Alexander II liberal reform backgrounds. The main provisions of the peasant reform

Reservoirs 22.09.2019

Reservoirs

Alexander Nikolaevich, the eldest son of Emperor Nikolai I and his wife Empress Alexandra Fedorovna joined the throne on February 18, 1855. Alexander II crushed on August 26, 1856 in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin.

In historical science, the 50s are traditionally 50 - 60s. XIX century They consider the revolutionary situation under which they understand the totality of signs independent of the will of individual groups, classes or parties that make the social revolution quite possible. Russian revolutionary situation of the 50-60s. XIX century had its own features:

1) the crisis of the feudal-serf system - the stage of the decomposition of feudalism, when serf production relations entered the dead end and became the jackets in the development of capitalism;

2) the extraordinary acuteness of the agrarian (peasant) issue - the question of relations on land ownership and the associated social and political struggle (according to statistics, by the middle of the XIX century. In Russia for 110 thousand landlords accounted for 22 million fortress peasants);

3) The hardest national catastrophe is a defeat in Crimean war (1853 - 1855): In the Paris Treatise (1856), Russia lost southern Bessarabia and the mouth of the Danube; She was forbidden not only to have fleet, fortress and arsenals on the Black Sea (so on. The principle of sea neutralization), but also to participate in the struggle of the Slavic peoples of the Balkans against Turkish rule. In addition, the war revealed the technical and military gap of Russia from advanced European countries - England and France.

Thus, the reforms were a vital necessity, otherwise the revolutionary situation threatened to grow into a revolution, whose result, given the features and specifics of Russia, was impossible to predict. Failures in the Crimean War caused a wave of public discontent. The social movement increased after the death of Nicholas I in February 1855, as always, in Russia, special hopes pinned on the new emperor. Because of the so-called. "Era Publicity." The actions of the government were accelerated after the war by the socio-political movement for the abolition of serfdom, since this problem was paramount importance. In 1855 - 1857 The writers, publicists, scientists, government officials of the emperor were filed with 63 notes with options for solving this issue. The approach to the problem and the program of practical actions was different, but all united an understanding of the need for indigenous change. IN public movement Three main directions were distinguished clearly.

1. The leftoradic direction was grouped around the magazine "Contemporary" and foreign publications A. I. Herzen. Supporters of this flow criticized the entire socio-political system of Russia. At the most extreme flange, N. G. Chernyshevsky and N. A. Dobrolyubov, who rejected all sorts of compromises and projects of the liberation of peasants from above, the actions of the government. The most desirable, they considered the mass movement of the peasants and the elimination of serfdom from the bottom, since they were adherents of socialist ideas and dreamed of a new social structure of society on the basis of equality, justice and universal inspired labor.

2. The moderately liberal flow was the most influential and included the color of the then Russian intelligentsia. In composition, it was heterogeneous and included Slavophiles (Yu. F. Samarin, A. I. Koshelev), Western (B. N. Chicherin, K. D. Cavelin, A. M. Unkovsky), as well as many large officials of various ministries and the departments of the royal government. The program of the liberal camp was set out to K. D. Cavelin in the "note on the liberation of peasants in Russia", intended for the king, but received a broad publicity. The document sharply criticized the serfdom, which were the "Slow Action Bomb", which in a few decades "will explode on the air all the state." Therefore, the government is necessary in a short time to destroy the serfdom in a short time, to put the peasants of the Earth for a voluntary agreement with landowners and for redemption, to provide financial support to peasants. The liberal program after some fluctuations has become the basis of government policies for the peasant issue.

3. The conservative direction was supported by most nobility. Understanding the need for change, it believed that it should be done gradually, without breaking the foundation of landlord earthlings. The conservative program received a specific embodiment in the notes of 1855 - 1856. Alexander II, compiled by the Poltava landowner M. P. Pozenom: The peasants receive personal freedom for redemption; The redemption of land is carried out only with the consent of the landowner; The government should provide loans for this to peasants.

Thus, followers of all public flows converged in the need for change. Fear of the explosion of peasant discontent, "new Pugachevshchina", united liberals and conservatives. The differences were in depth, paths and the pace of inevitable reforms. The elimination of serfs is historically ripe not only during the objective development of the country, but also in the minds of people. With the policy that existed in Russia, the reform could be carried out by the will of the emperor. The view is in the historical literature about the possibility of liberation of peasants "bottom", by universal rebellion, it would be unrealistic and led only to chaos and destruction. Yes, and the prerequisites of the universal peasant uprising at that time were not.

Reforms 60 - 70s. XIX century associated with the name of Emperor Alexander II (1855 - 1881). In the conditions of the Russian autocratic system, the sovereign played a decisive role. There are different opinions about the character and personal qualities of Alexander II. He was not an outstanding person like Peter I. The pupil of the famous poet V. A. Zhukovsky, the king did not possess a wide range and was not a staunch reformer, but really perceived the events taking place and had sufficient determination to conduct fundamental conversions to strengthen and maintain the existing autocratic conversion Building. The heir to the Russian throne, brought up in the spirit of European humanism of the first half of the XIX century, knew how to select talented assistants who could enforce his ideas, as well as listen to public opinion and change their position if necessary.

Cancellation of serfdom radically changed the structure of social relations. The changed system required the adoption of new laws, the introduction of new management institutions. This task was to a certain extent performed reforms of the 60s - 70s. XIX century

Judicial reform (1864). The reform was prepared by professional lawyers - N. A. Budkovsky, S. I. Zarudny, K. P. Pobedonossev, D. A. Rovinsky, N. I. Stanovsky.

The preparation of the reform began in 1861 on the new judicial charters (November 20, 1864) trial It was organized as a lawyer competition (protection) and a prosecutor (the side of the accusation). The meetings were held vowels. When considering criminal cases, the jury meetings were present (12 people), which represented society (elected from local ordinary people of all classes). Men at the age of 25 - 70 years have entered the next lists, Russians who own at least 200 rubles., Peasants who have experience in the system of local self-government. The judges were appointed for life and therefore were independent of the administration.

The principle of unconsciousness of the court was introduced (its decision did not depend on the estate affiliation of the accused). The main courts were the world court (solved small criminal and civil cases): The world judges were elected by all the estates at the county meetings for a period of three years and were approved by the government), as well as the Crown Court: district judges, the court chambers, the Governing Senate as the Supreme Court of Court of Court .

Zemskoy reform (1864). The reform of local self-government was developed by the Commission at the Ministry of Internal Affairs from 1859, chaired by N. A. Milyutin and from 1861 - P. A. Valuev. The district and provincial assembly were the administrative bodies, whose members were called vowels. From the composition of the vowel assembly elected the executive bodies - members of the Chairman and several members), as well as the Commission to develop issues of local economy: the collection of state applications and taxes, care for health care and folk education, etc.

Elections to the zemstvo passed once every three years. Voters were divided into three curies (election meetings): landowner, urban and peasant. To participate in the elections on the first two Kurias, it was necessary to have a certain property qualification (from 500 rubles. And above). Small owners who did not have full qualification could participate in the elections through the Commissioners, which they chose on their congresses.

The number of authorized was equal to the number of full qualities, which gave the addition of the value of the property of small owners. The elections on the peasant currics were multistage: first elected candidates, which then chose the necessary number of vowels from their environments.

The Glaznogo Zemsky Assembly elected countable meetings from among their members. Forces of only alone vowels could not be realized all the tasks set in front of the zemstvas, so the Zemstvo received the right to invite specialists from special sectors of the economy - doctors, teachers, agronomists, etc., - which were the name of Zemstvo officials. Contrary to the expectations of the Government of Zemstvo did not block the decision of local economic affairs, but were actively involved in political struggle, becoming the basis of a liberal movement in Russia.

Urban reform(1870). Her preparation was carried out simultaneously with the Zemstvo reform. Her origokov stood N. A. Milyutin, Yu. F. Samarin and other famous Russian reformers. The basis of the management of the cities was the "pledged diploma of the cities" of 1785. The new "city situation" was adopted in 1870. The local government of cities was built on the same principles as Zemsky.

Representative bodies of urban self-government were urban Duma, who settled for four years from among urban owners - city tax payers. Voters were recorded in the list of reducing the amount of the tax they pay. Then the list was divided into three equal parts, from each of which a third of deputies (vowels) in the city duma was elected. Persons who did not have property and not paying urban taxes, did not participate in the elections. The city Duma has elected members of the city council and urban head (executive bodies of urban self-government).

Military reforms (1862 - 1874). D. A. Milyutina was held under the leadership of D. A. Milyutin, F. A. Gayden, N. A. Isakov, N. Obruchev, E. I. Gotleben participated in the development of projects of military reforms. After the defeat in the Crimean War and the signing of the shameful Paris world, the government was forced to take a number of measures to improve the army and increase its combat capability:

1) a change in the management system of the Armed Forces (1862 - 1864 - the formation of military districts and strengthening the centralization in the management of land forces; 1865 - the establishment of the General Staff as the central control of the army; 1868 - the reorganization of the Military Ministry);

2) re-equipment of the army;

3) replenishment of officer composition by qualified personnel (the expansion of the network of military educational institutions, the creation of UNKERS schools in 1863 - 1866);

4) a change in tactical techniques (adoption of new military charters);

5) Cancellation of the recruitment system of the army (1874) and the introduction of universal military service;

6) reduction in service life (service in ground forces And on the fleet consisted of valid (up to 6 to 7 years) and in stock (3 - 9 years). The position of the family (the only son) and public (clergymen, scientists), as well as education gave benefits to exemption from military service or a reduction in its term);

7) the reorganization of the army (1871) with the allocation of field (existing) and local (auxiliary, reserve) troops.

Reforms in the field of public education (1863 - 1864). For the period of the reign of Alexander II, the number of educational institutions has increased significantly, incl. For children from low-income, as a rule, peasant, families. In the Boreframe Russia, women's education received widespread development. Women's gymnasiums were opened, in which pedagogical courses were created. For daughters of the spiritual title, diocesan schools, preparing teachers for primary schools. In 1878, public activists led by Professor at the University of Petersburg University of K. N. Bestuzhev-Rummy achieved discoveries in the capital of higher female courses equivalent to the university. The same courses were opened in Moscow under the direction of Professor V. I. Gerier. It was found to be the beginning of female medical education. The reform in the educational sphere gave rise to new Type Russian intellectual: widely educated, critical thinking, aspiring to active social and practical activities.

Censored reform (1865). The Commission chaired by the CNF was working on the first draft law on censorship. D. A. Obolensky under the Ministry of Folk Enlightenment (A. V. Golovnina), and the second project was drawn up by the new commission D. A. Obolensky at the Ministry of Internal Affairs (P. A. Valuev). The law was introduced on September 1, 1865 in the two cities of the empire - St. Petersburg and Moscow - the order and conditions for the release of books and the press were partially changed. Serious scientific books and expensive periodicals could be imprinted without prior censorship with permission of the Minister of Internal Affairs. In case of detection in them, "harmful" directions, guilty (author, publisher, translator or editor) were pursued by the court. An administrative recovery system was introduced - caution of the Minister of Internal Affairs with the right to suspend periodic publication for up to 6 months or the final prohibition of its highest solution.

If we talk about ideology, the position of Alexander Nikolayevich is unlikely to be determined to determine definitely, like a liberal or, say, conservative. And not at all because he was politically omnivorous or, as political scientists are expressed, was a conformist. He was sincerely and convinceded to act in circumstances, but these actions were determined not so much by its political sympathies as the pragmatic wishes of the head of state, the monarch. "By virtue of historical circumstances, Alexander II, and his closest surroundings, as already noted, better anyone in Russia felt the breath of time and, if they didn't sit down, did not try to impose their point of view, they had a real chance to lead the country along the way Gradual, but necessary changes without unnecessary losses and shocks.

As mentioned above, Alexander II, never in his youth, nor in mature years - did not adhere to any particular theory or concept in his views on the history of Russia and the tasks government controlled. For its general views, it was characterized by an idea of \u200b\u200bthe inviolability of the autocracy and the existing statehood of Russia as the whole of its unity, about the divine origin of the royal power. He confesses his father, having familiarized himself with Russia in a journey: "I consider myself happy that God has been delivered to her all my life." Having become a dealer, he identified himself with Russia, considering his role, his mission as serving the degree of dedication.

And later since its activities on the state field, he made decisions on the basis of not from own desiresBut from the needs of Russia.

The first of the important decisions of Alexander II, the rewarding new reign from Nikolaevsky, - the conclusion of the Paris world in March 1856 - revealed the ability to refuse erroneous views and assessments (until the end of 1855 he stood for the continuation of the war), the ability to overcome the opposition ( In this case, inflexible patriots), to prefer common sense to adversely with the concepts and traditions. Without damaging imperial claims and interests (decisive victories in the Caucasian War were obsessed in the early years of his reign), Alexander II realized the priority and the need for internal transformations to restore the greatness of Russia, its place and roles in Europe after defeating the war.

It was also the case in solving a peasant question. In his views, he was not a liberal with the concepts. On the contrary, being the chairman of two secret committees in the peasant business, 1846 and 1848, he stated himself a champion of serfdom more decisive and frankly than the monarch itself. Interesting to the argument of this position in the Journal of the Secret Committee of 1846 signed by him: "Dococol Russia, for unforeseen destinies, does not lose its unity and power, Dotlet other powers cannot serve as an example. Colossus requires a different foundation and other concepts of freedom not only of peasants, but also of all classes ", freedom in Russia should consist in obedience to all the laws emanating from one highest source." But nevertheless, "for five years, until the adoption of the" provisions of February 19, 1861 ", he showed an uncomprofitable will in the decision to cancel the serfdom. His hardness, its stubborn confrontation of the reaction was eaten not by commitment or sympathy to liberalism, but by confidence that the detention of Russia, its greatness and place in the family of nations of Europe require the abolition of serfdom as an obsolete and taught institution. This confidence supported and strengthened not at all by the will of the will of the monarch. The adamance of Alexander II determination to abolish the serfdom in the conditions of the autocratic monarchical system of Russia was during the entire preparation period peasant reform The main guarantor of its implementation. "

Remedied by the beginning implementation of the peasant reform, the emperor found that the rest of the transformation can be carried out a purely tall way, eliminating the opinions and wishes of the reformist of the configured part of society, ultimately the trouble Alexander II was not that he did not give the country of the Constitution, but What repaired the conduct of important political measures of the Higher Bureaucracy. As a result, another paradox was formed: Zemskaya, judicial, university, censored reform, with their necessity, served not to reconcile society and power, but distorted them from each other.

In this negligence to the welfare of the people predicted the great danger of the entire case of reforms and the reigning dynasty, one of the prominent representatives of the liberal bureaucracy, the Minister of Folk Enlightenment in 1861-1866. A.V. Head Smeted by the Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich in the summer of 1860 to the central provinces of Russia to familiarize themselves with the position of the village, he came to the conclusions affecting his turnover and depth. "I confess that the future seems to me extremely restless," he wrote on July 24, 1860. The governor of the Caucasus and a friend Alexander II Prince A.I. Baryatinsky. - I spent this summer in the center of Russia, among the population of truly Russian people who compressed the compressed grace of the mass, they speak in the same language, they profess the same faith, having some interests, making the true strength of Russia and presenting a whole power itself. Considering near the state of the country and remembering the budgets of the state, I find that over the past 40 years the government took a lot from the people, and gave him very little. It took people, straight and indirect taxes, heavy work, etc. - it took most of the income, and then the people, thanks to the bad administration, paid much more than the treasury received. What did the government do at the same time for these places, instead of all filters? Nothing ... the state income, half of which is based on the immorality of the people or, rather, on his corruption, the Wine Spump, spent on the payment of interest of debt, for the army, the fleet and this distant Petersburg ... So, the money received from the filings was not spent on their The real needs most necessary. All this was the big injustice; And since each injustice is always punished, then I am sure that the punishment does not make himself wait. It will come when peasant children who are now just chest babies, grow and understand everything that I just spoke. This may happen in the reign of the grandson of the present sovereign. "

fastener Alexander Political Reform

3) The hardest national catastrophe is a defeat in the Crimean War (1853 - 1855): in the Paris Treatise (1856) Russia lost southern Bessarabia and the mouth of the Danube; She was forbidden not only to have fleet, fortress and arsenals on the Black Sea (so on. The principle of sea neutralization), but also to participate in the fight slavic peoples Balkans against Turkish rule. In addition, the war revealed the technical and military gap of Russia from advanced European countries - England and France.

Thus, the reforms were a vital necessity, otherwise the revolutionary situation threatened to grow into a revolution, whose result, given the features and specifics of Russia, was impossible to predict. Failures in the Crimean War caused a wave of public discontent. The social movement increased after the death of Nicholas I in February 1855, as always, in Russia, special hopes pinned on the new emperor. Because of the so-called. "Era Publicity." The actions of the government were accelerated after the war by the socio-political movement for the abolition of serfdom, since this problem was paramount importance. In 1855 - 1857 The writers, publicists, scientists, government officials of the emperor were filed with 63 notes with options for solving this issue. The approach to the problem and the program of practical actions was different, but all united an understanding of the need for indigenous change. In public movement, three main directions were distinguished clearly.

Thus, followers of all social flows converged in the need for change. Fear of the explosion of peasant discontent, "new Pugachevshchina", united liberals and conservatives. The differences were in depth, paths and the pace of inevitable reforms. The elimination of serfs is historically ripe not only during the objective development of the country, but also in the minds of people. With the policy that existed in Russia, the reform could be carried out by the will of the emperor. The view is in the historical literature about the possibility of liberation of peasants "bottom", by universal rebellion, it would be unrealistic and led only to chaos and destruction. Yes, and the prerequisites of the universal peasant uprising at that time were not.

Judicial reform

The reform preparation began in 1861 under the new judicial charters (November 20, 1864) the trial was organized as a lawyer competition (protection) and the prosecutor (the prosecution side). The meetings were held vowels. When considering criminal cases, the jury meetings were present (12 people), which represented society (elected from local ordinary people of all classes). Men at the age of 25 - 70 years have entered the next lists, Russians who own at least 200 rubles., Peasants who have experience in the system of local self-government. The judges were appointed for life and therefore were independent of the administration.

2) re-equipment of the army;

6) Reducing the service life (service in the land forces and on the fleet consisted of valid (up to 6 to 7 years) and in stock (3 - 9 years). Family position (the only Son) and public (clergymen, scientists), as well as education gave benefits for liberation from military service or reduce its term);

(1863 - 1864). For the period of the reign of Alexander II, the number of educational institutions has increased significantly, incl. For children from low-income, as a rule, peasant, families. In the Boreframe Russia, women's education received widespread development. Women's gymnasiums were opened, in which pedagogical courses were created. For daughters of the spiritual title, diocesan schools were created, preparing teachers for primary schools. In 1878, public activists led by Professor at the University of Petersburg University of K. N. Bestuzhev-Rummy achieved discoveries in the capital of higher female courses equivalent to the university. The same courses were opened in Moscow under the direction of Professor V. I. Gerier. It was found to be the beginning of female medical education. The reform in the educational sphere gave rise to a new type of Russian intellectual: a widely educated, critical thinking, aspiring to active social and practical activities.

Alexander 2 reforms

In politics, as in all social life, do not go ahead - it means to be discarded back.

Lenin Vladimir Ilyich

Alexander 2 entered the story as a reformer.

During his rule, significant changes occurred in Russia, the main thing of which concerns the decision of the peasant question. In 1861, Alexander the second cancels the serfdom. Such a cardinal step has long been born, but its implementation was associated with a large number of difficulties.

2. Liberal reforms Alexander II (60-70s. XIX century): causes, historical importance

Cancellation of serfdom claimed from the emperor to conduct other reforms that were to return Russia to the leading position on the world stage. The country has accumulated a huge number of problems that were not solved from the era of Alexander 1 and Nicholas 1. The new emperor had to make a big focus on solving these problems, conducting largely liberal reforms, since the previous path of conservatism did not lead to positive consequences.

The main reasons for the reform of Russia

Alexander 2 came to power in 1855, and in front of him immediately appeared an acute problem in conducting reforms in almost all spheres of state life.

The main reasons for the reforms of the Aleksandra 2 era are as follows:

Defeat in the Crimean War.
The growing discontent of the people.
Playing economic competition to Western countries.
The progressive environment of the emperor.

Most of the transformations were carried out in the period 1860 - 1870. In history, they entered the name "Alexander Liberal Reforms". Today, the word "liberal" often scares people, but in fact it was in this era that the basic principles of the functioning of the state, which existed up to the end of the existence of the Russian Empire were laid.

It is also important to understand that at least the previous era and called "apogee autocracy", it was flattery. Nicholas 1 was averaged victory in the Patriotic War, and apparent domination over European countries. He was afraid to carry out significant changes in Russia. Therefore, the country actually came into a dead end, and his son Alexander 2 was forced to solve the giant problems of the empire.

What reforms were held

We have already talked about the fact that the main reform of Alexander 2 is the abolition of serfdom.

It is this transformation that put the country before the need to modernize all other spheres. If briefly, the main changes were as follows.

Financial reform of 1860 - 1864. Created state bank, Zemsky and commercial banks. The activities of banks were mainly sent to the support of industry. In the last year of reform, control bodies independent of local authorities are being created, which are verified by the financial activities of the authorities.

Zemskaya reform of 1864.

With its help, the problem of attracting extensive masses of the population was solved to address everyday issues. The elected bodies of the Zemsky and local self-government were created.

January 1864 judicial reform. After reform, the court became more "legal". Under Alexander 2, the court of jury was introduced for the first time, the ability to attract any person regardless of his position, the independence of the court from local administrations was canceled by corporal punishment and much more.

Education reform of 1864.

This reform completely changed the system that Nicholas tried to build 1, striving to deliver the population from knowledge. Alexander 2 promoted the principle of publicly available education, which will be affordable for all classes. For this, new primary schools and gymnasium opened.

In particular, it is precisely in the Alexander Epoch that the opening of women's gymnasium begins and women's access to the public service.

The reform of censorship is 1865. These changes have absolutely supported the previous course. There was still control over to all, which is published, since the activity of a revolutionary nature in Russia moved extremely actively.

Urban reform of 1870.

Mainly headed for the improvement of cities, the development of markets, health, education, the establishment of sanitary standards, and so on. The reforms were introduced in 509 cities out of 1130, which were numbered in Russia. The reform was not applied to the cities of Poland, Finland and Central Asia.

Military reform of 1874. Mainly directed to the modernization of weapons, the development of the fleet and training personnel. As a result russian army I again became one of the leading in the world.

Consequences of reforms

The reforms of Alexander 2 had the following consequences for Russia:

Prospects have been created to build a capitalist economy model.
The country has reduced the level of state regulation of the economy, as well as a free market work force. Nevertheless, the industry was not 100% ready for the perception of the capitalist model. This required more time.
The foundations of the formation of civil society are laid. The population received more civil rights and freedoms. This applies to all areas of activity, ranging from education, ending with real freedoms for movement and work.
Strengthening the opposition movement.
The main part of Alexander 2 reforms were liberal, therefore liberal movements that were ranked by Nikolai first, began to gain strength. It is in this era that the key aspects that led to the events of 1917 were laid.

Defeat in the Crimean War, as a substantiation of reforms

Russia lost to the Crimean War for several reasons:

No communications.
Russia is a huge country and move the army very hard on it. Nikolai 1 To solve this problem, the construction began railwayBut this project was not implemented due to banal corruption. Money intended for the construction of the railway connecting Moscow and the Black Sea region, simply were torn.
Disagreement in the army. Soldiers and officers did not understand each other. Between them was a whole abyss of both the estate and educational. The situation aggravated the situation that Nikolai 1 demanded a harsh punishment of soldiers for any provinces.
It is from here that the nickname of the emperor among the soldiers is "Nikolai Palkin".
Military-technical lag from Western countries.

Today, many historians suggest that the scale of the defeat in the Crimean War was simply gigantic, and this is the main factor indicating that Russia needed reforms.

This idea is maintained and maintained in western countries. After taking Sevastopol, all European publications wrote that in Russia the autocracy of herself outlived, and the country needs changes.

But the main problem consisted in the other. In 1812, Russia won great victory. This victory created with emperors the absolute illusion that the Russian army is invincible. And now the Crimean War dispelled this illusion, the Western armies demonstrate their superiority in the technical plan.

All this led to the fact that officials who pay great attention to opinion from abroad took a complex of national inferiority and began to try to transmit it to the entire population.

But the truth is that the scale defeat in the war is extremely overvalued. Of course, the war was lost, but this does not mean that Alexander 2 rules weak empire.

It should be remembered that the best and most and most in the Crimean War of Russia the developed countries Europe at that time. And despite this, England and its other allies still remember this war with horror and the valor of Russian soldiers.

Alexander II liberal reforms - causes, historical importance

Alexander Nikolaevich, the eldest son of Emperor Nikolai I and his wife Empress Alexandra Fedorovna joined the throne on February 18, 1855.

Alexander II.

Russian revolutionary situation of the 50-60s. XIX century had its own features:

1) the crisis of the feudal-serf system - the stage of the decomposition of feudalism, when serf production relations entered the dead end and became the jackets in the development of capitalism;

2) The extraordinary acuteness of the agrarian (peasant) question is - the question of relations on land ownership and the associated social and political struggle (according to statistics, by the middle of the XIX century.

in Russia, 110 thousand landlords accounted for 22 million fortress peasants);

3) The hardest national catastrophe is a defeat in the Crimean War (1853 - 1855): in the Paris Treatise (1856) Russia lost southern Bessarabia and the mouth of the Danube; She was forbidden not only to have fleet, fortress and arsenals on the Black Sea (so on. The principle of sea neutralization), but also to participate in the struggle of the Slavic peoples of the Balkans against Turkish rule.

In addition, the war revealed the technical and military gap of Russia from advanced European countries - England and France.

Failures in the Crimean War caused a wave of public discontent. The social movement increased after the death of Nicholas I in February 1855, as always, in Russia, special hopes pinned on the new emperor. Because of the so-called. "Era Publicity." The actions of the government were accelerated after the war by the socio-political movement for the abolition of serfdom, since this problem was paramount importance.

In 1855 - 1857 The writers, publicists, scientists, government officials of the emperor were filed with 63 notes with options for solving this issue.

The approach to the problem and the program of practical actions was different, but all united an understanding of the need for indigenous change. In public movement, three main directions were distinguished clearly.

The left-handed direction was grouped around the magazine "Contemporary" and foreign publications A. I. Herzen. Supporters of this flow criticized the entire socio-political system of Russia.

At the most extreme flange, N. G. Chernyshevsky and N. A. Dobrolyubov, who rejected all sorts of compromises and projects of the liberation of peasants from above, the actions of the government. The most desirable, they considered the mass movement of the peasants and the elimination of serfdom from the bottom, since they were adherents of socialist ideas and dreamed of a new social structure of society on the basis of equality, justice and universal inspired labor.

2. The moderately liberal flow was the most influential and included the color of the then Russian intelligentsia.

In composition, it was heterogeneous and included Slavophiles (Yu. F. Samarin, A. I. Koshelev), Western (B. N. Chicherin, K. D. Cavelin, A. M. Unkovsky), as well as many large officials of various ministries and the departments of the royal government. The program of the liberal camp was set out to K. D. Cavelin in the "note on the liberation of peasants in Russia", intended for the king, but received a broad publicity. The document sharply criticized the serfdom, which were the "Slow Action Bomb", which in a few decades "will explode on the air all the state."

Therefore, the government is necessary in a short time to destroy the serfdom in a short time, to put the peasants of the Earth for a voluntary agreement with landowners and for redemption, to provide financial support to peasants. The liberal program after some fluctuations has become the basis of government policies for the peasant issue.

The conservative direction was supported by most nobility. Understanding the need for change, it believed that it should be done gradually, without breaking the foundation of landlord earthlings.

The conservative program received a specific embodiment in the notes of 1855 - 1856. Alexander II, compiled by the Poltava landowner M. P. Pozenom: The peasants receive personal freedom for redemption; The redemption of land is carried out only with the consent of the landowner; The government should provide loans for this to peasants.

Thus, followers of all social flows converged in the need for change. Fear of the explosion of peasant discontent, "new Pugachevshchina", united liberals and conservatives.

The differences were in depth, paths and the pace of inevitable reforms. The elimination of serfs is historically ripe not only during the objective development of the country, but also in the minds of people. With the policy that existed in Russia, the reform could be carried out by the will of the emperor. The view is in the historical literature about the possibility of liberation of peasants "bottom", by universal rebellion, it would be unrealistic and led only to chaos and destruction.

Yes, and the prerequisites of the universal peasant uprising at that time were not.

Reforms 60 - 70s. XIX century

associated with the name of Emperor Alexander II (1855 - 1881). In the conditions of the Russian autocratic system, the sovereign played a decisive role. There are different opinions about the character and personal qualities of Alexander II. He was not an outstanding person, similar to Peter I. Pupil of the famous poet V. A.

Alexander 2 reforms

Zhukovsky, the king did not possess a wide rank and was not a staunch reformer, but really perceived the events that occurred and had sufficient determination to carry out indigenous transformations to strengthen and maintain an existing autocratic system.

The heir to the Russian throne, brought up in the spirit of European humanism of the first half of the XIX century, knew how to select talented assistants who could enforce his ideas, as well as listen to public opinion and change their position if necessary.

Cancellation of serfdom radically changed the structure of social relations.

The changed system required the adoption of new laws, the introduction of new management institutions. This task was to a certain extent performed reforms of the 60s - 70s. XIX century

Judicial reform (1864). The reform was prepared by professional lawyers - N. A. Budkovsky, S. I. Zarudny, K. P. Pobedonossev, D. A. Rovinsky, N. I. Stanovsky.

The reform preparation began in 1861 under the new judicial charters (November 20, 1864) the trial was organized as a lawyer competition (protection) and the prosecutor (the prosecution side).

The meetings were held vowels. When considering criminal cases, the jury meetings were present (12 people), which represented society (elected from local ordinary people of all classes). Men at the age of 25 - 70 years have entered the next lists, Russians who own at least 200 rubles., Peasants who have experience in the system of local self-government.

The judges were appointed for life and therefore were independent of the administration.

Zemskoy reform (1864).

The reform of local self-government was developed by the Commission at the Ministry of Internal Affairs from 1859, chaired by N. A. Milyutin and from 1861 - P. A. Valuev. The district and provincial assembly were the administrative bodies, whose members were called vowels. From the composition of the vowel assembly elected the executive bodies - members of the Chairman and several members), as well as the Commission to develop issues of local economy: the collection of state applications and taxes, care for health care and folk education, etc.

Elections to the zemstvo passed once every three years.

Voters were divided into three curies (election meetings): landowner, urban and peasant. To participate in the elections on the first two Kurias, it was necessary to have a certain property qualification (from 500 rubles. And above). Small owners who did not have full qualification could participate in the elections through the Commissioners, which they chose on their congresses.

The number of authorized was equal to the number of full qualities, which gave the addition of the value of the property of small owners.

The elections on the peasant currics were multistage: first elected candidates, which then chose the necessary number of vowels from their environments.

The Glaznogo Zemsky Assembly elected countable meetings from among their members.

Forces of only alone vowels could not be realized all the tasks set in front of the zemstvas, so the Zemstvo received the right to invite specialists from special sectors of the economy - doctors, teachers, agronomists, etc., - which were the name of Zemstvo officials. Contrary to the expectations of the Government of Zemstvo did not block the decision of local economic affairs, but were actively involved in political struggle, becoming the basis of a liberal movement in Russia.

Urban reform(1870).

Her preparation was carried out simultaneously with the Zemstvo reform. Her origokov stood N. A. Milyutin, Yu. F. Samarin and other famous Russian reformers. The basis of the management of the cities was the "pledged diploma of the cities" of 1785. The new "city situation" was adopted in 1870. The local government of cities was built on the same principles as Zemsky.

Representative bodies of urban self-government were urban Duma, who settled for four years from among urban owners - city tax payers.

Voters were recorded in the list of reducing the amount of the tax they pay. Then the list was divided into three equal parts, from each of which a third of deputies (vowels) in the city duma was elected. Persons who did not have property and not paying urban taxes, did not participate in the elections. The city Duma has elected members of the city council and urban head (executive bodies of urban self-government).

Military reforms (1862 – 1874).

D. A. Milyutina was held under the leadership of D. A. Milyutin, F. A. Gayden, N. A. Isakov, N. Obruchev, E. I. Gotleben participated in the development of projects of military reforms. After the defeat in the Crimean War and the signing of the shameful Paris world, the government was forced to take a number of measures to improve the army and increase its combat capability:

1) Changing the management system by the Armed Forces (1862 - 1864.

- the formation of military districts and strengthening the centralization in the management of land forces; 1865 - the creation of a main headquarters as the central control of the army; 1868 - reorganization of the military ministry);

2) re-equipment of the army;

3) replenishment of officer composition by qualified personnel (expanding the network of military training institutions, the creation of UNCERS schools in 1863 - 1866);

4) a change in tactical techniques (adoption of new military charters);

5) Cancellation of the recruitment system of the army (1874) and the introduction of universal military service;

6) Reducing the service life (service in the land forces and on the fleet consisted of valid (up to 6 to 7 years) and in reserve (3-9 years).

The position of the family (the only son) and public (clergymen, scientists), as well as education gave benefits to exemption from military service or a reduction in its term);

7) the reorganization of the army (1871) with the allocation of field (existing) and local (auxiliary, reserve) troops.

Reforms in the field of public education (1863 – 1864).

For the period of the reign of Alexander II, the number of educational institutions has increased significantly, incl. For children from low-income, as a rule, peasant, families. In the Boreframe Russia, women's education received widespread development. Women's gymnasiums were opened, in which pedagogical courses were created. For daughters of the spiritual title, diocesan schools were created, preparing teachers for primary schools.

In 1878, public activists led by Professor at the University of Petersburg University of K. N. Bestuzhev-Rummy achieved discoveries in the capital of higher female courses equivalent to the university. The same courses were opened in Moscow under the direction of Professor V. I. Gerier. It was found to be the beginning of female medical education.

The reform in the educational sphere gave rise to a new type of Russian intellectual: a widely educated, critical thinking, aspiring to active social and practical activities.

Censored reform (1865). The Commission chaired by the CNF was working on the first draft law on censorship. D. A. Obolensky under the Ministry of Folk Education (A.

V. Golovnina), and the second project was drawn up by the new commission D. A. Obolensky at the Ministry of Internal Affairs (P. A. Valuev). The law was introduced on September 1, 1865 in the two cities of the empire - St. Petersburg and Moscow - the order and conditions for the release of books and the press were partially changed.

Serious scientific books and expensive periodicals could be imprinted without prior censorship with permission of the Minister of Internal Affairs. In case of detection in them, "harmful" directions, guilty (author, publisher, translator or editor) were pursued by the court. An administrative recovery system was introduced - caution of the Minister of Internal Affairs with the right to suspend periodic publication for up to 6 months or the final prohibition of its highest solution.

Lecture: Alexander II liberal reforms and their historical importance.

(Peasant reform). The serfdom in Russia took such forms that there was little difference from slavery, it was condemned by all the layers of Russian society.

But the government could only go to his abolition in 1861. In Ek.Fefer there was an increase in the crisis of landlord, based on forced, ineffective work of serfs. The unrest of peasants increased. The defeat in the Crimean War showed that the serfdom - main reason Military technostality. The government rose on the path of social, eq.

and political process. In the peasant reform, the peasants were freedom (without redemption) and land (for redemption). The quarter of the Amount of Earth, the peasant was supposed to pay the landowner. The remainder of the landowner received from the state, and the peasant extended it for 49 years, the relationship of peasants and landowners were regulated by "statutory certificates", the peasants could engage in business, go to other estates. The reform prevented the mass performances of the peasants.

Alexander II reforms

Land reform. Reform of urban self-government. The abolition of serfdom caused the need for other bourgeois. January 1, 1864 published the "Regulations on the provincial and county disease institutions", introduced Sustal elected local governments - Zemstvoconsisting of administrative and executive bodies. Zemstvo was responsible for public education, for people's Healthfor food supplies, for road quality. This required funds, the deposits were allowed to introduce new taxes.

June 16, 1870 published "CITY POSITION", for which in the cities, elected self-government was introduced - Urban Duma. City Duma chose the city council (urban head). The right to elect and be elected to the city. We had only residents possessing property valuable (owners of houses, bargaining.-Industrial,). Urban Duma were under the jurisdiction of the Senata. The city reform became a step forward in the organization of the city. contributed to the development of the city. Entities, Proms and Trade.

Judicial reform. Simultaneously with Zemskaya prepared judicial. The jury meetings were now installed only guilt or innocence defendant the measure of punishment was determined by the judges. The world court was introduced into the parsing of small misconduct and civil cases in counties and cities.

Military transformations. The army played an important role in socio-political. The need and urgency of military reform was determined by the defeat in Crimean - Its technical. And the tactical backwardness of the army. European powers increased His military potential, What was the threat to the security of Russia. Applied and Management Procedure Forces, army relationships did not correspond to transformationswho happened in society.

In 1874 issued a charter of universal military service. According to a new law all young people who have reached 14 - 21 were called onBut the government determined the necessary number of recruits each year, and only this quantity was chosen from conscripts. Other reforms. University charter 1863 expanded the autonomy of universities: Provided economic and administrative independence, teachers and students participated in resolving issues of internal life.

Financial reform 1862-1866 - the right to dispose of fin. Finance finishes received the Minister of Financewhose activities were subject to accounting by the State Control. In 1860, the State Bank, lending to Torg.-Programmer, was established. The means of raising Ek.Moschi was considered the construction of a network of railway. The importation of goods to Russia has increased. The number of commercial and industrial enterprises, factories and factories have increased.

Prerequisites and Causes of Alexander Reform 2

Russia longer than any other states remained the country with feudal system and serf right. By the middle of the 19th century, such a type of state finally outlived itself, and the conflict that was twisted from the 18th century reached his peak. It was necessary to urgently change as state deviceand, mostly, the economic system.

With the development of technologies and the emergence of industrial equipment, more and more needed the need for manual workHowever, the landowners still actively used the work of the peasants, having their huge taxes.

As a result, the peasantry was overwhelmed, widespread strikes and hunger strikes began, which led to a significant decline of serfdom and landowners' incomes. The state, in turn, also received less profits from the broken landowners, and the treasury suffered. Such a situation was not satisfied with any of the parties.

The developing industry also suffered, since because of the widespread reassurance of the peasants, lacked the free workforce, which could serve machines on the factories.

In 1859-1861, peasant riots and revolutionary moods reached their peak.

The situation also aggravated the lost Crimean War, which finally undermined the confidence of citizens to the king and the government, which showed its complete inconsistency, both economic and military. In such a situation, conversations began about the need to cancel serfdom and new reforms that would help the country to get out of the crisis.

Emperor Alexander 2, who came to the throne in 1855, on one of his speeches before the nobility, stated the need for the easier elimination of serfdom from above (sovereign), otherwise it will take place (revolution).

The era of great reforms began.

The main reforms of Alexander 2

Among the mains political reforms Alexandra 2 can be called:

Peasant reform (1861);
Financial reform (1863);
Education reform (1863);
Zemskaya reform (1864);
Judicial reform (1864);
Reform of state self-government (1870);
Military reform (1874);

The essence of all reforms Alexander 2 was to restructure the Company and the management system and the formation of a new type of state.

Alexander's liberal reforms 2.

One of the most important reforms can be called the abolition of serfdom in 1861. The reform was preparing for several years and, despite the resistance of the nobility and the bourgeoisie, was still carried out. As a result of the peasant reform, all the peasants were liberated from the serfdom - along with personal freedom they also received a small plot of land completely free on which they could live and work. In addition, the peasant could buy a arable one for a small amount - it made a lot of money to the treasury state.

In addition, the peasants received a number of civil rights: they could carry out sales transactions, could operate trade and industrial enterprises, claim to go to another estate. They were also liberated from administrative and legal dependence on their former landowners.

Another reform of Alexander 2 is a print reform. In the Empire, such a concept appeared as publicity and freedom of the press (relative), newspapers could discuss activities conducted by the government and even criticize individual ministers, however, without affecting the emperor.

Also the "iron curtain" was removed, and people could freely leave the country.

The judicial system has changed. The old type of court was replaced by the new, which proclaimed the principle of unity for all classes and the principle of publicity, openness. The jury appeared, which allowed the proceedings to separate from the executive and to make more independent decisions.

Zemskaya and city reforms have formed open bodies of local governments, courts appeared in the cities, local councils - this greatly simplified the process of urban self-government.

Military reform assumed the replacement of the Petrovsk system of recruits to the Universal Military Meament.

This made it possible to create a more extensive army, which could be mobilized in the shortest possible time at the earliest. Also increased the level of military education due to the growth of military schools and academies.

Together with the development of military academies, other educational institutions began to appear. Thanks to the educational reform, the overall level of education of society began to grow rapidly.

Topic 7. Soviet state between the two world wars (1918-1939) .......................................................................................... 198

Topic 8.SSR on the eve and initial period of World War II. Great Patriotic War (1939-1945) ...................................... 218.

Topic 9. USSR in the postwar years (1945-1985) .............................. 241.

Topic 10. Soviet Union and Russia at the end of the XX century. (1985-2000) ... .. 265

Introduction

Topic 1. Introduction to the course "History"

1.1. History like science.

1.2. Formational and civilizational approaches in historical knowledge. The concept of civilization as a typological unit of history.

1.3. Typology of civilizations

1.4. Russia in the system of world civilizations. Features of the Russian historical process.

Topic 2. The main trends in the formation of a medieval society. Eastern Slavs in antiquity. Ancient Russian state in the IX - early XII centuries.

2.1. The problem of ethnogenesis of the Eastern Slavs: theories of origin and settlement.

2.2. The formation of the state in the Eastern Slavs. The role of the Norman influence on the development of ancient Russian state.

2.3. The adoption of Christianity in Russia. The role of the Orthodox Church in the formation of the Russian medieval society.

2.4. The socio-economic and socio-political structure of ancient Russia.

Topic 3. Russian lands on the eve and during the formation of a centralized state. "New period" in Russian history (XII-XVII centuries)

3.1. Transition to the specific period: Prerequisites, Causes, Value.

3.2. The main trends in the socio-economic and political development of Russia in the XIII-XV centuries.

3.4. Russian state at the turn of the XVI - XVII centuries. Troubles: Causes, Essence, Results.

3.5. Russian state after the troubled. Board of the first kings of the Romanov dynasty.

Topic 4. XVIII century in Western European and Russian history: Modernization and enlightenment

4.1. Russian Power at the turn of the XVII-XVIII centuries. Background of Petrovsky reforms.

4.2. The beginning of the modernization of Russia. Peter I. reform

4.3. The results and importance of Petrovsky transformations. The problem of a civilization split of Russian society.

4.4. Russian Empire in 1725-1762 The era of "palace coups".

4.5. The policy of "enlightened absolutism" in Russia. The reign of Catherine II.

Topic 5. The main trends in the development of world history in the XIX century. Russian state in the XIX century

5.1. The Board of Alexander I: the struggle of liberal and conservative trends.

5.2. The main directions of the foreign policy of Alexander I. Patriotic War of 1812

5.3. Nicholas I. The crisis of the feudal-serf system.

5.4. Public thought of Russia of the first half of the XIX century.

1. Decembrists.

2. Liberation movement and socio-political idea in Russia in the 20-50s. XIX century

5.5. Alexander II liberal reforms (60-70s. XIX century): Causes, historical importance.

5.6. Alexander III counter doors. The controversial nature of the tremendous modernization of Russia.

5.7. Public and political movements in Russia in the second half of the XIX century: directions, character, features.

Topic 6. The place of the twentieth century in the world-historical process. Russia at the beginning of the XX century

6.1. Economic and socio-political development of the country at the turn of the XIX - XX centuries. Revolution 1905 - 1907. In Russia: causes, character, features, results.

6.2. Education of political parties: prerequisites, programs and tactics.

6.3. Changes in the state and political strict empire. The experience of Russian parliamentarism.

6.4. The essence of the Treysian political system. Reforms P.Akolypin: goals, content, results.

6.5. The causes and nature of the First World War. The political crisis in Russia in the conditions of war.

6.6. February Revolution in Russia. Alignment of political forces in the country and the problem of historical choice.

6.7. October events of 1917 in Petrograd: problems, assessments, alignment of political forces. Establishment of Soviet power.

Topic 7. Soviet state between the two world wars (1918 - 1939)

7.1. Civil War and Intervention in Russia: Causes, Objectives, Stages, Means, Results.

7.2. The socio-political and economic crisis in Russia after the end of the Civil War. Entity and content of NEP.

7.3. Political struggle in the 1920s. Search for a model for constructing socialism.

7.4. USSR on the paths of forced construction of socialism (30s.). The results of the socio-economic development of the country.

7.5. The political system of the Soviet society in the 30s. Stalinist model of socialism: theory and practice.

Topic 8. Second World War. The Great Patriotic War of the Soviet people (1939-1945)

8.1. The origins of the Second World War. Pre-war political crisis.

8.2. Foreign policy activities of the Soviet state on the eve and in the initial period of the Second World War.

8.3. The beginning of the Great Patriotic War. The defeat of the Red Army and their causes.

8.4. The main stages and battle of the Great Patriotic War.

8.5. The price and lessons of victory over fascism in the Second World and Great Patriotic War.

Topic 9. USSR and post-war world (1945-1985)

9.1. Polarization of the post-war world. USSR in the global balance of power. "Cold War": Causes, Features, Stages.

9.2. Restoration of the destroyed economy of the USSR. Return to pre-war internal policy.

9.3. Soviet society after the death of I.V. Stalin. The beginning of changes in the public life of the country.

9.4. The first attempts of the liberalization of the Soviet society: the reforms of N.S. Khrushchev and their results.

9.5. The increase in crisis phenomena in society in the mid-60s - early 80s. The need for change.

Topic 10. From restructuring to the updated Russia (the second half of the 80s of the XX century - the beginning of the XXI century)

10.1. The USSR on the way of cardinal reform of society (the second half of the 1980s.). Policy "Perestroika".

10.2. The collapse of the USSR and the formation of the Commonwealth of Independent States.

10.3 Russia is a sovereign state: domestic policy and geopolitical position.

Glossary

References to the course "History"

5.5. Alexander II liberal reforms (60-70s. XIX century): Causes, historical importance.

In historical science traditionally 50-60s. XIX century consider revolutionary situationUnder which they understand the set of signs independent of the will of individual groups, classes or parties that make a social revolution quite possible. IN AND. Lenin in the work of "Crash II of International" allocated three signs of the revolutionary situation: the impossibility of the ruling class to maintain its power is unchanged - the "crisis of the top", the exacerbation of the above normal needs and disasters of the masses - the "crisis of the bottom", an increase in the usual political activity of the masses . As you know, not every revolutionary situation develops into a revolution. For a powerful social explosion, except for three objective signs, a revolutionary class is also needed, capable of shifting the existing government. Russian revolutionary situation of the 50-60s. XIX century had its own features:

The crisis of the feudal-serf system is the stage of the decomposition of feudalism, when serf production relations entered the dead end and became the jackets in the development of capitalism.

An extraordinary sharpness agrarian(peasant) question - questionon relationships about land ownership and related socio-political struggle (according to statistics, by the middle of the XIX century. In Russia, 110 thousand landlords accounted for 22 million fortress peasants).

The hardest national catastrophe is a defeat in the Crimean War (1853 - 1855): in the Paris Treatise (1856) Russia lost southern Bessarabia and the mouth of the Danube; She was forbidden not only to have fleet, fortress and arsenals on the Black Sea (the so-called principle of sea neutralization), but also to participate in the struggle of the Slavic peoples of the Balkans against Turkish rule. In addition, the war revealed the technical and military gap of Russia from advanced European countries - England and France.

Thus, the reforms were a vital necessity, otherwise the revolutionary situation threatened to grow into a revolution, whose result, given the features and specifics of Russia, was impossible to predict. Failures in the Crimean War caused a wave of public discontent. The social movement increased after the death of Nicholas I in February 1855, as always, in Russia, special hopes pinned on the new emperor. Because of the so-called. "Era Publicity." The actions of the government were accelerated after the war by the socio-political movement for the abolition of serfdom, since this problem was paramount importance. In 1855 - 1857 The writers, publicists, scientists, government officials of the emperor were filed with 63 notes with options for solving this issue. The approach to the problem and the program of practical actions was different, but all united an understanding of the need for indigenous change. In public movement, three main directions were distinguished clearly.

Levoradical directiongrouped around the magazine "Contemporary" and foreign publications A.I.Getzen. Supporters of this flow criticized the entire socio-political system of Russia. At the most extreme flange there were N.G. Chernyshevsky and N.A. Dobrobov, who rejected all sorts of compromises and projects of the liberation of peasants from above, the actions of the government. The most desirable, they considered the mass movement of the peasants and the elimination of serfdom from the bottom, since they were adherents of socialist ideas and dreamed of a new social structure of society on the basis of equality, justice and universal inspired labor.

Moderately liberal flowit was most influential and included the color of the then Russian intelligentsia. In composition, it was heterogeneous and included Slavophiles (Yu.F. Samarin, A.I. Koshelev), Westerns (B.N. Chicherin, K.D. Cavelin, A.M. Unkovsky), as well as many major officials of various ministries and the departments of the royal government. The program of the liberal camp was set out to the KD. Cavelin in the "note on the liberation of peasants in Russia", intended for the king, but received a broad publication. The document sharply criticized the serfdom, which were the "Slow Action Bomb", which in a few decades "will explode on the air all the state." Therefore, the government is necessary in a short time to destroy the serfdom in a short time, to put the peasants of the Earth for a voluntary agreement with landowners and for redemption, to provide financial support to peasants. The liberal program after some fluctuations has become the basis of government policies for the peasant issue.

Conservative directionmost nobility supported. Understanding the need for change, it believed that it should be done gradually, without breaking the foundation of landlord. The conservative program received a specific embodiment in the notes of 1855-1856. Alexander II, compiled by the Poltava landowner M.P. Poshene: the peasants receive a personal freedom for redemption; The redemption of land is carried out only with the consent of the landowner; The government should provide loans for this to peasants.

Thus, followers of all social flows converged in the need for change.

Reforms of the 60-70s. XIX century associated with the name of Emperor Alexander II (1855 - 1881). In the conditions of the Russian autocratic system, the sovereign played a decisive role. There are different opinions about the character and personal qualities of Alexander II. He was not an outstanding person like Peter I. The pupil of the famous poet V.A. Zhukovsky, the king did not possess a wide range and was not a staunch reformer, but really perceived the events taking place and had sufficient determination to conduct fundamental conversions to strengthen and maintain the existing autocratic conversion Building. The heir to the Russian throne, brought up in the spirit of European humanism of the first half of the XIX century, knew how to select talented assistants who could enforce his ideas, as well as listen to public opinion and change their position if necessary.

Preparation of the main reform of the reign of Alexander II - the Peasantic - began with timid attempts to improve the fortress building and passed several stages from the creation of the Secret Committee (1857) before signing the manifest and provisions on peasants who came out of the serfdom (February 19, 1861). According to these documents, serfdom in Russia was canceled, the peasants became free rural orders and received a number of personal and property rights. Entry of the peasants of the Earth was furnished by a number of conditions. According to the law, the landowner retained the ownership of land, but was supposed to provide the peasant for the redemption. In accordance with the legislative documents on the abolition of serfdom, Russia was conditionally divided into three bands - black earth, non-black-earth and steppe, in each of which the size of the peasant land was installed: the minimum (one less than which the landowner should not have been offered to the peasant) and the maximum (one , Over whom the peasant should not have demanded from the landlord). In each particular case, the size of the station was determined by the landowner agreement and the peasant decorated in the form of a statutory letter. In general, the peasants received 10-40% less than the Earth than its number they enjoyed to reform. The land plots from the peasants - "segments" - passed to the landowner. Subsequently, the "segments" became the source of social tensions and acute conflicts in the village. The manor land was redeemed in a short time, and the transition to the redemption of incidents was tightened for 20 years. Prior to the completion of the redemption transaction, the peasants remained on the position of temporary-shaped. Personally, they were free, but were obliged to serve regulated by the law of service - the barbecue or lifts, the dimensions of which were determined depending on the magnitude of the station. The mixed form of operation, the most severe for the peasants, was canceled.

To monitor the implementation of the redemption transactions formulated in the authorized literacy, as well as to solve possible disputes, the position was established world mediatorswhich was appointed by local nobles. The peasants received the land not in the property, but in the indefinite, free use. The government cared primarily about the preservation of the peasantry as an applied class, which could properly comply with the state service. This explains the preservation and consolidation after the reform of patriarchal forms of the device of peasant life and management.

The collapse of the fortress building attracted a radical turn in the lifestyle, in the life of millions of people. The liberation of peasants led to the emergence of free working hands and an increase in wage labor in the industry, which gave impetus to the economic development of the country. In the village as a removal preserved landowner land tenure and mallet peasants. This contradiction reflected the incompleteness of the peasant reform and withdrew the agricultural issue in the category of priority problems of Russian reality. The abolition of serfdom has changed the social structure of society, but the class division remained, being a remnant of feudal relations and conflicts with the real ratio of social forces in society. There were four classes in the Boreform Russia: landowners, peasants, bourgeoisie, workers. Not all the nobles were landowners. Part of the nobles did not have a place and received livelihoods in the public service. This, as a rule, were either broken out nobles - landowners, or officials who received the nobility on the length of service. PeasantsAlthough they were specifically equal, united in the community, but their property situation was different. In the second half of the XIX century. The process of stratification of the peasantry on the poor, middle peasants and fists is accelerated. The community contained this process, but was not able to stop it. Bourgeoisieand proletariat- These are new classes of developing capitalist society. Their appearance was not provided for by the estate hierarchy, so the composition of these classes was replenished with representatives of different classes: bourgeoisie - nobles, merchants, peasants, honorary citizens and mothers (had capital and invest in a commercial or industrial case); Workers - peasants and mothers. For the entire period of its existence, the Russian bourgeoisie was politically weak and depended on the government.

Judicial reform (1864). Reform prepared professional lawyers - N.A. Budkovsky, S.I. Zyrude, k.p. Victorious residents, D.A. Rovinsky, N.I. Stanovsky. The reform preparation began in 1861 under the new judicial charters (November 20, 1864) the trial was organized as competitiona lawyer (protection side) and the prosecutor (the side of the accusation). Meetings were held glow. When considering criminal cases, the jury meetings were present (12 people), which represented society (elected from local ordinary people of all classes). Men at the age of 25 - 70 years have entered the next lists, Russians who own at least 200 rubles., Peasants who have experience in the system of local self-government. Judges appointed life and therefore were independentfrom administration. Principal was introduced sustainlessnesscourts (its decisions did not depend on the estate affiliation of the accused). The main courts were the world court (solved small criminal and civil cases): global judges electedall the estates at the county meetings for a period of three years and were approved by the government), as well as the Crown Court: district judges, the court chambers, the Government of the Senate as the Supreme Court of Court.

Zemskaya reform (1864). The reform of local self-government was developed by the Commission at the Ministry of Internal Affairs from 1859, chaired by N.A. Milutin and from 1861 - P.A. Valueva. Owner's administrative bodies were county and provincial meetings, whose members were called vowels. From the composition of the vowels elected executive bodies - managementas part of the Chairman and several members), as well as the Commission to develop issues of local economy: the collection of government applications and taxes, care for health care and folk education, etc. Elections to the Slave took place once every three years. Voters shared for three curia(Election meetings): landowner, urban and peasant. To participate in the elections on the first two Kurias, it was necessary to have a certain property qualification (from 500 rubles. And above). Small owners who did not have full qualification could participate in elections through commissionersthey choose on their congresses. The number of authorized was equal to the number of full qualities, which gave the addition of the value of the property of small owners. The elections on the peasant curia were multistage: At first, candidates were elected, which then chose the necessary number of vowels from their environments. The Glaznogo Zemsky Assembly elected countable meetings from among their members. The forces of only alone vowels could not be implemented by all the tasks set in front of the zemstvas, so the Zemdom received the right to invite specialists from special sectors of the economy - doctors, teachers, agronomists, etc. - which were called zemsky servants. Contrary to the expectations of the Government of Zemstvo did not block the decision of local economic affairs, but were actively involved in political struggle, becoming the basis of a liberal movement in Russia.

City Reform (1870) . Her preparation was carried out simultaneously with the Zemstvo reform. Her origokov stood N.A. Milutin, Yu.F. Samarin and other famous Russian reformers. The basis of the management of the cities was the "pledged diploma of the cities" of 1785. The new "city situation" was adopted in 1870. The local government of cities was built on the same principles as Zemsky. Representative bodies of urban self-government were urban Duma, who settled for four years from among urban owners - city tax payers. Voters were recorded in the list of reducing the amount of the tax they pay. Then the list was divided into three equal parts, from each of which a third of deputies (vowels) in the city duma was elected. Persons who did not have property and not paying urban taxes, did not participate in the elections. The city Duma has elected members of the city council and urban head (executive bodies of urban self-government).

Military reforms (1862-1874). D.A. Milutin was held under the leadership of D.A. Milutina, F.A. Photoden, N.A. Isakov, N. N. V. Kruchev, E.Gotleben participated in the development of projects of military reforms. After the defeat in the Crimean War and the signing of the shameful Paris world, the government was forced to take a number of measures to improve the army and increase its combat capability:

changing the management system by the Armed Forces (1862 - 1864 - the formation of military districts and the strengthening of the centralization in the management of land forces; 1865 - the establishment of the General Staff as the central control of the army; 1868 - the reorganization of the Military Ministry);

re-equipment of the army;

replenishment of officer composition by qualified personnel (expanding the network of military training institutions, the creation of UNCERSK Schools in 1863 - 1866);

a change in tactical techniques (adoption of new military charters);

cancellation of the recruitment system of the host of the army (1874) and the introduction of universal military service;

reducing the service life (service in the land forces and fleet consisted of valid (up to 6-7 years) and in stock (3-9 years). The position of the family (the only son) and public (priests, scientists), as well as education gave benefits on liberation from military service or reduce its term);

the reorganization of the army (1871) with the allocation of field (existing) and local (auxiliary, reserve) troops.

Reforms in the field of folk education (1863-1864) . For the period of the reign of Alexander II, the number of educational institutions has increased significantly, incl. For children from low-income, as a rule, peasant, families. In the Boreframe Russia, women's education received widespread development. Women's gymnasiums were opened, in which pedagogical courses were created. For daughters of the spiritual title, diocesan schools were created, preparing teachers for primary schools. In 1878, public activists led by Professor of St. Petersburg University of K.N. Kestuzhev-Rumynich achieved discoveries in the capital of higher female courses equivalent to the university. The same courses were opened in Moscow under the direction of Professor V.I. Gerier. It was found to be the beginning of female medical education. The reform in the educational sphere gave rise to a new type of Russian intellectual: a widely educated, critical thinking, aspiring to active social and practical activities.

Censored reform (1865). The Commission chaired by the CNF was working on the first draft law on censorship. YES. Obolensky under the Ministry of Folk Enlightenment (A.V. Golovnin), and the second project was drawn up by the new commission of D.A. Bolensky at the Ministry of Internal Affairs (P.A.Valueva). The law was introduced on September 1, 1865 in the two cities of the empire - St. Petersburg and Moscow - the order and conditions for the release of books and the press were partially changed. Serious scientific books and expensive periodicals could be imprinted without prior censorship with permission of the Minister of Internal Affairs. In case of detection in them, "harmful" directions, guilty (author, publisher, translator or editor) were pursued by the court. An administrative recovery system was introduced - caution of the Minister of Internal Affairs with the right to suspend periodic publication for up to 6 months or the final prohibition of its highest solution.

In the historical literature of the reform of the 60-70s. XIX century Received definition "Revolutions from above"Which generally correctly reflects the largest turn in the life of the country. Started new stage its development.

From the second half of the 60s. There are noticeable fluctuations in the government course. Under the influence of the growing social movement and actions of revolutionaries, the government tightens control over the activities of zemstvo, makes changes to the judicial charters of 1864, strengthens censorship, leads an offensive against liberal education trends. In the late 70s. Improved influence of the Minister of Internal Affairs M.T. Loris-Melikova, who considered it necessary for political stabilization of the regime to hold some reforms, call on representatives of places to discuss the most important issues of the country's life, somewhat weaken censorship. After a long fluctuations, Alexander II decided on new reforms. However, the murder of the emperor on March 1, 1881 strengthened the position of the extreme conservatives, which received unconditional support for the new emperor Alexandra III.. M.T.Loris-Melikov and his supporters were resigned. The time of reaction and counterformations occurred.

History. Seminar. Topic 10.

Liberal reforms of Alexander II and their meaning

Lovely, European educated pragmatist, Alexander II (1855-1881) decided not to postpone the implementation of reforms in a long box. Showing the courage and independence necessary in such cases, he pretended to act on the advance of events, neglected the opinion of the nobility-retrograds (and there was an obvious majority) and formed the team of reformers, which brought his brother sailor led. kn. Konstantin, Ya. I. Rostovtsev, Brothers N. A. and D. A. Milyutina, and others. At the same time, the opinion of representatives of the liberal community was taken into account - K. D. Cavelin, Yu. F. Samarina, V. A. Cherkassky and even Publishers of the London "Bell" A. I. Herzen and N. P. Ogareva.

A certain, although not a decisive role in the process of reform played and the growth of the peasant movement. So, only in 1858-1860. About 1,700 peasant unrest occurred in Russia, that is, 1.5 times more than in the first quarter of the XIX century, and only a little less than for all the reign of Nicholas I. century-old peasant patience and the absence of a strong revolutionary organization, The possibility of a revolutionary explosion was almost eliminated by the multi-million dollar masses of the village population. Thus, the role of a government reformity, which at the turn of 1850-1860s, was objectively increasing. After half a century trample, it entered a new one, in general, very fruitful, stage.

The transformations started by Alexander II were comprehensive and included the abolition of serfdom, the creation of local governments, judicial, military and a number of other reforms, the true importance of which can be understood only in such a "connection". Now, following the Russian liberal historiography of the XIX - early XX century. Often, Alexander II reform is called great, and the emperor himself is the king liberator. However, this term has its opponents who pay attention to the shadow sides of these reforms. In fact, they did not affect political sphere (Russia did not receive a parliament, nor the Constitution, or freedom of speech and assembly), retained the system of noble preferences, did not solve the agricultural question and did not create a class of small land owners as a support of stability and order in the country. They could not overcome and who had become traditional for Russia, the separation of power from society and ultimately did not save Russia from the revolutionary shocks of the beginning of the twentieth century.

Be that as it may, it is difficult to overestimate the importance of the act of cancellation of serfs in Russia (February 19, 1861). However, the conditions for the liberation of peasants were not optimal (large "segments" from the peasant puts in favor of landowners, huge redemption payments, a significant stretchability of the process of transition to a new system of relationship between peasants and landowners, which was clearly unprofitable for peasants). The peasant question received a half, a compromise decision, not satisfied to the end of the peasants or landowners. As a result, the agricultural issue in Russia turned out to be even more confusing than before, and this was one of the reasons for the turbulent peasant performances in 1905-1907 and 1917. And although the reform of 1861 hurts the landlords from most unsuitable for the market economy, but the position of the peasants in the current Russia was immeasurably heavier.

Much great democracy and courage differed zemskaya, judicial and military reformWhich with all their inconsistencies and subsequent conservative-guard adjustments brought Russia the greatest fruits. With the implementation of these reforms, the country has made an important step towards the creation of civil society, overcoming the film differences in the position of individual layers of the population, publicity. The Zemstvo reform of 1864, undoubtedly contributed to the introduction of the village to culture and a more civilized lifestyle, revitalizing the liberal movement, strengthened the connection of the intelligentsia with the people. Almost the most consistent and democratic in his spirit was judicial reform 1864.g.: Court in Russia, as in Western European countries, has become a disconnect, vowel, contene (was introduced by the Institute of Advocacy and Jury Assessions), independent of the administration. Military reform of 1874 He consisted in a significant reduction in service life (in the ground forces from 15 to 6 years), the abolition of recruit sets and distribute military service to the entire men's population, which has reached the age of 20 years, changing the system of training officer personnel. The system of benefits for recruiters for family position and education (graduates of higher educational institutions, for example, served in the army only six months) were also very reasonable. All this together, taken positively affected the state of the Russian army and the fleet, although it could not eliminate the abyss between the position of the soldiers' mass and the officer corps, as well as the military-technical lag of Russia from the West for a number of vital parameters.

Of great importance were also reforms in the field of folk education and printing. In 1864, the Regulation on the initial folk schools (state, Zemsky, Church, Sundays) was approved and a new charter of the gymnasium introduced into high School The principle of equality of rights to education for children of all classes. The new university charter of 1863 was restored by the autonomy of universities in solving scientific and administrative issues, although students did not receive any corporate rights, and the access of women in universities was still not allowed. Nevertheless, women's education in Russia at that time began to quickly gain the pace (women's gymnasiums, higher female courses, etc.). Finally, in 1865. There was a new one who existed until 1906 censored article, wearing enough liberal character and freed from preliminary censorship the entire Petersburg periodic and the main part of the books.

Thus, the Government of Alexander II proposed to the Russian society and implemented a whole package of social, administrative and cultural reforms, which, if and cannot be called "revolution from above," should be recognized as a huge step forward in the modernization and Europeanization of the country. Still, the reforms went with a big creak. The government has met resistance and "bottom", by the part of the masses who wanted to get much more than gave them power, and "top", from the conservative nobility-bureaucratic circles, who thought that the people were given too much. In 1861, 1900 peasant unrest occurred in Russia, student movement increased dramatically, and in 1863 an uprising began in Poland, Lithuania and Belarus. The radically tuned part of the intelligentsia, speaking for the complete democratization of the socio-political structure of Russia, the authentic coup in the land relations in favor of peasants and sometimes reaching the appeals to the physical disassembly with the "Imperial Party" (N. G. Chernyshevsky and his environment, revolutionary organization "Earth and Volya", the proclamation of 1861-1863, the circle of N. A. Ishutina, etc.).

All this could not not scare Alexander II, who was not in the soul was not convinced of Liberal, and with bitterness stated the "ungratefulness" of the people. After in 1866, D. Karakozov made an unsuccessful attempt on the life of the emperor in St. Petersburg, in the government course began obvious movements to the right, and Alexander II himself noticeably cooled to continue the reforms demanding in addition to significant financial means and educated frames. Attention king, whose personal life also developed very difficult (the death of the son-heir, cooling relations with his wife, a complex love affair with Catherine Loruskuchka), more and more switched on foreign policy problems: conquest of Central Asia, the end Caucasian War, diplomatic maneuvers between France, Germany and Austria-Hungary, the War with Turkey (1877-1878) and others.

The farther, the more in russian society The split grew up between the quickly evolved to the left by democratic forces and the conservatives who managed to incline to their side and the king. At the same time, the liberal "center", which could balance the extreme currents, was still very weak, exposed to attacks and persecution by the authorities and ruthless criticism from revolutionaries. Its main postulates were: the free development of the human personality, state guarantees of respect for the rights and freedoms of citizens, the inviolability of private property, freedom of economic competition, ideological-political pluralism, the denial of revolutionary violence and the commitment to evolutionary methods of social development. Translated into the language of practical policy, this meant that liberals were supporters of the elimination of all thesis privileges, bringing land and urban public figures To lawmaking and the management of the country, facilitating the position of the peasantry and admission to culture. The most prominent representatives of liberalism in Russia in the second half of the XIX century. were K. D. Cavelin, B. N. Chicherin, V. A. Goltsev, and among the liberal press bodies allocated magazines "Journal of Europe", "Russian thought", etc. However, in conditions of autocratic Russia, liberalism was doomed to a long period "Utrobal" development, remaining organizationally unformed and trying to find the points of support in the deputies, urban mothers, universities and various scientific societies.

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