The unclean committee formed informally in half of 1801. In the unklassous committee there were all four closest associates Alexander I - Adam Charter, Victor Kochubey, Pavel Stroganov and Nikolai Novosillese. His meetings were held very often and always with the participation of Alexander - to november 1803, when the Committee collapsedAlthough friendship between his members remained strong. The first decrees, reflecting the work of the unlawful committee, began to appear since the autumn 1801: On September 27 (October 9), a decree prohibiting the use of torture was published due to the consequences, and 12 (24) Decree was published, according to which merchants, gentlemen and state peasants received the right to buy land, but without fortress peasants. The initiative of such an important resolution belonged to an outstanding economist of that time, Admiral Nikolay Mortrenov.

The most important result of the activities of the Neglass Committee in 1802 were the fundamental changes in the activities of the executive. Existing since the times of Peter I the colleges were abolished on 8 (20) of September, and the ministries were created in their place. The new organization did not limit itself only to the external change of the nomenclature on a more modern, but also transformed the degreery itself in the areas of subordinates to individual ministers, which made decisions alone and responded only before the king. Thus, the ministries without the Cabinet of Ministers were created in Russia and without posts of the Prime Minister or the Chairman of the Council of Ministers. Instead were created a committee of ministers, At first under the control of the king. However, the Committee had no formal organization and although he was engaged in many important cases, was not the "government." Over time, in the second half of the XIX. And in 1905 he has undergone various more or less significant changes. September Decoration established eight ministries: military affairs, maritime cases, foreign affairs, internal affairs, justice, folk education, finance (state treasury) and commerce (trade). The first Minister of Marine Affairs became Mordvinov, Minister of Folk Enlightenment - Count Peter Zavadovsky, and the famous Russian poet Gavril Derzhavin became Minister of Justice. At the head of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs became Count Alexander Vorontsov; Foreign Ministers as a rule received when appointed the highest civil title for Tabel about ranks - Chancellor. Members of the Neglass Committee also received appointments to new ministries, although only Kochubey became the minister (internal affairs; before he stood at the head of the collegium of foreign affairs). Charterian became the Deputy Vorontsov, Stroganov - Kochubey, and Novosillese - Derzhavin. The Count of Nikolay Rumyantsev became the Commerce Minister, the son of the famous commander of Peter Rumyantsev-Zadunaysky.

Simultaneously with the September decree, 8 (20) of September 1802, decree was published On the rights and obligations of the Senate. He solemnly announced the Senate Guardian of the laws, the Supreme Empire Place, the decrees of which should be executed by all the authorities and officials as the imperial. Practically, the Senate never acquired its formal value; His main powers were reduced to the supreme judicial power.

The unlawful committee also took up the position of the fortress peasants to some extent, although this interest was caused by external circumstances, and the practical results were rather modest. So on February 20 (March 4), 1803 was published by Decree About free bakerywho endowed landowners to free the peasants from the barbecue and allocate land plots on the conditions of agreed between both parties. The decree did not contain a detailed and understandable paragraphs, but at the same time introduced a lot of formal restrictions. Thus, decree About free bakery I did not undermine the order of "possession of the souls that existed in Russia, as well as did not undermine him and published later, the decree prohibiting the landowners to link their peasants to the cautious.

Neglass Committee.

In the first half of the XIX century, the importance of the highest, imperial management was significantly strengthened in the state administration. For this purpose, the old and created new bodies were reorganized, more closely related to local institutions.

Thus, on March 26, 1801, the Council was abolished at the highest courtyard, which has lost its high position in the previous reign, which has ceased to function and influence the management system.

Becoming the emperor, in the early years of his reign, Alexander I relied on his loved ones of young associates: V.P. Kochubey, N.N. Novosiltseva, P.A. Stroganova, A. Chartersky, consulted with "friends of youth", united them into the "Neglass Committee". This committee did not have the official status of a state institution, however, it was he who had a huge impact on changes in the management of the Empire. Up until November 1803, almost all state measures were discussed here, reform projects, many of whom were offered by the participants of this "intimate mug of Ignatov V. G. History government controlled in Russia. M.; Phoenix, 2002. P. 378. ".

It is worth saying that the unlawful committee played a rather significant role in the country's domestic political life. Plans, with its creation, were extremely extensive: from the complete reorganization of public administration, to the gradual abolition of serfdom and the introduction of the Constitution in Russia. Speaking about this, it should be noted that under the Constitution, members of the Neglace Committee understood the creation of a representative institution, the proclamation of democratic freedoms, restricting the autocratic power through the creation of new laws.

According to many historians, including C, F. Platonov, almost all transformations in the system of government agencies, changes in peasant legislation made by Alexander I in the first five years of his rule directly, or indirectly related to the activities of this Kistchenko committee and . Yu. And Dr. Russian history from ancient times to the present day. St. Petersburg; Lan, 2004. P. 196-197 ..

In particular, it is quite obvious to the active participation of members of the "Neglass Committee" in the preparation and holding of ministerial reform, the development of the system of ministries in Russia, the reforms of the Senate, as well as a number of other largest transformations in Russia in the beginning of the XIX century Starikov N. V. History of Russia since ancient times XX century. M.; Prior, 2001. P. 291 ..

Institution of the ministries system

On September 8, 1802, the Committee of Ministers was established, which became new, and a very important control body. Its registration is directly related to the creation of ministries. The establishment of this body, the manifesto provided for ministers to be collected together on the initiative and chaired by the emperor at the meeting to discuss complex interdepartmental issues. The collections of ministers acquired the nature of the meetings of the absolute monarch with the heads of all central institutions. At the same time, the composition of the Committee was constantly expanding at the expense of the highest officials appointed by the emperor and responsible before him.

Already in 1810, it was introduced by: Chairman, Secretary of State, heads of the State Council Department, as well as other influential officials.

On March 20, 1812, at the proposal of M. M. Speransky, the "institution of the Committee of Ministers" decorated legislative limits of competence, functions, as well as the composition of the Committee. According to him, no conclusion of the Committee could be carried out, until it was considered by the emperor and was not approved by them, and the ministers were introduced into the Senate Ivanovsky V. State Law. Izvestia and scientists of the University of Kazan. Under publication No. 5 of 1895 - №11 1896. / AllPravo.ru.

Under the immediate leadership of the Emperor, the Committee also considered cases that related to the activities of several ministries requiring new laws agreed, as well as extremely confused cases that could not be solved as part of the activities of only one minister. In addition, under the leadership of the emperor, the materials of Senate audits, appointments, dismissal, awarding, reprimandments, and even separate bills were also checked and discussed.

Unlike Western governments, headed by independent chairmen (premieres) and represented the association, the Cabinet of Ministers, russian Committee. The ministers were not a similar government, or the head of the executive vertical of the management, despite the fact that these issues were repeatedly rising in the "Neglass Committee" and other instances. During the preparation of the institution of ministries, it was proposed to explore the experience of the British Joint Cabinet (Ministry) of its Royal Majesty, where the head of the Ministry and Head of Eight Sectoral Offices was.

It is worth noting here that Alexander I, and Nicholas I were afraid to lose some of their own supreme functions, as well as the emergence of the independent chapter of the Central Executive Office. Thus, the basis was taken not English, but experience administrative system Napoleonic France, where the ministers did not unite into one advice, and directly submitted to the emperor Bonaparte, being members of the Senate with a deliberative voice. At the same time, the Senate himself had the right to judge the ministers in case of violation of the freedom of printing and personal freedom.

The French experience has quite imparent Alexander I and Nikolai I, since it completely corresponded to their desire to keep the brazers of the board in their own hands. Thus, the right of kings was preserved to manage the state to self-prescribe, since they were appointed themselves, dismissed, controlled ministers, sent and united their actions, took their all-nothing individual reports, carried out through the Committee of Ministers Supreme Supervision for the activities of the state office Ignatov V. G. History public administration in Russia. M.; Phoenix, 2002. P. 379-380 ..

As mentioned above, the emergence of ministries is in close connection with the general administrative reform. Conducting, the nature and necessity of this reform caused a number of reasons. First of all, among them it is worth named the moral qualities of Emperor Alexander I and the persons surrounding it, external influences, as well as the state of state and public life.

Of course, it requires a very weighted and cautious approach to the life of such an important and complex reform, which requires a certain share of responsibility for its consequences not only at the emperor itself, but also on his associates.

Thus, the success of the conversion of central bodies under Alexander I was largely dependent on the nature of the people around the emperor, from their mental and moral development, from their political views. The most close to the emperor, persons were members of the unlawful committee: Novosillese, Count Stroganov, Prince of Kochubey, Prince Charganozhsky and Prince Golitsyn.

Speaking about the characteristics of the character and views of Count V.P. Kochubey, it is worth emphasizing once again that he received a wonderful passage education, first in Geneva, and then in London, where she was successful political sciences. Like the Novosillese, he lived in the reign of Paul, and only under Alexander, who fed to him sincere friendship, he again was called for state affairs.

By virtue of their own character, education and life path, many contemporaries even had a slopes to blame him that he knew England better RussiaSince much tried to remake into English manners. In general, it was a man extremely smart, gifted with excellent memory and a sense to recognize people and use them.

When establishing ministries, Alexander I, of course, did not cost without multiple meetings with his employees. We know about the content of these meetings from the notes that have reached us. Meetings on the organization of ministries took place within the framework of the "Neglass Committee", which included the most close to the emperor of the person, and were discussing the projects submitted by members of the Committee. Such projects were represented by charterizky, Kochube, Novosille, as well as other people approximately in the sovereign.

The results of the meetings of the informal committee became the previously mentioned earlier, decree on September 8, 1802, which was established by the ministries. This decree was a surprise even for those who stood on the highest steps of the official hierarchy, thanks to which there were many dissatisfied, who broke down a decree unfavorable for him. In fact, this decree was very far from perfection.

It has no clear definition of the competence of ministries, their composition, organization and office work. The general establishment of ministries, expressed in the indicated manifesto, is extremely uncertain and filled with numerous submarines Ivanovsky V. Government law. Izvestia and scientists of the University of Kazan. Under publication No. 5 of 1895 - №11 1896. / AllPravo.ru.

For its basis, this manifesto contained a number of important establishments. It was emphasized by the continuity of reform with Peter I transformations. The introduction of the ministerial government system was motivated by the need to bring all parts of the state management in a solid device, in accordance with the intentions of the emperor. It also expressed the hope that the ministries would help to approve peace of mind in the country, silence, justice, improvement of the empire, as well as revitalize industry, trade, all farming, spread science and art, exalted common well-being, to ensure the prosperity of the peoples in structure Russian Empire.

According to the establishment, public affairs should now be managed by eight ministries: military land forces; Military sea Forces; foreign affairs; Justice; internal affairs; finance; commerce; Folk Enlightenment: "Management of public affairs is divided into 8 branches, from which each, concluding all parts, essentially to him belonging to him, constitutes a special ministry and is under direct control of the minister, which we are appointed now, or to continue to appoint elevated government agencies in Russia. Ed. Pisulin N. P. Nizhny Novgorod; NNU, 1994. P. 54.. "

It was also assumed that in the division of public affairs, each ministry will lead to them defined part. At the same time, all ministries had to provide natural communications and unity of management. The ministers themselves were supposed to be appointed only by the emperor and bring responsibility to him, as well as directly manage all parts entrusted to them. Through the Senate, the ministers were obliged to represent the emperor annual written reports. They had to be justified by the spending of funds by the structures of the ministry, the successes in the activities of the Ministry, as well as the state of current affairs and possible development prospects were reflected.

Among other things, the Senate was necessary to consider and analyze the activities of ministers, to submit reports to the emperor with relevant conclusions, as well as the opinion on the status of management of each of the ministers. The ministers were supposed to manage entities entrusted to him and receive a weekly memorial about all current affairs, have permanent relations with them.

According to Manifesto, the post of Comrade Minister was also established, which was supposed to help the Minister in his activities. The posts of Minister of Justice and the Prosecutor General of the Senate were also combined, as well as defined functional directions, items and parameters of the activities of each of the ministers, subordinated to him by the preserved state colleges http://www.iu.ru/biblio/archive/istorija_gosudarstvennogo_upravlenija_rossii/08.aspx - _FTN3 and other institutions. Thus, ensured the continuity of the management and the evolutionary nature of the transformation of its apparatus during the transition to a qualitatively new level of uniqueness, responsibility, the execution and formation of Ignatov V. G. History of public administration in Russia. M.; Phoenix, 2002. P. 410 ..

Historical names.

Basic concepts and terms.

Main events.

Plan.

Internal policy of Alexander I.

Russia in 1801-1825.

I.Entry into the throne of Alexander I. Reforms of the "Neglass Committee".

1. The identity of the emperor. Features of his board.

2. "Neglass Committee".

3. Ministerial reform.

4. Agrarian question.

5. Reforms in the field of enlightenment.

P.M.M.Stransky and its plan for the transformation of Russia.

III.N.M. Karamzin and its essay "On ancient and new Russia in its political
com and civil relationships. "

IV. The internal policy of Alexander I in 1815-1825.

1. The Constitution of the Kingdom of Polish.

2. Agricultural policy of Alexander I.

3. Arakcheevshchyna. Organization of military settlements.

4. Alexander's reaction policy of recent years of reign.

1801 - Entry into the throne of Alexander I.

1802-1811 - holding ministerial reform.

1803 - Decree of free blades.

1803 - A new situation on educational institutions.

1804 - Censored tired
1804 - University Charter.

1809 - Decrees of court titles and exams on the Chin.

1810 - Education of the State Council.

1811 - Writing N.M. Karamzin "Notes on Ancient and New Russia" *

1815 - Dating the Constitution of the Kingdom of Polish.

1816 - The beginning of the mass organization of military settlements.
1816-1819 - Liberation of peasants in the Baltic States.

1819 - uprising in the Chuguev Military Settlement.

1822 - Confirmation of the right landowners to link its fortress in Siberia.

1825 - Death of Alexander I in Taganrog.

Unlawful Committee, Ministries, State Council, Senate, State Peasants, Protection Peasants, Specific Peasants, Decree of free blades, a note about the ancient and new Russia, the Constitution of the Kingdom of Polish, state statutory grades, "Arakheevshchyna", military settlements.

Flagharp, N.N.Novosil residents, P.A.STrokanov, V.P. Kochubey, A. Schertorsky, M.M.Peransky, N.M. Karamzin, A.A.Arakcheev

1. The beginning of the reign of Alexander I. Reforms of the "Neglass Committee".

March 12, 1801, as a result of the palace
Ta, the Russian throne entered the eldest son
Paul I - Alexander. This man was perhaps one of the most mysterious figures among the Russian sovereigns. No other conflicting judgments of both compatriots and foreigners, his contemporaries and current researchers, did not express any contradictory judgments. His government is inextricably linked with the most important political events in the life of Europe of the first quarter of the XIX century., Important economic and political reforms of Russian reality, many of which, however, remained unfinished. In the activities of Alexander 1, the desire to adapt the existing autocratic system to new socio-economic and political phenomena in Russia in connection with the Great French Revolution was most bright.

Alexander was born in 1777. Catherine II herself taught the grandson, and the French teachers were closest to Alexander Frederick Cesar de Lagarp- Democrat on beliefs, who inspired his love for the ideals of freedom, equality and fraternity. But the education of Alexander ended early: the grandmother married him on the Baden Princess Louise, when he was not even 16 years old, counting on his heir to the throne, eliminating Paul. In 1796, she, together with Vice-Chancellor, Bezborodko, amounted to the document that Paul was deprived of the throne in favor of Alexander. The position of Alexander between Grandma and Father was difficult and ambiguous, and therefore, after the death of Catherine, he did not decide to openly oppose the Father, recognizing Paul's legitimate heir to the throne. The tragic circumstances of Alexander I to the throne also could not not affect his rule. Becoming the emperor of the powerful empire, Alexander I showed himself as a flexible, cautious and visionary political figure who knows how to hide its true political addictions, conducting careful reform activities.

The beginning of the board of Alexander I.The sudden death of Paul and the entry into the throne of Alexander was caused by glooming in the capital. N.M. Kakarazin, at the time the rising star in the sky of Russian literature and historical thought, welcomed Alexander I with such words: "Spring phenomenon brings us for the obligation of all the gloomy horrors of winter." In published the day after the death of Paul Manifesto, the new emperor announced that Catherine's great grandmother would rule in his grandmother, starting his rule with the restoration of Pavli-Called Morning Doubt and cities, the abolition of a secret expedition, as well as other tyranny orders of his father.

"Neglass Committee."Waking around with state affairs, Alexander soon realized that he could not do without advisers and

assistants, people who have separated his beliefs. Of course, among his surroundings there were a lot of experienced politicians, at which it was possible to rely, but they all belonged to the left era, - "Vse. Catherine," and he was going to reform the country in the spirit of the new time. In addition, Alexander did not want to look for advisers among the killers of his father, who also knew a lot and claimed much. Therefore, after the events of March 12, 1801, they, one by one, and in particular, Count Palen were removed from the courtyard. All major work on the preparation of conversations conceived by Alexander I focused in Seslasm (or intimate) Committee,which existed from May 1801 to November 1803and consisted of the young friends of the emperor: Count P.A.strohanova, Count V.P. Kochubey, Polish Prince Adam Chartorjsky and N.N.Novosiltshev. The "Neglass Committee" did not have official status. His meetings were surrounded by mystery. Two or three times a week, members of this small circle had dinner at Alexander, and after walked into his office, where he was stormy, without a certain agenda, discussed the necessary reforms for Russia. In the heat of the dispute, members of the Committee could safely refute the point of view of the emperor. Therefore, it is not difficult to guess which sentiments reigned at meetings of this committee. Alexander I friends were inspired by bold liberal and revolutionary ideas. Their activities reflected the understanding of the need to bring political system Russia to European standards.

The figures of the "Neglass Committee".

The actual founder of the "Neglass Committee" came Pavel Alexandrovich Stroganov(1772-1817) - a leaving from the richest family of Russia. His father did not remember exactly how much land and serfs have, but he owned the largest collection of paintings in Russia and was considered an educated person. Obtaining his own whim, he instructed the upbringing of his son to the French teacher Zhilbert Romme and allowed him to take Pavl to Paris, where they arrived at the height of revolutionary events. Incable to revolutionary ideas and events, Stroganov refused his title, accepted the name "Citizen Paul Ochal," began to attend the Jacobin Club, joined the Society "Friends of the Law", founded by his teacher, generously supplied new friends with Russian gold, walking on the Paris in Paris Red Sanunly Cap. Russian Ambassador in France Simivin notified the anticipation of Stroganov Ekaterina II, who sent Nikolai Novosiltsov to Paris with orders to return Paul to Russia to Paris. Returning to the Motherland, he was exiled to his near Moscow estate of Bratsevo, where he spent several years and, formed, again entered mercy, became close to the heir to the throne of Russia Alexander Pavlovich, brightened in St. Petersburg salons and married the princess Sophie Golitsyn, while doing a celebrating life Enlightened Velmazby. Subsequently, recalling the days spent in Paris, Stroganov wrote: "I saw the people who raised the banner of freedom and challenged slavery shackles; No, I will never forget those moments. Yes, I do not close my eyes to the fact that despotism exists in my country, and I look with horror in his ugly face ... "

And it is strogans after the topics of Alexander, in May 1801 filed a note in his name, in which he proposed to establish a committee to discuss the necessary transformations of Russia. Being subsequently the most active of his members, consistently defended the emperor the need for reforms internal life Russian Empire, especially the abolition of serfdom.

In 1802-1807 He was a friend of the Minister of Internal Affairs, often performed responsible diplomatic orders. However, after 1807, he moved away from political activity And entered the military service with a simple volunteer, having a rank of a secret adviser. The case in the history of Russia is exceptional! Stroganov participated in the Russian-Swedish (1808-1809) and Russian-Turkish (1806-1812) wars, and during the period of the Patriotic War of 1812 he commanded the consolidated Cossack division, participated in an overseas campaign of the Russian army. But in February 1814 his only son died. Stroganov could not transfer this strike: he immediately retired and soon died.

Another member of this committee - Viktor Pavlovich Kochubey(1768-1834) was a nephew of one of the prominent statesmen of the Ekaterininsky era of A.A. Besborodko, in which he was brought up. He began his career, serving under the Russian embassy in London, and in 1792 he was appointed to the responsible position of the Russian Messenger in the Ottoman Empire. In 1802, Kochubey was appointed Minister of Internal Affairs. He occupied this position from 1802-1807 and from 1819-1823. A supporter of moderate reforms, he was the only one among the participants of this mug, whose career was distinguished by relative stability. In 1827, he became Chairman of the State Council and the Committee of Ministers.

No less remarkable person was the third member of the mug Nikolai Nikolaevich Novosilsev(1768-1838). He was a nephew of Count A.S.stroogan, whose family was brought up. In 1783, Novosillatsev entered military service, manifes itself well during the Russian-Swedish war 1788-1790. With the top of Paul I, in 1796, was forced to leave to London, where he had lectured at the university for four years. Returning to their homeland, became one of the participants in the conspiracy against the emperor. It was Novosil residents who was the author of the idea of \u200b\u200breforming the Board in the ministry. In 1803-1810. He is the President of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. In 1813, he was appointed Vice-President of the Temporary Council of the Duchy of Warsaw, and in 1815 - the Imperial Delegate under the Government of the Kingdom of Polish. Then consisted of Prince Konstantin - the commander-in-chief of the Polish army. The Novosille residents were distinguished by pronounced antipol sentiments, speaking for the abolition of the Constitution of the Kingdom of Polish. In 1832, he was appointed Chairman of the State Council and Cabinet of Ministers.

But, perhaps, the most remarkable fate was at the fourth member of the "Neglass Committee" - Polish Prince Adam Chartorjsky(1770-1861). He came to Russia in 1795, after the suppression of the uprising of T. Koscusheko. She visited in England and became a fan of its constitutional orders, he became close to the future emperor Alexander, who assured the charter in his sympathy for the restoration of the independence of Poland. In 1799, he became a messenger of Russia in the Sardinian kingdom.

Actively participating in the meetings of the "Neglass Committee", Charterian tried to use the liberal policy held, in order to achieve the national association of the entire Poland in the form of personal understanding of the Constitutional Polish kingdom with Russia. From 1804 to 1807 He was the Minister of Foreign Affairs, and in 1815 he took an active part in the work of the Vienna Congress, being the main adviser to Alexander on Polish affairs. In 1815, after the formation of the Kingdom of Polish, he became part of his temporary government, but already in 1816 it was forced to resign.

He dedicated all his further life to the struggle for the restoration of the independence of Poland "from the sea to the sea," being an active participant of the uprising of 1830-1831. After his defeat, Chartero emigrated to France, where he tried to attract the attention of European states to the Polish issue. But this activity did not have much success.

Ministerial reform September 8, 1802the reform of senior government agencies was carried out. Instead of obsolete Petrovsky colleges, eight ministries were established: 1) military land affairs; 2) marine affairs; 3) foreign affairs; 4) justice; 5) internal affairs; 6) finance; 7) commerce; 8) folk education, as well as the State Treasury for the Rights of the Ministry. Cases for each department now were solved personally by the minister, responsible only to the emperor. Each minister had a deputy (Comrade Minister) and the Office. The ministries were divided into departments led by directors, departments - to the department, and branches - on tables. The ministerial reform was completed in 1811, when the new Ministry of the Police was established, the Ministry of Commerce was established, in the functions of the Ministry of Internal Affairs began to be controlled by the Regulations in agriculture and industry. In addition to ministries, "Main Departments" - ways of communication, revision of government accounts and the main management of spiritual affairs (except Orthodox) religion were established. The ministers were formed by the Committee of Ministers, the status of which as a deliberative body under the emperor was finally determined in 1812. All the ministers were part of the Senate. IN 1802the reform of this body was also carried out, which became the "custodian of laws", the highest judicial authority and the administration supervisory authority; The ministers had to represent the Senate annual reports.

Agrarian question.The peasants constituted the majority of unprivileged classes. Among them, three categories can be distinguished: state, landlord and specific (i.e. belonged to the royal surname). The most numerous category was landlord peasantsin fact, in full dependence on their owner. They were deprived of all civil rights, including they were forbidden to leave without permission to work, enter into financial transactions, complaining about their owner, etc. However B. xIX course in. The share of fortress peasants gradually decreased. If at the end of the XVIII century. They accounted for 45% of the population, by 1861 their share decreased to 30%.

The position of state peasants was somewhat better. They belonged to the treasury and were called "free rural orders." In their composition there were one-bedrooms - descendants of serving people of the Southern Dog, who lived, mainly in Kursk, Orlovskaya, Voronezh provinces. They owned their sites for full property rights. In addition to the pillow, the state peasants also paid the money marks in the treasury.

The specific peasants were owned by the imperial surname. In addition to paying the puffwind and serving the recruitment of recruitment, the specific peasants paid the lifts in favor of the imperial family for the use of land.

The "Neglass Committee" discussed the issue of peasant reform, but his members did not solve any serious changes in the existing position of things. Only B. february 1803.g. was issued a decree about"Free Bakery", providing landowners the right to free the peasants with the land for redemption. It is clear that only a few peasants were able to redeem their freedom: for the entire period of the reign of Alexander I, less than 0.5% of serfs passed into the discharge of "free blades". However, it was Alexander I that stopped the practice of the distribution of state peasants in private hands, thus putting the limit to the expansion of serfdom.

In 1804-1805gg The peasant reform in the Baltic Territory began. Alexander I banned the sale of peasants without land, they were granted civil rights, peasant self-government and peasant courts were introduced. The peasants became the hereditary owners of their posts, and the amounts of their payments in favor of the Lord were to identify special commissions.

Reforms of enlightenment.Reforms in the field of folk enlightenment were more successful. The new ministry not only developed, but also implemented a plan for quite wide development of average and higher education. This plan, justified in the new position on the device of educational institutions from January 24, 1803,installed four types of educational institutions: 1) rural; 2) county; 3) provincial schools or gymnasium; 4) Universities. Russia was divided into six training districts, headed by trustees, each with his university, gymnasiums and colleges. In 1804, Kharkov and Kazan Universities were opened, the Pedagogical Institute in St. Petersburg, later also transformed into university. In Wilna, university was founded with the Polish language of teaching, and Yuryev (Dorpte) University with German teaching language. The actual leadership of the public enlightenment in each of the districts was carried out by local university. In 1804.g. The university charter was adopted, which provided the broad autonomy to the advice of professors who chose the rector, deans and professors to vacant departments. July 9, 1804.g. was issued a censorship charter, according to which censorship was responsible for censorship at universities consisting of professors. The general leadership of the censorship was carried out by the Ministry of Folk Enlightenment. Censored relaxation contributed to the expansion of publishing in Russia. A number of new magazines and literary almanacov appeared ("Journal of Europe", "Journal of Russian Literature", "Northern Bulletin", the number of translation literature increased).

The reforms of the first period of the reign of Alexander I were very limited, but significantly strengthened its position as an autocratic monarch, was the result of a compromise between the liberal and conservative nobility. The disintegration of the "Neglass Committee" was quite natural: the young Emperor by then took a sufficiently strong position on the throne, became able to independently hold a program of scheduled reforms with new advisers.

Emperor Alexander I.

The beginning of the board of Alexander I was marked by a wide amnesty and the abolition of a number of laws introduced by his father, Paul I.

The secret office was abolished, all political affairs were transferred to the management of the courts, torture was prohibited, the privileges of the nobility were rented, censorship was weakened.

In the first liberal transformations of Alexander I, the unoblant committee played a big role (informal advisory body), established in 1801, which included friends of Alexander I: P.A. Stroganov, V.P. Kochubey, A. Chartersky, N.N. Novosillese. During 1801-1804 They gathered from the emperor and together with him thought about transformations and reforms. The unlawful committee reviewed the issues of the Senate and Ministerial Reform, the activities of the "indispensable council" (formerly state council, which in 1810 began to be called state-owned), the peasant question, coronation projects 1801 and a number of foreign policy events. All members of the taper committee were adherents to the liberation of peasants and supporters of the constitutional system.

The composition of the sewn committee

Prince Adam Chartorian, Polish magnate with European education, his homeland was attached to Russia after the section of Poland. He wished to help Poland gain freedom and expressed his views openly.

Victor Kochubey, former ambassador In Constantinople, Alexander's longtime friend, with whom he rewritten and who revealed his most intimate thoughts, sought to introduce fair laws and establish order in the country.

Pavel Stroganov. From the family of the largest rich in Russia, who posted a huge collection of paintings. In the midst of the French revolution was in Paris and was walking in a red cap in solidarity with revolutionary. Catherine II urgently returned it to Russia, where he lived in the village for several years. Later, Stroganov again appeared at the courtyard, marrying the most intelligent and educated woman of St. Petersburg Princess Sophier Golitsyn and began to lead the life of enlightened Velmazby.

Nikolay Novosilsev - Relative Stroganova - a specialist in the laws, political economy and general history.

Thai friends constituted notes with projects of transformations, providing for the introduction of civil liberties, equality of all before the law and the establishment of society on the principles of justice and fraternity.

Alexander, the youngest of them, approved the views of his like-minded people.

Paul I alarmed the friendship of the son with liberally tuned young people, and he dispersed the circle: Charterous sent a messenger to Sardinia, Kochubey - in the link to Dresden, the Novosillatsey himself went to England himself, Stroganov was removed from the courtyard - the circle collapsed. But as soon as Alexander I climbed the throne, the circle was revived, but already in the form of a unclean committee.

The indispensable council and the Senate were to personify the continuity of Catherine and New reigns, and the unlawful committee was a response to the challenges of time - first of all, on changes in Europe under the influence of the ideas of the French revolution.

Formally, the unlawful committee did not enter the system of public administration, but in regular conversations of its participants, "young friends" of the emperor, transformation plans were discussed. However, neither the emperor nor his employees had a clear idea of \u200b\u200bthe sequence of necessary reforms.

The circle existed for about 1804. The emperor became more and more in the details of the Board, and the advisers were now not very necessary for him. Then the members of the former unklassy committee took high posts in newly educated ministries.

Activities of the unlawful committee

The first laws created by them were the following:

The law giving merchants, breasts and state peasants to acquire unnecessary land (1801).

Decree "On free blades", who gave the landlords the right to let the peasant in the will of the Earth for the ransom (1803).

The Senate was declared the Supreme Empire body, focusing the highest administrative, judicial and controlling power (1802).

At the head of the Synod was a civil official in the rank of the Ober-Prosecutor. From 1803 to 1824 The position of the Ober-Prosecutor was performed by Prince A. N. Golitsyn, the former since 1816 also and the Minister of Folk Enlightenment.

The ministerial reform was started on September 8, 1802 by the manifesto "On the establishment of ministries". 8 ministries were approved, which were replacing the Petrov colleges (liquidated Catherine II and Recovered by Paul I):

• foreign affairs
• military land forces
• sea Forces
• internal affairs
• finance
• justice
• commerce
• folk enlightenment.

The ministries were based on the principle of uniqueness.

Education

In 1803, new principles of the education system were set out:

• unconsciousness;
• free learning on lower steps;
• the continuity of curricula.

The education system consisted of levels:

• university
• gymnasium in the provincial city
• county school
• odd parish school.

Expansion of the Russian Empire

From the very beginning of the reign of Alexander I, Russia significantly expanded its territory: in 1801 Eastern Georgia joined it; In 1803-1804 - Mengrelia, Guria, Imeretiya; However, the actions of Russian troops in the Transcaucasia touched upon the interests of Persia, which was the cause russian-Persian warwhich lasted from 1804 to 1813 and ended with the signing of the Guliana world in 1813 and the accession of the Baku, Derbent, Karabakh and other Transcaucasian Khanate to Russia. According to the Treaty of Russia, the exclusive right to have their military fleet in the Caspian Sea was provided. The accession of the part of the Transcaucasia to Russia, on the one hand, the people of the Transcaucasia from the invasions of Persian and Turkish invaders and helped raise the economy of the Transcaucasus to a higher level; On the other hand, between the Caucasian peoples and the Russian authorities and Russian immigrants, there were often quarrels on religious and ethnic soil, which gave rise to instability in the region.

Persia did not accept the loss of the Transcaucasus. Potable by the United Kingdom, she soon untied a new war against Russia, who ended with the defeat of Persia and the signing of the Turkmanca peace treaty in 1828

Borders before and after the conclusion of the contract

Finland, Bessarabia, most Poland (formed the kingdom of Polish) also included in the Russian Empire.

Peasant question

In 1818, Alexander I instructed Admiral Mordvinov, Count Arakcheev and Count Guriev to develop projects for the cancellation of serfdom.

Project Mordvinov:

• the peasants receive personal freedom, but without land that the whole remains over the landowners;
• the amount of ransom depends on the age of the peasant: 9-10 years old - 100 rubles; 30-40 years - 2 thousand; 40-50 years old - ...

Project Arakcheev:

• the liberation of peasants to hold under the guidance of the government - to buy out gradually peasants from Earth (two decishers per soul) by agreement with landowners at the prices of this area.

Project Gurieva:

• slow redemption of peasant land in landlords in sufficient amount; The program was designed for 60 years, that is, until 1880.

As a result, the radically peasant question under Alexandra I was not resolved.

Arakcheev military settlements

At the end of 1815, Alexander I proceeds to discuss the project of military settlements, the development of the plan of which was assigned to Arakcheev.

The objectives of the project were to ensure that the new military agricultural unit could contain and equip a permanent army without burdening the budget of the country; The number of the army was supposed to be maintained at the level of military time, and the main population of the country was exempt from the contender of the content of the army. These military settlements should also serve as the western border cover.

In August 1816, preparation began to translate troops and residents in the category of military inhabitants. In 1817, settlements were introduced in Novgorod, Kherson and Slobodsko-Ukrainian provinces. The increase in the number of districts of military settlements, gradually the empires from the Baltic to the Black Sea, continued until the end of the reign of Alexander I. Military settlements were abolished in 1857

J.Dou "Portrait A.A. Arakcheev"

All Russia has a tescription,
Governors of Foreel
And the council he is a teacher
And the king he is a friend and brother.
Full of malice, full revenge,
Crazy without feelings without honor
Who is he? Devotee without flattering
... .. a penny soldier.

We know this epigram A.S. Pushkin on Arakcheev from school textbooks. And the word "Arakcheevshchina" for us is associated with the concept of coarse arbitrariness and despotism. Meanwhile, the historians of the XX century somewhat differently began to evaluate his personality. It turns out that the initiator of the creation of military settlements was Alexander I himself, and Arakcheev was against it, but as an honest soldier, he performed his duty. He all his life he hated bribery: caught with political immediately expelled from posts. Volokita, extortion in order to obtain a bribe were pursued by them mercilessly. Arakcheev strictly followed the execution of the entrusted business. For this, the stationery community in which the passion for bribes was inexperienced, hated Arakcheev. Most likely, it was it that created such a negative impression about him.

Pushkin later changed his attitude towards Arakchev and wrote about the report of his death: "I regret it in all of Russia alone - I could not talk to him and speak."

Opposition traffic

Especially strong it was against military settlements: in 1819, a rebellion broke out in Chuguev near Kharkov, in 1820- on the Don: 2556 villages were covered by Bunt.

On October 16, 1820, the uprising of the Semenovsky regiment began, under his influence, fermentation began in other parts of the St. Petersburg garrison.

In 1821, the army introduces a secret police.

In 1822, there is a decree banning the secret organizations and the Masonic lodges.

Wars in which Russia participated during the reign of AlexanderI.

Against the Napoleonic Empire outside Russia (1805-1807).

Russian-Swedish war (1808-1809). The reason is the refusal of the King of Sweden Gustava IV Adolf to join the Antiangia Coalition. The result of the war:

• Finland and the Aland Islands passed to Russia;
• Sweden was obliged to terminate the Union with England and conclude peace with France and Denmark, join the continental blockade.

In 1806-1812 Russia led the war against Turkey. And as a result of skillful diplomatic action M. I. Kutuzov The Ottoman government leaned towards the signing of a peace treaty.

Lithography "Alexander I takes the surrender of Paris"

1804-1813 - Russian-Persian war.

1813-1814. - Foreign hiking of the Russian army. In 1815, Alexander I was one of the leaders of the Vienna Congress, which had established a new European order.

In Manifesto, who was announced on the throne of the Grand Duke Alexander Pavlovich, on behalf of the last one was solemnly announced: "We, herass the Imperial All-Russian throne, a perceived interest and obligations to manage the people awarded to us by the people under the laws and the heart in the Bose of the Honor of the August grandmother of our ... Catherine Second". The new emperor thus emphasized his commitment political course Catherine II, which made a lot to expand noble privileges. Manifesto was compiled by one of the Ekaterininskie venel, D. P. Trochinsky, and, according to A. E. Presnyakova, "I expressed well what I was waiting for Alexander than you could justify the coup."

A friendly choir of solemn one welcomed Alexander's modernity to the throne. Despite the declared mourning, festive education reigned on the streets of St. Petersburg and Moscow. The new monarch publicly renounced the despotic methods of the Board of his father - this was a general opinion. But in the St. Petersburg seating lines and another look at the first manifesto Alexander. His promise to return to the political principles of Catherine II was regarded there as evidence that the Optial Ekaterini Favorite Plato of the teeth found the previous influence. As shown in its monograph, M. M. Safonov, the tooth and Palen, really determined the first political steps of Alexander. Whatever the personal views of the former conspirators, they had to take into account the situation. Change on the throne, in contrast to the events of 1762 and 1796, did not entail any folk movements, peasant uprisings. Mercury and meshness remained indifferent. The nobility, especially the metropolitan, not only welcomed the coup, but also openly demanded a return to "Ekaterinsky liberations". In order to strengthen in power, it was necessary to meet the nobility.

Immediately, at the entry into the throne, Alexander, according to N. A. Troitsky, "poured the rain of merciful decrees to the nobles." The meaning of the published commands, as the contemporary wrote, was "in three unforgettable words: cancel, forgive to return." On March 13, the command was published on the issuance of decrees of resignation to all generals, headquarters and obuch-officers, excluded from the service of the Military Court's mines, or at all without any court on the highest decions. Two days later, a similar decree was followed regarding civilian officials, without the court excluded from the service.

Deconsions 14, 16 and 24 of March were allowed to import and export various industrial products from Russia, export wine and bread. On March 15, a decree on the amnesty of prisoners, exiled, supervised persons on cases produced in the secret expedition appeared, on the return of devoid of the officials and the nobility of the former dignity and the restoration of the noble elections. On March 19, a decree was announced, prescribed the police not to leave the borders of his position, March 22 - a decree on the free pass of traveling to Russia and from it. Decree on March 31 canceled the ban on the book and notes from abroad, contain private printing houses. Such annoyed nobility of Paul I decrees I were canceled, as, for example, a ban wearing round french hats.

On April 2, the manifestos were made on the restoration of the humiliated mushrooms and cities - the most important legislative acts of the Ekaterininsky reign. Their publication demonstrated the continuity of the internal political course of Alexander with the basics of Ekaterina II's internal policy. N. P. Panin wrote about Alexander: "This is the heart and soul of Catherine II, and at all hours of the day he fulfills the promise given in Manifesto." The destruction of the most important institution of political school - a secret expedition was also announced, which was conducted by the consideration of cases related to the insult to Majesty, as well as with the treason of "sovereign and the state". In Manifesto, it was said that "in a landscaped state, all crimes should be volumes, tried and punishable by the general strength of the law." Secret cases should continue to be carried out in the Senate and in institutions for criminal proceedings.

The first government events were satisfied in various layers of the metropolitan and local nobility. But the elevation of P. Zudov and yesterday's conspirators, to a large extent determined this government course, was met in the top of the capital with irritation. They saw a living embodiment of the Favoritism regime, the restoration of whose noblepieces did not want. "Monarch in their hands," P. G. Vorontsov wrote. - He can not have any willpower, nor hardness to resist what this terrible click wants. He must be indifferent to see those who surround it ... His hidden thoughts that they themselves express him: "We strangled your father, and you will follow his example, if you ever dare to resist our will."

So, I writes M. M. Safonov, Alexander, equally denied the policy of the Catherine and Pavlovsky government, the first steps of their government at the government began to do as a zealous supporter of Catherine's policies. "Alexander, brought up in a double school - enlightened absolutism and military despotism, - Manila's dream of the role of a benefactor," A. E. Pressnyakov wrote. But now the emperor was forced to do what the circles demanded from him, the efforts of which he was raised at the head of the country, to adapt his ideas to their views and moods.

Alexander joined the throne, having a clear program for solving the peasant question. But hardly he had a specific program for converting the state device. However, he, like Catherine II, was a supporter of the concept of "true monarchy". He theoretically allowed that in the interests of the monarch (and the state) it is necessary to arrange management so that the authorities would make as little political mistakes as possible, that is, there would be not only on the whim of the monarch, but would take the most prudent decisions. For this, it was necessary to reorganize government agencies so that they could hold the monarch from the wrong steps.

At the same time, the thought of the restriction of royal self-leveling was quite widespread in the sacred tops of the capital, whose interests were broken by Paul I, primarily among the leaders of the Antipavlovsky conspiracy. P. The teeth became the leader of this "aristocratic constitutionalism", the purpose of which, according to the words A. E. Presnyakova, was "consolidated in the forms of a political organization ... achieved in the XVIII century. The predominance of the nobility over the state power. " The first manifestation of these trends was the institution of an indispensable council (March 30, 1801). It includes the prosecutor General A. A. Beckleyshev, the actual Minister of Justice, the internal affairs and partly finances, Vice-Chancellor AE Kurakin, St. Petersburg Military Governor P. A. Palen, other persons, including P. and V. Zubov whose influence was the most significant. It was a lawyer under the emperor. In the subject of his reasoning, it was supposed to include "everything that belongs to state regulations." Cases on the Council are considered either by the command of the monarch, or at the suggestion of one of the advisers, which is brought to the monarch's consideration, if it is approved by a majority in the Council. When it is approved by most votes, a protocol is drawn up, which makes opinions expressed during the discussion. Based on the protocol, the monarch makes a decision and makes a decree. Which of the opinions will be based on the spot, depends on the discretion of the monarch. The Council was given an important right at its discretion to produce projects of state reforms. After establishing an indispensable Council, the power of the emperor remained unlimited, but there were certain conditions for the control of advisers for the activities of the autocratic power. The role of the Council depended on how Alexander in his decisions would be guided by his opinion.

At the beginning of the reign of Alexander I, the position of the Council largely predetermined its decision in the most important issues of internal and foreign policy. Thus, Alexander's actions on the normalization of relations with England in April-May 1801 were made in accurately compliance with the decisions of the Council.

Soon after the court, Alexander summarized A. Chartorjsky, N. Novosiltsev and V. Kochuba to St. Petersburg. Already then, the politics of Alexander showed that a feature that the American historian says A. Palmer: Emperor attracted such a structure of decision-making and management, in which he turned out to be over the factions leading the struggle for influence. Alexander has not yet called for "young friends" to joint work - in that difficult position in which he still stayed, he was still not up to them. But since Stroganov himself suggested Alexander I to create a secret committee to work on reform at the board, the king was necessary to somehow respond to this proposal, especially since the help of "young friends" he was not going to refuse in the future. Alexander agreed to the organization of the Committee and decided that his members would be former participants of the Grand-Magnish Mug, and each of them would have to work with him secretly.

While Stroganov amounted to extensive arguments about the "principles of reform", Alexander took practical steps to implement his program to solve the peasant question, which his "young friends" apparently did not know. As a kind of preliminary measure, Alexander immediately stopped the distribution of state peasants in private hands, which, as A. N. Pypin wrote, "reached such terrifying sizes in Catherine and with Pavel." Now Alexander began with the first paragraph of his program - with the preparation of a decree prohibiting selling fortresses without land. Preparation of documents was instructed by A. and Beckleshev. A note made by Bekleyshev to the Council on May 6 (and Alexander stood behind it), was the first document emanating from state power, where the abuse of landowners received a sharp condemnation.

On May 16, Alexander first visited a meeting of the indispensable council. He tried to protect his proposal, but the advisers remained with the previous opinion. Faced with such a position that, apparently, was a surprise for the king, Alexander retreated. After 12 days, he issued a prohibition to put in newspapers announcement of the sale of fortress without land. So the first attempt ended in solving the peasant question. But Alexander's retreat was temporary. Apparently, he did not realize the fact that the mouth of the Council says all the nobility and the bandy bureaucracy. The king has seen only the resistance of the ever-educated law-based body.

On June 5, Alexander issued a decree in which Senate was instructed to submit a report on violations of the initial rights of this body and to speak regarding how the Senate could now become now. "The impression made by this Decree in the Senate was universal, and in a few days it was reported to the entire public to the public." Senators decided to seize the monarch indeed enough gratitude. Alexander this decree again went to meet the requirements of those persons and circles that were taken to the throne. They expected that Alexander will put the Senate at the head of the entire control and gives him the right to make the ideas of the king, if the decrees issued are inconvenient to execute or contradict previously published acts. Thus, the Senate is an organ of an empty bureaucracy - could have an impact on the legislative activity of the emperor.

On the same day, June 5, a decree was issued on the creation of the Commission for the compilation of laws. Alexander, who liked to talk about the priority of the law - the "beginning and source of national welfare", "believed, except that the actuation of the Constitution is possible only after streamlining legislation.

Soon there were events, in many respects changed the placement of forces in the government camp. Ended political career palien. The reason for this was the conflict between Maria Fedorovna and Palen. She demanded from Alexander Removal Palena. N. Panin and tooths played their role and intrigue. But the teeth after the fall of Palena had to behave with the greatest restraint. "Young friends" began to gain power. All this affected Alexander's reform activity.

On June 18, Charterian arrived in St. Petersburg. This gave a new impetus to the activities of "Young Friends". Stroganov compiled a plan of their actions, calculating the use and character of Alexander. Personal properties of Stroganov determined like this: "The emperor joined the throne with the wonderful intentions to put everything for the best leg. This prevents only his inexperience and its character, soft and sluggish ... to have an impact on it, it is necessary ... to enslave it. Since it is distinguished by a great cleanliness of the principles, the way to subordinate it ... is to reduce everything to the principles .. in which he could not doubt. "

After removing Paline, Alexander felt much freer and decided to take advantage of the help of "young friends." On June 24, 1801, in the Kamennaostrovsk Palace after dinner behind the imperial table of Stroganov, Novosillese and Chartersky were secretly held in Alexander's toilet room, where he was waiting for them. So the meetings of the unlawful committee began. However, its existence soon ceased to be a mystery. Without the status of the official state institution, the unlawful committee largely determined the transformation program. However, it is necessary to take into account the fact that, as A. E. Presnyakov wrote, this "Alexander staff, which he was a joke called the" Committee of Public Rescue ", and the angry critics were scubaled by the" Jacobins ", belonged to the same environment of a large aristocracy and ready It was only on the minimum of the necessary transformations and then with a lot of gradualness and without the slightest "shocks", recognizing that otherwise it is better to do anything. " Attracting the state activities of "young friends", Alexander pursued a certain goal: "Having had a small power, they in the eyes of the world turned out to be the culprits of all unpopular solutions" (A. I. Arkhangelsky).

The main subject of the occupation of the members of the Slash Committee in the summer of 1801 were coronated projects. Alexander decided to prepare to the day of his coronation "diploma", in which the rights of Russians would be proclaimed. The "Dipmers" project Alexander introduced the indispensable Council on September 9. Advisors approved the project. He was a controversial document. On the one hand, he not only fixed exceptional noble privileges, but also developed them further. This reflected the interests of those who erected Alexander for the throne. On the other hand, "grades" provided all citizens of Russia such rights that did not even have no celers (the right of personal security and property, freedom of conscience, words). Here Alexander acted already in accordance with his plans, almost without taking into account the recommendations of "young friends." It should be noted that Alexander led from the Diploma project to the article on the heredity of the Russian throne.

Together with the "Letter", another document was prepared fully dedicated to the position of peasants. He was represented by Alexander I P. Klyukov: Now, in order to entrust himself in power, the tooth had to do not so much to take care of the protection of the interests of the nobility, how much to adapt to the mood of the king. In this project, the sale of peasants was prohibited without land, the redemption of serfs on the will was allowed without the consent of the landowner.

Alexander approved the project, but since he deprived the nobles of the most substantial privilege - unlimited power over serfs, "did not make a discussion in the indispensable Council. A number of projects for transforming the Senate also prepared for coronation. Alexander decided that it would be more appropriate to reform this body with its own decions, without waiting for the expression of the opinions of senators on this matter. Through the right of submission, the Senate would become a body affecting the legislative activities of the monarch. (In writing one of the projects together with D. P. Trochinsky, his assistant M. M. Speransky, appointed on July 9, 1801, State Secretary - a supporter of the "True Monarchy") participated.

The reform of the Senate turned out to be a lot of influential opponents from the nearest surroundings of Alexander. "Young friends" sought to prevent the transformation of the Senate into a constitutional institution - mainly because they could successfully play the role of inslace advisors only with the autocratic monarch. The mother of King Maria Fedorovna, the parents of the spouse Alexander objected to the reforms that could be "untimely" and "dangerous in their consequences." Members of the indispensable Council I. V. Lamb, A. I. Vasilyev, A. A. Bekleyshev, convinced Alexander that the reform of the Senate would entail a decrease in his power. It categorically objected to Lagarp reforms, at the end of August 1801 re-emerged in Russia. "In the name of your people, the sovereign," the Lagarp convinced, "keep the power entitled to you ... Do not let yourself be confused because of the disgust, which inspires you unlimited power. Keep the courage to save it entirely ... until the time when you have the necessary work, you will be completed, and you will be able to recover exactly so much power as necessary for the energetic government. " But Alexander defended the prepared projects, including a project prepared by P. tooth. It was not only an idea of \u200b\u200bAlexander's desire to "curb the despotism of our rule", but also that the teeth had a numerous clientele among guards youth.

Coronation projects were an attempt to combine bourgeois principles with russian realities. This determined their inconsistency. In "Light", Alexander assured the nobility in the inviolability of his privileges. But the manifesto on the peasant question was the first step towards the cancellation of serfdom. In addition, if the Senate was reformed in accordance with the project, it can be submitted which consequences would cause Alexander's attempt to solve the peasant question. "The logic of" common sense "," writes M. M. Safonov, "Alexander pushed on the path of strengthening his power, which he had long pushed" Young Friends "and Lagarp." However, to turn from the path to which the king was led by those who erected him to the throne was not easy until these persons remained in their places. Some researchers, however, believe that Alexandra had a different opportunity: "A to awaken the power of public opinion," to appeal to society and rely on it, and thereby breaking the resistance of the "tops". So later, Alexander P. However, is it possible to prove that in the first years of the reign of Alexander I was to lean to whom? .. there was a lot of fair in the words of Lagarpa, who pointed out the emperor that there would be almost all the nobility against reforms, a great honor of merchants ( Dreaming to buy noble status). The Russian people "possesses the will, courage", but he was "kept in slavery", and it cannot be attracted to transformations, because "will not go where it follows." It is possible to rely on the minority of the nobles, especially on young officers, some of the bourgeoisie, "several writers". These forces are clearly insufficient, but Lagarp, firstly, hopes for the huge authority of the royal name (and therefore convinces not to limit the autocracy of representative institutions), and, secondly, advises Alexander as vigorously developing the scope of education in the near future to rely on Enlightened young people.

September 15, 1801 in the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin was made the rite of coronation. In the coronational manifesto, it was announced to give the people of various mercies. But neither in this, nor in the following years, to the disappointment of noblepopes, none of the coronation projects was published. Two weeks after the coronation, Panin was forced to resign.

In October 1801, a discussion of the peasant question began at meetings of the unlasked committee. By this time, Alexander was convinced that it was dangerous to hurt the interests of the nobility. However, the opposition with which the king faced was, according to A. E. Presnyakov, "strong not only by the cohesion of hostile transformation of interests, but also the fact that these interests had even strong ... the basis in Russian reality. So, the defenders of the serfdom indicated the significance of the landlord in the economy of the country, .. on the landlord the power as the necessary support in the country management ... Before Alexander, there was a whole system of socio-political relations, in the root contrary to his principles, and he had its basis Recognize with the approval of the humble diploma to the nobility. " But Alexander was not going to give up his plan. He decided to restrict himself until the resolution of non-regulations (except for the fortress peasants) to buy unanished land. Publishing such a decree, Alexander could not be afraid of a strong protest among the nobility, which occupied a dual position in this matter. Alexander has not yet known exactly the size of possible discontent, so firmly decided to go on the intended path gradually, not to move to next extentwithout analyzing the thorough effect of the previous one.

December 12, 1801, the decree was signed. Thus, the legislative registration of the violation of the principle of monopoly ownership of land nobles was obtained. "It was broken in the building of unshakable noble privileges," writes M. M. Safonov.

According to the contemporary, "the claims of the tender, who wanted ... to rule, and the constant complaints of the Empress-Mother's empress, who since the death of his spouse ... refused to see him ... they have time to remove him, and the emperor, very pleased that he could refer to His parent, ordered him to hint shortly after his coronation, so that he asked her vacation abroad. On December 24, P. Zubov presented his petition about it by Alexander. But at the end of December, rumors were held in the capital that the teeth are preparing palace coup In favor of Maria Fedorovna. Stroganov recorded them and handed over the king. It is difficult to judge how real was the danger. However, the records of Stroganov recorded discontent of the part of the Council and Ekaterininskaya known to the timid attempts by Alexander to go along the path of reforms. In January 1802, P. Teans got a passport and left Russia. Alexander stopped feeling depending on the former conspirators and took up the government.

In February 1802, at the request of Alexander Chartersky prepared a note on the course of reforming public administration and amounted to a scheme of the future organization of public administration. He headed his emperor. With it there was a council. The executive body was divided between the eight ministers, in the hands of which were all the threads of the administration. The guardianship was awarded to Senate, divided into government and judicial. Alexander approved a note. The plans of "young friends" reflected in the "Table" were timed to the distant future, when, according to Stroganov, "the minds will be able to take part in a representative rule." In the meantime, based on this plan, members of the unlawful committee found it necessary to start solving urgent tasks, primarily to the organization of the executive, to replace the College system of the ministerial. The idea of \u200b\u200bthe introduction of ministries has repeatedly expressed over the XVIII century. Therefore, the plans of "young friends" were consonant with the moods of sanitary tops. Indeed, the college no longer responded to the complicated tasks of the country's management. "Young Friends" convinced the Emperor to establish the Committee of Ministers and expand the indispensable Council, where, along with the ministers, there would be previously designated advisers, and whose importance would significantly approach.

On September 8, 1802, a manifesto on the establishment of ministries and decree on the rights of the Senate was published. According to the first decree, 8 ministries were created: military-land forces, foreign affairs (but it retained the name of the board), justice, internal affairs, finance, commerce and popular education. The colleges were preserved, but subordinate to the ministers. All the ministers, with the exception of military, maritime and commerce, received helpers with the title of Comrade Minister. Each minister had to create a stationery. In their activities, ministers are responsible to the monarch and the Senate, which studies the activities of the ministry and then represents the monarch written report. The Senate has the right to demand from the minister of clarification about a particular direction of his work, and, if it is unsatisfactory, report to this king.

The first ministers and comrades of the ministers were appointed as representatives of the Ekaterininsky nobility (R. Dervin, M. S. Mordvinov, P. V. Zavadovsky) and new, including "Young Friends" Alexander. V. P. Kochubey, appointed by the Minister of Internal Affairs, took M. M. Speransky.

In decree on the rights of the Senate, this institution was determined as "the Supreme Place of the Empire", which manages all the "present places", and the highest judicial instance. The Senate was endowed with the right to represent the emperor about those decrees that are not coordinated with other legal entities or conjugate with "big inconveniences in performance", in acts of September 8, Alexander was to meet both the desires of most senators and "young friends." On the other hand, these acts, writes M. M. Safonov, "Although not quite consistently, legally issued ... folded over the second half of the XVIII century. The sole management system, which expressed the trend towards the centralization of public administration and the concentration of it in the hands of the monarch. "A large step towards the centralization of public administration, an increase in its flexibility and efficiency" was made.

On December 5, 1802, Alexander signed a decree on the introduction of a mandatory service of nobles who did not reach the officers. This measure was caused by a lack of personnel military, resulting from the unwillingness of the nobility to serve. However, the Senate saw in this decree a violation of the humble diploma to the nobility, proclaimed the freedom of the nobles from the mandatory service, and did, using his right, an idea of \u200b\u200bthis Alexander. The nobility of both capitals arranged noisy manifestations in support of the Senate. All this caused a sharp discontent of the emperor. On March 21, 1803, a decree was published, which was proved that the act on December 5 did not contain violations of the humble diplomas, and the article IX declarations about the rights of the Senate explained. According to clarification, the right of submission did not apply to new or newly confirmed decrees. "This decree," writes M. M. Safonov, "he made the impression of a broken bomb ... Experiments in the spirit of" True Monarchy "ended, not having time to start." The Senate has never taken advantage of its right to make ideas, including those approved by the emperor reports of ministers, for such reports could be summarized under the category of "newly published" laws. The responsibility of ministers has become a fiction.

The incident with the right of presentation showed what role the nobility of the noble representation will be played, in which the Senate was going to turn, in solving the most important issues of time. As A. E. Presnyakov notes, if the power "suggested to start broad transformations and did not count on the support of broad public circles, she ... needed executive bodies, .. adapted to the implementation of its destiny. Such authorities had to be ministries. " Thus, power in the current conditions should have followed in the future on the path of centralization and bureaucratization of the state apparatus, conducting the improvement of all its links and remove elements from it containing restrictive trends. It was on this path that Alexander went. He did not refuse the desire to turn autocracy in the "true" monarchy, through the "legal and free" institutions to ensure the conditions for the country's peaceful development, protection of it both from revolutionary shocks and from government despotism. But the "legitimate-free" institutions should not be struck "the power of the government", but to serve it in its governing political activity reliable supportAlong with two others: the disciplined army and the system of popular education, raising citizens according to the "species of government".

The experience of the first years of reign led Alexander I to the conclusion that while coming preparatory work To future transformations, autocratic power should be strong and free in their actions, should be the only active force of innovations, without any participation of public elements. Alexander saw that his environmentally surrounding his intentions, hostile transformations, their own employees, then create obstacles. From the impressions of youth and from further experience, Alexander came out with the mood, which was sometimes expressed in judgments of the type: "I do not believe anyone, I believe only that all people are flashing ..."

In 1803, the unlawful committee held only 4 meetings. By this time, Alexander had already firmly firmly fastened himself on the throne and did not need young friends. They lose their former influence. In general, we can say that Alexander sought to fulfill the recommendations of Lagarpa. You need to be able, I advised Lagarp, playing the imperial role, and the ministers teach to the idea that they were only his authorized, obliged to bring all the information about cases in the whole fullness, and he listens attentively by their opinions, but the decision will take himself without them, so that they will only have execution.

In April 1803, Alexander summoned to the service A. A. Arakcheev, whose time for the time was firmly developed by the reputation of the "Pavlovskaya Epoch". However, Alexander Valilled in Arakchev, as N. N. Muravyev indicated, "readiness and activities to fulfill him ... ordered", and also the fact that he "did not adjacent to any party" at the court (P. A. Vyazemsky). On May 14, 1803, the emperor restored Arakchev as an inspector of all artillery. The graph with its extensive knowledge in artillery and organizational talent was the most suitable figure for this position on the eve of war with France.

In the same year, Alexander appoints his long-time friend Prince A. N. Golitsyn Ober-Prosecutor of Holy Synod. Golitsyn actually began to rule all things Orthodox church. As A. E. Presnyakov indicated, Alexander I inherited from the XVIII century an idea of \u200b\u200breligion as one of the guns over the society, church organization as a state institution. Alexander I was negatively related to the free-industrial rationalism of the XVIII century, but also the traditional church - both Orthodox and Catholic, was alien to him. He was attracted by the piety of a Protestant type, in which only the "law of Christ" remained from Christianity - the desire to live on the moral commandments of the Gospel without any possibility of opposing the church public to the secular state.

Here Alexander saw the key to law-ability, reliable protection against the spread of revolutionary ideas. He was close to the atmosphere of the Gatchina courtyard of his youth, with sympathy for Masonry, who was looking for self-improvement "on the paths of Christian moraling", but when the release of people from "religious delusions" of their ancestors.

On February 20, 1803, a decree of free blades was issued. He envisaged the liberation of serfs to the will for the ransom of whole villages or individual families by mutual agreement with the landowner. However, the landowners and previously they could release the peasants at their own wishes to the will. Decree was designed to encourage landowners to expand such practices, and with mandatory condition endowing the peasants of the Earth to the property. The peasants did not come out of the fortress state that way out of the fortress state. But the country has the opportunity to create a new social group - free blade owners who have land ownership. Decree for the first time approved the possibility of the liberation of peasants. Alexander I laid high hopes on decree on February 20, 1803. Every year, his office received information about the peasants translated into a new category. But the results of the decrease were insignificant: for all the time of the reign of Alexander I, 160 transactions were concluded, for which 47 thousand male shower of peasants were bought at the will (less than 0.5% of the total number of serfs). The case was not only in the reluctance of many landowners to provide serfdom freedom even for redemption, but also in heavy financial conditions Redemption: The price of the repurchase of one male soul at that time was about 400 rubles by assignments (100 rubles with silver), that is, 15-20 annual occasions. Usually those who received freedom on the basis of this decree were unable to make the entire redemption amount at once, and the vacation agreements on the will contained the boal conditions: the deposit of redemption under high interest, testing, etc. The decree also said: "If the peasant or a whole settlement does not fulfill His obligations, then the landowner with the land and the family is still coming. "

In 1802-1804, the reform of public education was carried out, whose plans were viewed at the meetings of the unclean committee. As A. N. Pypin wrote, since Peter I in Russia, "there was no so much worries about the establishment of schools, as these years." The basis of the education system was based on the principles of unconsciousness, the free training for its lower steps, the continuity of curricula so that the ending the lower stage could be easily overlooking the highest.

The government focused on the development of secondary and higher education: the prepared officials were required, specialists for industry and trade, doctors, teachers. In addition, "Higher educational establishments, I wrote to A. E. Presnyakov, "new knowledge should have planned and ... ideas, spreading them into the depths of all segments of the population." Decree January 24, 1803 provided for the measure that stimulates education. One of his items said that after 5 years after the issue of the Decree, "no one will be determined to civil position, requiring legal entities and other knowledge, without graduating to the teachings in a public or private school." In 1802-1805, Derptsky, Vilensky, Kharkov and Kazan Universities were opened. Published on November 5, 1504, the charter of universities provided them with significant autonomy.

On the attitude of the government to enlightenment, the figures of state-owned appropriations for the needs of popular education are said. The largest vacation for these purposes under Catherine II amounted to 760 thousand rubles per year. In 1804, 2,800 thousand rubles was released on the educational sphere, and in the future during the reign of Alexander I, despite the frequent wars, the costs of enlightenment did not decrease. The emperor patronized the discovery of scientists and literary societies. In 1803, the Tsarsky Reskipte approved N. M. Karamzin as a historicist.

On May 9, 1804, the charter was published on censorship, considered the most "liberal" in Russia of the XIX century. N. N. Novosillese participated in its development. Censorship was carried out according to the Charter, censored committees at universities from professors and masters. The charter states that censorship serves "not for the constraint of freedom to think and write, and the only one for adoption ... measures against the abuse of abuse." The censors were recommended to be guided by "prudent condescension, by removing any predensive interpretation of writings or places in these ... When a place subject to doubt has a dual sense, in this case it is better to interpret it the most profitable for writing."

Censored reliefs during these years contributed to the expansion of publishing. A number of new magazines appeared, Almanahov, the publication of foreign literature transfers increased. At the initiative of Alexander I, at the expense of the treasury, the works were first translated into Russian and published works by A. Smith, J. Bentama, Ch. Baccaria, Sh. Delolma, Sh. Montesquieu, - "Gospel of Political Liberalism", according to A. E. Presnyakova, and also writings Didro, Rousseau, Voltaire. "Alexander," A. E. Presnyakov wrote, "I had the reason to say at the end of life, that myself sowed the starts of those ideas that the Decembrists moved down." "New beneficial start," according to A. N. Pyptina, was the publicity of government activities. The semi-official "St. Petersburg Journal" was founded, which published ministerial reports.

In 1804-1805, was held agricultural reform In the Ostzay region. Baltic provinces differed from the rest of Russia. There was no fortress right here in its extreme forms, and the level of development of commodity-money relations was significantly higher than in European Russia. The main thing is: the landowners realized the economic disadvantage of preservation in the inviolability of serfdom. On February 20, 1804, the "Regulations on the Lifelard Peasants" was published, widespread next year and Estonia. The peasants - "Padokhodaev" were announced by life and the hereditary holders of their put ones, for which they had to serve the owner of the land of the Barechina or the lifts. Means were determined depending on the number and quality of land, that is, the state was regulated. The authorities of the landowner over the peasants thus limited. "Several government measures ... in favor of the serf peasantry ... a few cases, where the emperor Alexander strictly punished the ill-treatment of peasants and, moreover, made these punishments with public, even strengthened the impression, and although the question remained ... unresolved, but the first government intervention showed, although in the long term, the possibility of solving it. In the society since then, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe liberation of peasants, "A. N. Pypin noted, was firmly fastened.

By the end of the period under consideration, Alexander I began to pay attention foreign Policy. But at its most important directions, its actions were also largely determined by the concept of "legitimate" institutions.

So, considering all the circumstances, you can agree with those researchers who believe that Alexander I policy in the period under review was not "flirting with liberalism." It was the policy of transformation, written V. A. Fedorov and V.N. Fedosov, aimed primarily on the reorganization of the central administration, reform education and press, to a lesser extent - the social sphere. The events of these years, as N. Ya. Eidelman specified, "it is easy to criticize as private, half, but the government itself did not consider them indigenous."