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Among the empirical methods for studying certain events, the method of comparative analysis is most often used. Thanks to it, common and distinct features (characteristics) of a phenomenon, the process under study at different stages of development (temporal, event, etc.) are revealed.
Definition
The comparative method is one of the dominant logical methods of cognition of objects, phenomena, events of the external world, which begins with the fact that analysts separate them from all objects and (or) establish their similarity with related objects and phenomena.
Through comparison, general and different methodological approaches of scientific schools are determined, which study certain processes, compare certain criteria and categories. Moreover, only those phenomena (characteristics) are compared that have similar features and objective commonality within the framework of the selected scientific study. As a result, it is possible to find out the general thing that was repeated in the phenomena and became a step on the way to identifying a number of patterns of the events under study.
Application
Comparative analysis is often used to study the dynamics of changes in certain processes, to search for differences and commonalities. Examples practical use can be found in sociology, jurisprudence, political and economic analysis, science and culture.
It is well known that it is convenient to determine the dynamics of an enterprise's efficiency not with the help of abstract values, but by comparing either with other similar firms or based on company statistics in an equilibrium period of time. For example, how has labor productivity (revenues, losses) changed in the current year relative to the same period of time in previous years, how have competing enterprises performed during this time.
The method of comparative analysis is indispensable in sociology, public opinion research, and statistical analysis. Only based on the data of previous studies, it is possible to accurately identify the dynamics of changes in the mood in society, quickly identify growing problems and respond to them in time. Comparative analysis effective and indicative at all levels: from an individual family to the whole society, from a team to a team of a large enterprise, from a municipal level to a state one.
Benchmarking types
Types of analysis depend on the methodology and the number of compared indicators. When tracking a certain phenomenon, you can rely on the data of the phenomenon itself, compare it with a similar one or with a combination of phenomena. For example, when tracking the dynamics of a company's economic activity, one can rely on its own statistics for various time periods, compare with a competing company, or evaluate in the context of the entire industry (set of firms).
Classification
The types of analysis are divided into:
- Quantitative - analysis in terms of quantitative representation of characteristics.
- Qualitative - analysis of qualitative characteristics, properties.
- Retrospective - analysis of changes over time, their impact on current events.
- Applied - analyzes the practical activities of the structure under study.
- Research - used in analytical sciences.
- Descriptive - analysis begins with studies of the structure of the phenomenon, then goes to its functions and purpose.
- General - is based on the general theory of systems.
- Structural - the general structure of the phenomenon is analyzed.
- Microsystem - a specific system is being studied.
- Macrosystem - analyzes the role of a particular system in the totality of related systems.
- Vital - the development of the system is analyzed, its main stages are determined.
- Genetic - used in the analysis of genetic systems, inheritance mechanisms.
- Other types.
Law research methodology
A comparative analysis of the legal systems of various countries allows developing states to adopt effective management methods that have proven themselves, improve legislation, and the structure of the administrative system.
The study of the theoretical heritage indicates that the development of the theory of law in one country outside the context of world history and the achievements of the legal thought of other countries is impossible and leads to a narrow, limited approach in defining the problems of law. This, in fact, determines the regularity of the transnational nature of legal science, without excluding the socio-political function of the jurisprudence of a particular state. For example, even Soviet jurisprudence was not an isolated system, but part of a dialectically integral world jurisprudence.
Features of the application of the technique
The legal method of comparative analysis is, first of all, a comparison of comparative studies, that is, an analysis of similarities. A number of respected researchers note two fundamental conditions correct application comparative method:
- It should not be limited to comparing peoples of the same race or religion.
- You can only compare laws or legal systems that are at the same level of social development.
Why? The comparative history of law should not be limited to a simple comparison of the legal systems under study just because they coexist simultaneously in time or geographically close. After all, there is no room for experiments in law - for every decision aimed at creating or implementing law, there are the fates and interests of citizens, the economy, and the state. Law should be as perfect and systematic as possible. That is why, instead of an experiment, they use comparative legal studies that will indicate important options decisions, warn against making outdated or ineffective decisions in current conditions.
Enterprise Development Forecast
The declared entry of the country into the world community in the context of the transition of the economies of the leading countries of the world to innovative development forces domestic producers to modernize production. Delay threatens a systemic separation from developed countries and turning into a raw material appendage, a donor of cheap work force. Understanding this, advanced domestic enterprises are trying to find their place in the world market, relying on new developments.
However, the search for ideas for innovative developments is mainly conducted in a purely intuitive way, while the chances of success are insignificant and more dependent on subjective factors. At the same time, there is a method of comparative analysis. It allows:
- Conduct a targeted search for ideas for new products, technologies for their manufacture, management methods.
- To select the most suitable innovation ideas, thereby increasing the chances of investors to succeed.
- Lay the foundations for the transition to innovative development.
Business Analysis
For effective management, the comparative method is vital. How else can you track whether the company has started to work better or worse? What is its place in the market? How are competitors developing? Only when comparing with previous time periods of their own activities and, if possible, competing structures, it is possible to build strategic development plans.
When exploring large amounts of data, a benchmarking table is a great help. It allows you to visually structure the indicators. An example of the simplest comparison table(coefficients are taken conditionally):
Criterion | Competitor | Researched firm | |
Product quality | Improve quality by upgrading equipment |
||
Optimize costs |
|||
Delivery efficiency | Reduce production time |
||
Performance | Raise the qualifications of employees |
Application in political science
A period of relatively rapid political change that the world has entered into early XXI century, causes an increased need for their scientific understanding. As part of the research of the current stage of political transformations, a comparative analysis plan is used. It must meet three essential conditions:
- Handling a large amount of empirical data.
- Ensuring maximum autonomy of the researcher from value-based and ideologically colored approaches.
- Identification of special features and general trends investigated processes.
For this, the method of comparative analysis is best suited. It guarantees the relevance, scientific and practical significance of the study of a significant part of the modern methodological tools of political science. Benchmarking can also be valuable in the context of project reviews political reforms. Studying the experience of neighbors on the planet helps to more accurately assess their advantages and disadvantages. Accordingly, the attention of comparative political science research in recent decades has been mainly focused on the search for models of administrative and public administration, given the dynamics of reforms carried out in the last decade in Western and post-socialist countries.
Comparative analysis is a method of analyzing objects that compares the new state of an object with an old state, or compares the state of one object with another, with which the comparison may be relevant. Comparative analysis is one of the main methods used in scientific research economy. Almost always wording or clarification economic concepts carried out with the help of comparative analysis.
Benchmarking can be used in examining any credential and should therefore be considered as general reception. In a comparative analysis, the content of several documents reflecting the same type of operations is compared. At the same time, deviations of any specially calculated indicators of one document from similar indicators in other documents are revealed. For example, by existing rules, commercial banks make a daily reconciliation of available funds, including the statement of the correspondent account in the relevant RCC of the State Central Bank, and draw up a balance sheet at the end of each business day. Therefore, conducting unrecorded financial transactions in a commercial bank is unlikely. However, due to the complexity of accounting and the volume of transactions (daily turnover of many banks can amount to billions of rubles), it is possible to underestimate tax and other obligatory payments to the budget, other violations, incl. banking legislation by purely accounting methods, for example, incorrect correspondence of accounts.
The sales benchmarking method is based on the principle of studying a well-functioning market in which investors buy and sell similar types of assets, while making independent individual decisions. Data on similar transactions are compared with the valued IP.
The method of comparative analysis of accounts is simpler in practical application, but at the same time gives a rougher estimate.
A method for comparative analysis of the effectiveness of the use of recirculation and combined reaction-rectification processes from the standpoint of minimal energy costs is proposed.
It is shown that the minimum energy costs, other things being equal, depend significantly on the hydrodynamic regime in the reaction zone. In particular, it is shown that, in terms of energy costs, the combined process occupies an intermediate position between the recirculation systems of the ideally mixed reactor - distillation column and the ideal displacement reactor - distillation column.
The use of the method of comparative analysis of sales for the evaluation of hotels is currently difficult, since this sector of the real estate market has not received sufficient development. As the executive authorities hold auctions, as the hotel market develops, the use of this method, subject to adjustments, will become possible.
Usually, the method of comparative analysis of indicators achieved before and after the use of intellectual property is used, which makes it possible to realistically assess their impact on the condition of workers in the district, region or individual enterprise with which their activities are associated. Many objects that are the result of creative work in the field of geological study of the subsoil, when used, have a significant impact on the development of districts, regions and even the country as a whole.
The method of comparative analysis is widely recognized. At the same time, the results actually achieved are compared with the indicators of advanced enterprises of a related profile in order to study the possibilities of using best practices and maximizing reserves.
The method of comparative analysis deserves special attention. various designs details. This is of particular importance because the opinion has been established in wide circles of machine builders that unification is mainly associated with the selection and, as it were, with the legalization of existing, often obsolete designs, while in reality it should be based not so much on selection as on the design of new ones. parts that exclude all previously used and are elements of the corresponding structurally normalized series. Therefore, a fairly common opinion, found even in the literature, that the essence of constructive continuity lies in the use of old details, is completely erroneous.
Evaluation of the technical and economic level of products by the method of comparative analysis allows us to evaluate not only the technical level, but also the level of competitiveness of products. For this purpose, an automated system Beads has been created. Among all the studied parameters, the main one is singled out, and as a function of each main parameter, the theoretical (estimated) price of the product is determined, as well as the technical and economic level as a correspondence between the theoretical and actual price, on the one hand, and prices and technical level, on the other.
Critical point analysis is a cost-benefit analysis method for accommodation options that allows you to choose the most effective from the available set of alternatives. Determining constants and variable costs and by plotting them for each possible placement, you can select the option that has the lowest total placement cost. Critical point analysis in placement can be represented both graphically and analytically. The graphical representation has the advantage of providing a ranking value for each placement's preference score.
Bulgarian experts believe that the method of comparative analysis of the technical level of products can become the basis for finding opportunities to reduce the cost of quality, the optimal ratio of the created use value and the cost of increasing production efficiency, stimulating the production of highly efficient products, and reducing the output of uncompetitive products.
On the basis of chronometric and statistical observations, economic and mathematical methods and methods of comparative analysis, reserves for the growth of labor productivity in management are identified, the reasons that constrain best use management personnel. This is necessary for understanding the reserves of labor productivity growth. However, the reserves discovered by the analytical method cannot yet be considered real.
To compile analytical tables generated at the output of the first module, the method of comparative analysis is used.
The provisions, conclusions and recommendations formulated in the dissertation work are substantiated by the correct application of the methods of factorial and comparative analysis, mathematical statistics and the theory of probability, the theory of reliability and queuing based on the processing of information on a PC and the presence of a positive effect from industrial implementation.
To determine the quality of projects public buildings and comparison possibilities various options use the method of comparative analysis of their technical economic indicators. To do this, in each project, space-planning and building indicators.
The main restructuring tools are: analysis of strengths and weaknesses firms, the use of comparative analysis methods and distribution models. The emergence of business process reengineering is due to the emergence of the latest achievements of modern information technologies, the capabilities of computer technology and communication systems, the use of systems and process analysis in the design of new and reengineering of existing business processes, the use of object-oriented models.
The effectiveness of physical and chemical methods of oil production stimulation is ranked based on the processing of statistical data using the methods of factorial and comparative analysis.
When choosing an architectural and planning constructive solution building, its engineering and technological equipment designers use the method of comparative analysis.
In the practice of intellectual property valuation, valuation methods are most widely used, which, in accordance with the Government Decree Russian Federation On the approval of valuation standards, they are divided into the cost method, the method of comparative sales analysis and the income method. They differ in the methodology for calculating the economic indicators of the use of intellectual property based on the goals set.
In our opinion, the economically correct direction of revealing the main problems of systemic linking of complex interconnections of scale, water intensity of production, type of technology (with a large or small level of fixed costs), prices compared with demand and costs is the creation of methods for comparative analysis of various options for building a structure and production technologies in terms of profitability in relation to cost.
When determining the value of a land plot, the method of comparative sales analysis, the residual method, and in some cases the income capitalization method are used. In this case, the assumption is made that the site is free from development.
Valuation of real estate objects should be carried out by independent appraisers who have the right to engage in accordance with the law on appraisal activities. Valuation of real estate is carried out by the cost method or by the method of comparative analysis of sales. Based on the assessment of the property, a report is drawn up, which should reflect: the date of the report and its serial number, the basis for the report, the legal address of the appraiser and the number of his license to operate, an accurate description of the object of appraisal, a detailed description of the standards used in the appraisal, and final result appraisal is its possible . The report is signed by the appraiser, who is responsible for the assessment made by him.
As the expert of the National Chamber of Valuation A. Vinokurov rightly asserts, when evaluating typical technological equipment, the most correct results can be achieved by using the method of comparative sales analysis. This approach is based on the principle of substitution, according to which a rational investor will not pay for a product an amount greater than the cost of an object of equivalent utility available for purchase, with a similar functional value and similar technical and operational characteristics.
Political and economic indicators can be supported by economic calculations that allow a more complete picture of the significance of the use of intellectual property items, for example, an increase in the volume of imports of mineral raw materials can be characterized not only by the percentage of volume growth as a result of the use of intellectual property items, but also by the amount of currency received by the treasury from the sale of additional volumes. Valuation methods such as the income method and the comparative analysis method can be used in the calculations.
Each of the three valuation approaches discussed above is based on input data collected from the market, but various sources for information. Using cost approach information on the market value of materials and labor should be obtained. In the case of applying the method of comparative analysis of market sales, the source of information is open data banks on real estate transactions.
As a rule, specific methods
Introduction
The creative heritage of outstanding writers has always attracted the attention of many researchers, both linguists and literary critics. The study of the linguistic means of these writers is of great importance for revealing many aspects of the national literary language as a whole, such as its history, expressive possibilities, patterns and trends in the development of the language in a certain era. All this is possible only thanks to the deep penetration of researchers into the creative laboratory of writers.
There are many ways to achieve expressiveness in artistic speech. One of these ways, of course, is comparison.
AT scientific literature comparison has not found a generally accepted definition. So, for example, Z.I. Khovanskaya believes that comparison, “which singles out and characterizes certain properties of an image object by comparing it with another object or phenomenon, has a number of linguistic features that reveal varying degrees of stability, invariance” (Khovanskaya, 300).
Among the stylistic phenomena observed in acts of communication, it is customary to distinguish two most significant categories: tropes and stylistic devices. Tropes are associated with the implementation of only a stylistic function and are part of living communication in all areas of communication (M.P. Brandes, Z.I. Khovanskaya, K.A. Dolinin). Stylistic devices, on the contrary, are necessarily involved in the implementation of the aesthetic function and characterize, as a rule, only literary and artistic communication. It is obvious that they can be created only on the basis of tropes, then we are dealing with stylistic devices of a tropeic nature (Khovanskaya, 288). However, we must remember that there are also stylistic devices of a non-tropical nature.
Author of "Stylistics French” believes that in literary criticism and linguistics (in stylistics, in particular) there is no consensus on whether to consider comparison a trope or a stylistic device of a “non-tropeic type” (Khovanskaya, 288).
We will devote to clarifying this issue. this study. In our research, we adhere to the point of view according to which stylistic devices of the non-tropeic type show significant heterogeneity in structural and semantic respects.
“They can be created,” Z.I. Khovanskaya, - on the basis of lexical, lexical-syntactic and literary-compositional means and do not form such a single group as stylistic devices - tropes" (Khovanskaya, 300).
The object of study in the course work is comparison as a stylistic device. The relevance of the topic is determined by the fact that comparison is a figurative language tool, and its function in the text makes it possible to judge the writer's skill, his individual artistic style. It seemed to us interesting to study the role and functions of comparisons in works written in different languages: English and Russian, especially since comparison is such stylistic device, which still does not have an unambiguous definition in linguistics and literary criticism. It can even be assumed that comparison is a currently insufficiently studied way of achieving expressiveness in a text.
It is known that one of the famous, original English writers of the 20th century was and remains Theodore Dreiser, whose work is well known to the Russian reader. The novel "Sister Kerry" also occupies a special place in his work.
No less original Russian writer is A.I. Kuprin is an original artist of critical realism of the 20th century. His work reflected the main features of the Russian classical literature with its democracy, humanism, deep interest in the life of the people. The main part of this course work is devoted to the study of ways and means of expressing comparison as a stylistic device in the Russian literary text of the early 20th century in comparison with the literary text of the English novel.
Thus, the subject of this course work is the analysis of ways of expressing comparison in Russian literary language in comparison with the English language.
The purpose of the study is to identify the features of the expression of comparison in Russian and English literary texts.
To achieve the goal of the study, the following tasks were set:
§ study the theoretical literature on the research topic;
§ give different points of view on the stylistic characteristics of comparisons;
§ analyze figurative comparison in terms of:
a) linguistics; b) literary criticism;
§ using the method of continuous sampling from English and Russian literary texts to form a corpus of linguistic material for analysis;
§ consider the ways of expression and the role of comparisons in T. Dreiser's novel "Sister Kerry";
§ to consider ways of expressing comparisons in the stories of A.I. Kuprin;
§ compare ways of expressing comparison in Russian and English;
§ formulate the conclusions of the study.
The material for analysis was selected from the collection of stories by A.I. Kuprin (total 464 pages of text) and from the novel "Sister Kerry" by T. Dreiser. The selected examples are considered, firstly, from the point of view of the structural-formal comparison expression; secondly, from the point of view of the significance of the structural constituent units of comparison; thirdly, from the point of view of the functions and artistic significance of comparisons in the text.
When analyzing texts and working on factual material, the following were used:
1. The method of theoretical substantiation of the essence of such a stylistic device as a comparison;
2. The method of continuous sampling of actual language material;
3. Comparative method;
4. Method of statistical calculations of the obtained results.
The purpose and objectives of the study determined the structure of the work: introduction, four chapters, conclusion and list of references.
The introduction defines the object, purpose, tasks and methods of research, its relevance and the importance of the practical application of the results.
Chapter 1 provides an overview of the issues related to the stylistic device - comparison in linguistic literature, in particular, the definition of the essence of comparison, the types and types of comparisons are considered, their structure is analyzed.
Chapter 2 is devoted to identifying comparisons in the novel "Sister Kerry" and determining their role and functions in the novel.
Chapter 3 contains an analysis of the role and functions of comparison in the stories of A.I. Kuprin in comparison with the use of the analyzed stylistic device in the novel "Sister Kerry".
The 4th Chapter is devoted to comparing the specifics of comparison, as a stylistic device, in the stories of A.I. Kuprin using the analyzed stylistic device in the novel "Sister Kerry".
In conclusion, the results of the study are summarized. The list of used literature includes 22 titles.
The results of the study can be used in teaching the stylistics of the language and in the analysis of texts fiction, both in Russian and in English, this determines the practical value of the work.
Information about the work "Comparative analysis of stylistic expressiveness and means of its actualization in English and Russian languages"
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Basen by I.A. Krylov and S.V. Mikhalkov
In the linguistic aspect
The purpose of our study is to identify the dynamics of the linguistic design of the fable genre. To do this, we conduct a comparative analysis of the texts of the fables of I.A. Krylov and S.V. Mikhalkov.
The title of the fables of I.A. Krylov and S.V. Mikhalkov in linguistic analysis should pay attention to the titles of literary texts, since one of critical components text is its title. Being outside the main body of the text, it occupies an absolutely strong position in it. This is the first sign of the work, from which acquaintance with the text begins. The title activates the reader's perception and directs his attention to what will be presented next.
The title introduces the reader to the world of the work. It in a condensed form expresses the main theme of the text, defines its most important storyline or indicates its main conflict. The titles of fables by I.A. Krylov and S.V. Mikhalkov are structurally diverse. They are expressed:
in a word, predominantly a noun in the nominative case or other case forms: “Bulat”, “Merchant”, “Lamb” by I.A. Krylov (32% in total), “About the Fool”, “Watermelon”, “Hands” by S. V. Mikhalkov (only 20%). Less common are the words of other parts of speech: “Unmentioned”, “Ku-ka-re-ku” by S.V. Mikhalkov, “Stingy”, “Curious” by I.A. Krylov;
a compositional combination of words: “Eagle and Mole”, “Gardener and Philosopher”, “Master and Mice” by I.A. Krylov (52% in total), “King and Jester”, “Fly and Elephant”, “Caterpillar and Butterfly” C .V. Mikhalkov (total 30%)
subordinating phrase: “Wild Goats”, “Pig under an oak tree”, Shy player” by I.A. Krylova (total 16%), “Presumptuous Rooster”, “Mad Dog”, “Two girlfriends” by S.V. Mikhalkov (total 50 %). [See Appendix 3]
Thus, if we talk about the percentage of the above types of titles of the fables of I.A. Krylov and S.V. Mikhalkov, we can draw the following conclusion:
In I.A. Krylov, titles expressed by a composing combination of words predominate (104 titles - that is, 52%). The author connects two opposites with a creative union, which will be discussed in the fable, that is, the conflict is already indicated in the title.
S.V. Mikhalkov's titles are dominated by subordinating phrases (88 titles - that is, 50%). The author gives a qualitative description of the subject.
It should be noted that I.A. Krylov and S.V. Mikhalkov, with the help of the title, establish contact with the reader, arouse his interest, while using the expressive possibilities of language means of different levels.
For example, S.V. Mikhalkov uses antonymic connections of the words: “Thick and Thin”, “Form and Content”, “Head and Legs”. I.A. Krylov uses the phenomenon of an oxymoron: "Poor rich man."
S.V. Mikhalkov transforms the titles of already known works: “Crime without Punishment”, uses idioms as the title: “Chickens laugh”, “Side bake”
Consider the suffixes of subjective assessment in the fables of I. Krylov and S. Mikhalkov. Word formation in Russian is a bright source of speech expression and style formation due to the richness and variety of evaluative affixes. Suffixes of subjective evaluation serve to change the functional-stylistic and emotional-expressive coloring of words, as they have a stylistic purpose proper. Formations with subjective assessment suffixes acquire a colloquial or colloquial coloring and can be supplemented various shades: familiar, playfully ironic, grossly derogatory.
Suffixes of subjective evaluation are the most striking means of speech expression and conveying emotions, they are used mainly in colloquial speech. Therefore, we can say that words with subjective evaluation suffixes are involved in the linguistic design of the fable genre.
Let us turn to I.A. Krylov’s fable “Demyan’s Ear”. What an inexhaustible abundance of petting and diminutive suffixes in it, giving speech actors such a unique national flavor!
« Neighbor, my light!
Please eat."
« Neighbor, I'm fed up". - There is no need
More plate y; Listen:
Ushitsa, she-same-her, well cooked!
"I ate three plates." - “And, full, what an expense.
If only it would become a hunt ... "
[“Demyan’s Ear” Krylov 1985: 111]
Krylov has fables in which diminutive suffixes determine their stylistic tone, giving them a special lyricism. So, in the fable "The Good Fox" (Krylov 1985: 106), diminutive words - orphans, grains, poor things, nest, bed, babies, song, crumbs - give a sensitive character to this fable.
S.V. Mikhalkov also appreciated the stylistic possibilities of affixation, using it to express irony and mockery. For example:
You live beautifully
Dear sister!»
"Oh, if darling you knew -
With a sigh, the rat answered.
Here is a hair from a Turkish sofa!
Here patchwork to the Persian carpet!
We know there is more family,
Where our hayut and scold.
["Two friends" S. Mikhalkov 1985: 21]
Once in a quiet barrel, under berezhkom, a little light,
small fish peaceful gathered for advice.
["Fish affairs" S. Mikhalkov 1985: 31]
Gnawed some, tore the sides of others
And wounded to death shepherd girl.
["Mad Dog" S. Mikhalkov 1985: 32]
In these examples, expressive word formation acts, first of all, as a means of creating an ironic, satirical coloring of speech (see Appendix 7).
Speaking about the style-forming functions of suffixes, we must also mention the individual author's style. Emotionally colored words in the texts of the studied fables stand out due to the fact that their nominative meanings are complicated by evaluative-characteristic semantic shades. These words not only retain their semantic and expressive qualities, but also enhance them. The popularity of these speech means in fables, it is explained by the proximity of language and syllable, the proximity of the latter both to living colloquial everyday speech and to works of oral folk art.
Further, in order to identify the dynamics of the linguistic design of the fable genre, one should pay attention to the vocabulary of literary texts by I.A. Krylov and S.V. Mikhalkov, because Vocabulary is the most mobile, changeable part of the language. It sensitively responds to this change in external, non-linguistic reality: in the material and cultural life of society, in the social structure, in relations between people.
I.A. Krylov wrote fables in early XIX century, and S.V. Mikhalkov - in the middle of the XX century. What has changed over the past century and a half?
From a historical point of view, we note that there have been significant upheavals in social order, in the way of life, in the life of Russian people. From a linguistic point of view, we will find that in the Russian language of the middle of the 20th century and the beginning of the 19th century there are more similarities than differences. The fact is that language is conservative by nature: it lags far behind in its development from the development of the outside world. And yet there are changes in vocabulary. Per concrete examples Let us turn to the texts of the fables of S.V. Mikhalkov. For example:
1) Because in communism we're on our way now
We should from now on for centuries
uproot the villages
This is about political regime who dominated at the time of writing the fable. The ill-considered decisions taken by the executive power are condemned. That is, in the fable Mikhalkov S.V. affects actual problems of his time.
Per astronaut did you marry your daughter?
Became son-in-law Deputy Minister
[“Poor Finches” S. Mikhalkov 1985: 152]
The twentieth century was marked not only by social events that influenced the fate of Russia, but also by great scientific discoveries and technical inventions, which S.V. Mikhalkov does not forget to mention in his fable.
3) He does not need to go to the forest for brushwood -
Gives warmth and light in abundance hydroelectric power station
[“The donkey problem” S. Mikhalkov 1985: 144]
Thus, in the course of the study, we found 53 language units (see Appendix 4), denoting new objects and concepts characteristic of the 20th century. This suggests that the fables of S. Mikhalkov were written "on the topic of the day." A large number of new words appeared in connection with the need to name social and economic relations people, various phenomena of social life, as well as science, culture, art and everyday life.
In paragraph 1.2. we have already said that I.A. Krylov made living folk speech the basis of his fable creativity. I.A. Krylov was able to show, albeit within the same literary genre, that the common language has enormous pictorial and expressive possibilities. Let us turn to the texts of the fables of S.V. Mikhalkov, who continued the traditions of I.A. Krylov, we will give quotes in which vernacular plays an indispensable role as a means of representation and expression:
1. Not suitable. Poetry - mura,
Today is the same as yesterday!
["Pantry of the poet" S. Mikhalkov 1985: 78]
2. ate what should have been saved!
And such cats that do not catch mice,
From the pantries it's time to drive your!
["Cats and Mice" S. Mikhalkov 1985: 89]
3. I recognize him:
eyewash- he!
[“This obligation” S. Mikhalkov 1985:127]
Vernaculars stand out from the mass of other words. In the fables of S.V. Mikhalkov, we have identified 35 cases of the use of vernacular, this is explained by the very style of narration (see Appendix 5). The common thing that these vernaculars have in common is a sign of reduced speech, characterized by ease, familiarity and sometimes rudeness of expressions. Colloquial vocabulary is used for stylization purposes.
Comparing the texts of the fables of I.A. Krylov and S.V. Mikhalkov, we see that they are saturated with various phraseological units. In paragraph 1.2. It was said that from the works of I.A. Krylov, many phrases and expressions have entered the modern Russian language, which have become aphorisms and proverbs (see Appendix 2). S.V. Mikhalkov, on the other hand, uses in the texts of fables a layer of phraseological units already existing in the language.
The features of the actualization of phraseological semantics in the fables of S.V. Mikhalkov are different: most of them are phraseological units in the usual form. Despite the fact that the writer has his own handwriting, his own word, an excellent command of the elements of the living Russian language, he refers to the normative use of phraseological units, although he masterfully emphasizes, enhances their meaning with the context of existence. Such functioning of ordinary phraseological units emphasizes the author's ability to creatively comprehend a static nominative unit and, without changing its form and content, betray it with a high emotional charge.
For example:
Ate the dog he is on the tailor's part.
["The tailor on his laurels" S. Mikhalkov 1985: 67]
Another, like that Rooster, calls from the podium,
Shimit, screaming, giving orders,
Requires work. And you baclush beats
[“Rooster Chatterbox” S. Mikhalkov 1985: 87]
Yes I seven skins from him let down.
And I'll let you go naked to Africa!
["Hare in the hop" S. Mikhalkov 1985: 25]
So, the nature of the phraseological units used by S. Mikhalkov has a vivid imagery, stylistic coloring, and expression. This is explained by the canons of the fable as a genre. S. Mikhalkov expands the possibilities of using phraseological resources. Under his pen, the phraseological riches of the Russian language come to life, which he treats as raw materials to be processed creatively. His creative processing gives phraseological units a new expressive coloring, enhancing their expressiveness. In total, we recorded 37 cases of the use of phraseological units in the texts of S.V. Mikhalkov's fables (see Appendix 6).
Conclusion:
Summarizing the above, we note that S.V. Mikhalkov follows I.A. Krylov and creatively continues his traditions, observing the canons of the fable genre.
The fable verse of S.V. Mikhalkov is close to living, colloquial speech, he selects the simplest, but rich in semantic shades and words and expressions of the national language. In the course of the study, we have identified the following features of the linguistic design of his fables:
Use of words with subjective evaluation suffixes;
Use of colloquial words;
The use of phraseological units.
All this makes the fables of S.V. Mikhalkov and I.A. Krylov related. But the dynamics of the linguistic design of the fable genre is still evident.
Each of the fabulists touches on the problems of his time. I.A. Krylov wrote fables at the beginning of the 19th century. Peasants, shepherds, millers, cab drivers, merchants, the rich, clerks, bares, nobles - in a word, Russian people of various ranks, classes, estates and positions in kind or in an animal masquerade - are the heroes of his fables. S.V. Mikhalkov writes fables in the middle of the 20th century, when the social system is changing, production, science and culture are developing. These changes give rise to new words. In the course of the study, we found 53 language units denoting new objects and concepts characteristic of the 20th century.
In the 20th century, businessmen, government officials, bureaucrats, swindlers, parasites become the object of satire. Thus, the fables of S.V. Mikhalkov have novelty and relevance for their time.
Conclusion:
The fable is short and always has a moralizing character, which makes it related to the parable. At the beginning or at the end of the work, a conclusion is formulated, the main instructive thought is morality. At the heart of the plot structure and more broadly - the structure of the fable is based on antithesis, comparison. Through the "real", plot structure, an allegorical - moralistic or satirical plan shines through.
The fable is the most traditional genre that has retained its foundation to our time, from Aesop to Mikhalkov.
However, this does not mean that the fable genre itself remained unchanged. Throughout its centuries-old history, the fable has changed, acquired new features and properties, and the dynamics of its linguistic design has taken place.
The genre is constantly evolving in its own way in every country and in every era. I.A. Krylov made living folk speech the basis of his work. He was able to show within the same genre that the common language has enormous pictorial and expressive possibilities.
The founder of the modern fable can be considered S.V. Mikhalkov, who creatively continues the traditions of I.A. Krylov. The dynamics of the linguistic design of the fable genre is explained, first of all, by extralinguistic factors. Each fabulist touches, first of all, on the problems of his time. Reality determines the selection of speech means for the linguistic design of the text of the fable.
List of used literature.
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Arutyunova N.D. Types of language values: Evaluation. Event. Fact. - M .: "Enlightenment", 1988 - 380 p.
Arutyunova N.D. Language and the human world. - M .: "Enlightenment", 1998 - 659 p.
Babenko L.G., Vasiliev I.E., Kazarin Yu.V. Linguistic analysis of a literary text. - Yekaterinburg, 2000 - 390 p.
Vezhbitskaya A.B. speech genres. genres of speech. - Saratov: College, 1997 - 354 p.
Galperin I.R. Text as an object of linguistic research. - M .: "Enlightenment", 1981 - 320 p.
Gasparov M.L. Literary epochs and types of artistic consciousness. - M .: "Nauka", 1993 - 208 p.
Golub I.B. Stylistics of the Russian language. - M .: "Iris-press", 1997 - 448 p.
Kovalenko S.A. Winged lines of Russian poetry. - M .: "Contemporary", 1989 - 480 p.
Korovin V.I. Poet and sage. Book about Ivan Krylov. - M .: "Enlightenment", 1994 - 297 p.
Kuzmichev I.A. literary crossroads. Typology of genres, their historical fate. - Gorky: Volga-Vyatka book publishing house, 1993 - 208 p.
Leiderman N.L. The movement of time and the laws of the genre. - M .: "Enlightenment", 1982 - 215 p.
Nadezhdin N.I. Literary criticism. Aesthetics. - M .: "Pravda", 1972 - 409 p.
Pronin V.A. The theory of literary genres. - M.: MGUP Publishing House, 1999 - 196 p.
Rogova K.A. Literary Text Analysis: Russian Literature of the 20th Century. - M .: "Agar", 1997 - 420 p.
Shcherba L.V. Language system and speech activity. - M .: "Pravda", 1974 - 297 p.
Chernets L.V. Literary genre: problems of typology and poetics. - M .: "Nauka", 1992 - 380 p.
Dictionaries and encyclopedias
Akhmanova O.S. Dictionary linguistic terms. - M., 1966.
Linguistic encyclopedic Dictionary/ Ch. ed. V.N.Yartseva. M.: Scientific publishing house "Big Russian Encyclopedia". – 2000.
Literary Encyclopedic Dictionary / Under the general. ed. V.N. Kozhevnikova, P.N. Nikolaev. - M .: "Soviet Encyclopedia", 1987.
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Attachment 1
Examples of vernacular in the fables of I.A. Krylov:
1) puffed and puffed,
And my entertainer ended on that
What, not equal to the Ox,
It burst with an effort - and died.
[“The Frog and the Ox” I.A. Krylov, 1985: 9]
2) Well done sang: who is in the forest, who is for firewood,
And who has that power.
In the ears of the guest crackled
And the head was spinning.
[“Musicians” I.A. Krylov, 1985: 7]
3) How dare you , insolent, with an unclean snout
Here is a clean muddy drink
With sand and silt?
[“The Wolf and the Lamb” by I.A. Krylov, 1985: 17]
4) Veshunin's head was spinning with praise,
From joy to goiter breath stole –
And to Lisitsy's friendly words
Crow croaked in all the crow's throat:
The cheese fell out - there was such a cheat with it.
[“The Crow and the Fox” by I.A. Krylov, 1985: 5]
5) A pig under an ancient oak
I ate my fill of acorns, to waste,
Having eaten, she slept under it;
Then the eyes fucked up, got up
And snout to undermine the roots of the oak
["Pig under the oak" I.A. Krylov, 1985: 173]
6) Once a Swan, Cancer and Pike
Carried with luggage, they took it,
And together the three all harnessed themselves to it;
Out of the skin climb out, but the cart still does not move.
["Swan, Cancer and Pike" I.A. Krylov, 1985: 92]
One of the traditional techniques widely used in analysis is comparison. Comparison - this is a scientific method of cognition, with the help of which the general and specific in economic phenomena are determined, the trends and patterns of their development are studied.
The more bases for comparison, the more complete the results of the analysis.
Comparison can carried out :
With a plan to monitor and evaluate the implementation of the plan;
With the previous period to study the phenomenon in dynamics;
With an economic model to establish the degree of achievement of the theoretically possible best value of the indicator;
With an advanced enterprise and industry average values.
To use the comparison technique, the indicators must be comparable. The comparability of indicators is ensured by the use of various methods of bringing indicators into a comparable form. These techniques include the neutralization of price and quantity factors.
When neutralizing the price factor, in order to compare the volumes of production for two periods, it is necessary to recalculate one of them in the prices of another period, i.e. present volumes in comparable prices. At the same time, the methodological question is solved as to which prices to apply as comparable prices - those in force in the reporting or base period.
When neutralizing the quantitative factor, all indicators are recalculated according to one, most often the actual quantitative indicator. For example, planned and actual production costs differ not only due to changes in the cost of its individual types, but also due to changes in the quantity of output of each type. In this case, the planned cost amount should be recalculated to the actual production volume for each type and then compared with the actual cost amount.
There are the following kinds comparative analysis:
1) horizontal, at which the absolute and relative deviations of the actual level of the indicator from the baseline are determined;
2) vertical , with the help of which the structure of the object of study is studied by calculating the specific gravity of the parts as a whole;
3) trendy analysis - when studying the relative growth rates and increase in indicators over a number of years to the level of the base year, i.e. in the study of series of dynamics;
4) one-dimensional , in which the comparison is carried out for several indicators of one object or several objects for one indicator;
5) multidimensional , in which several objects are compared according to a set of indicators (for example, when assessing the competitiveness of products).
Lecture 2
3.5. Use in the analysis of average and relative values, groupings, balance reception.
3.6. Application of indices in analysis.
3.7. Graphic method.
3.5. Use in the analysis of average and relative values, groupings and balance reception.
To reveal the general trends in changes in tex or other phenomena in the process of their analysis, relative and average values are widely used.
Percentages are used to study the degree of implementation of the plan, assess the dynamics of indicators, express the qualitative characteristics of phenomena (for example, the profitability of products).
The coefficients are calculated as the ratio of two interrelated indicators, one of which is taken as the base.
Relative values are also used in the study of the structure of phenomena and processes.
In practice, along with relative values, average values are often used. They are used for a generalized quantitative characteristic of a set of homogeneous phenomena according to some attribute. Most often, to reflect mass phenomena, the average number, average wages, etc. are calculated. Economic analysis uses various kinds medium:
Arithmetic mean:
Average chronological;
Geometric mean;
weighted average;
- fashion;
median.
Grouping is one of the main methods economic analysis and study of socio-economic processes.
In order for the set of primary data to be used for economic conclusions, it must be systematized. Grouping is the association of qualitatively homogeneous phenomena or processes into certain groups or subgroups according to some attribute.
Depending on the tasks of the analysis, the following are used:
Typological;
Structural;
analytical groupings.
An example typological grouping there may be a grouping of enterprises by form of ownership.
Structural groupings allow you to study the internal structure of the object of study, the ratio of its individual parts. With their help, they study, for example, the composition of workers by profession, length of service, age, performance standards, etc.
Analytical (causal) groupings are used to determine not only the presence, but also the direction of the form of communication between the studied indicators. In this case, one of them should be considered as a result, and the second - as its cause or factor. For example, the grouping of factors according to the direction of their influence on the cost of production: leading to an increase in cost; leading to its decline.
According to the complexity of construction, two types of groupings are distinguished: simple and complex. By using simple groupings study the relationship between phenomena grouped according to any one attribute. AT complex In groupings, such a division of the studied population is carried out first according to one attribute, then within each group according to another attribute, etc. Thus, it is possible to build two-level and three-level groupings that allow the study of diverse and complex relationships and dependencies.
Balance reception consists in comparing and comparing two sets of indicators tending to a certain balance. It allows you to identify as a result a new analytical indicator. For example, in a metal balance, its needs are compared with sources, which makes it possible to identify an excess or shortage of metal as a result. The balance technique is widely used in the study of the use of working time (balance of working time), the operating time of equipment (balance of machine time), the use of raw materials and financial resources of the enterprise.
Distinguish planned, reporting and dynamic balances . Their comparison makes it possible to identify the factors and causes of the movement of resources.
