начинается использование дополнительных кормов, освоение новых местообитаний, появление новых биоценотических связей.

Fig. 11.14. Section of habitats due to competition

(according to E. A. Kriksunov, 1995)

Environmental niches are concepts and types. Classification and features of the category "Environmental niche" 2017, 2018.