colonial system

colonial system

world system of political and economic management of politically independent and sovereign states ( mother countries) dependent countries and territories ( colonies). For the colonial system, a territorial gap between metropolises and colonies is common (location on different continents, considerable remoteness). The colonial system took shape in the process of capitalism's transition to the imperialist stage (the last third of the 19th and early 20th centuries) and the development of monopoly capitalism. Main the purpose of creation is to provide access to places of concentration of natural resources and the formation of sales markets. From the beginning 20th century a crisis of the colonial system came, and after the 2nd World War there was a gradual disintegration of it. Great Britain, France, Spain, Portugal, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, Italy, the USA, Japan owned the largest colonial systems.
The British colonial empire was the most extensive and powerful among all the possessions of the European mother countries. In 1900, the possessions of Great Britain occupied an area of ​​33 million km² (almost ¼ of the planet's land mass) and accumulated almost a quarter of the world population. (368 million people). The features of the British colonial empire were its scale, dispersal in different regions of the Earth, flexible adm. management (the British were not afraid to introduce elements of self-government in dependent countries, and it was in this colonial empire that protectorates were widely developed). The British Empire was an outstanding political entity not only in its quantitative but also in its qualitative characteristics. Under the control of the British crown were resource-rich countries such as Canada, Australia, South. Africa, India. Often, British possessions were located in strategically important points on the planet, controlling the straits and major sea routes.
The second most powerful colonial system in the beginning. 20th century had France. It covered 11 million km², on this territory. 50 million people lived. Thus, being only 3 times smaller in area than the possessions of the British crown, in terms of population, the colonial empire of France was more than 7 times inferior to the British. The colonies of France were grouped more compactly: DOS. some of them were in the northwest. and center. districts of Africa.
The colonial empires of the Iberian countries - Spain and Portugal - experienced their heyday in the 16-18 centuries, when all of Latin America was divided between these two far from the largest states. The Spanish crown was once subject to such modern countries, like Mexico, Argentina, Peru, Colombia, Bolivia, Venezuela, Chile, Cuba, Philippines, etc. At the beginning. 20th century from the colossal colonial empire, only small fragments survived - the African colonies of Spain: Northern Morocco, Rio de Oro (now Western Sahara), Spanish Guinea (now Equatorial Guinea). Portugal, having lost its largest colony Brazil in 1822, 30 years ago owned Angola, Mozambique, Portuguese Guinea (now Guinea-Bissau), Cape Verde Islands (now Cape Verde), Sao Tome and Principe, East Timor .
Germany from con. 19th century managed a number of ter. in Africa (German East Africa, Togo, Cameroon, Southwest Africa, now Namibia) and the Pacific Ocean (New Guinea, Nauru, Samoa, Caroline, Marshall and Mariana Islands), but as a result of the 1st World War all of them were captured by the enemies of Germany - in the main. Great Britain and France, as well as Belgium, Japan, Portugal.
The largest colony of the Netherlands was the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia) with a population of many millions, significantly less - Dutch Guiana (now Suriname). A number of the Antilles in the Caribbean Sea (Aruba, Curaçao, Bonaire, etc.) are still in the possession of the Netherlands.
Belgium until the 60s 20th century ruled the Belgian Congo (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo), Rwanda and Burundi.
Italy ruled some colonies in Africa (Libya, Eritrea, Somalia). However, all of them were lost after the defeat of Italy in the 2nd World War.
US colonial empire in the 1940s 20th century included the Philippines, Puerto Rico, Eastern Samoa, Guam, the Virgin Islands. All these possessions, with the exception of the Philippines, which gained independence in 1946, are still controlled by Washington.

Geography. Modern illustrated encyclopedia. - M.: Rosman. Under the editorship of prof. A. P. Gorkina. 2006 .

See what the "colonial system" is in other dictionaries:

- (lat.). A collection of laws linking the colonies with the mother countries and forbidding the first exchange with other countries. Dictionary foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910. COLONIAL SYSTEM lat. A collection of measures binding the colonies... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

colonial system- The system of interstate relations and the corresponding international division labor, in which individual countries are under the rule of another state (metropolis) and are deprived of political and economic independence. Syn.:… … Geography Dictionary

See Colonization... encyclopedic Dictionary F. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron

The worldwide system of national-colonial oppression by the imperialist powers of the gigantic majority of the world's population; an integral part of all relations of monopoly capitalism. Formed in the process of transition of capitalism to ... ...

The colonial system of the Dutch East India Company- Two points determine the activities of the Dutch company in relation to its colonial possessions in Indonesia: firstly, the forcible consolidation and conservation of pre-capitalist production relations of slaveholding, feudalism and, in ... ...

English colonial system in the 17th century.- Unlike the Dutch, the British during this period did not have sufficient armed force and therefore used mainly the means of economic penetration into India. In the 17th century an English company ousted by a stronger one ... ... The World History. Encyclopedia

Port. Brasil Colônia Colony of Portugal ← ... Wikipedia

Dates from the beginning of the Portuguese period in Ceylon, in 1505, until the end of Sri Lankan independence in 1948. Contents 1 Notes ... Wikipedia

Possessions of European powers in North America in the middle of the 18th century. British ( pink color), French (light blue), Spanish ( Orange color), territories ceded by France to Great Britain in 1713 are shown purple... Wikipedia

Colonies under capitalism, countries and territories under the rule of a foreign state (metropolis), deprived of political and economic independence, governed on the basis of a special regime. Metropolitan countries... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

Books

• General history. History of the New Age. XIX - beginning of the XX century. 8th grade. Textbook. GEF, Zagladin Nikita Vadimovich. The textbook of the Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor N. V. Zagladin considers the second period of the history of the Modern Age. It is dedicated to the time when the foundations of bourgeois civilization were laid,…

Starting from the first steps of the colonial system and for most of the 20th century, the development of mankind to a large extent proceeded under the dominance of a group of countries united under the common name "West" (Great Britain, France, Germany, Russia (USSR), Italy, Spain, USA, Canada etc.), i.e. the world was Eurocentric, or more broadly, Euro-American-centric. Other peoples, regions and countries were taken into account insofar as they were connected with the history of the West.

The era of exploration and subjugation of Asia, Africa and America by European peoples began with the Great geographical discoveries of the 15th-16th centuries. The final act of this epic was the creation by the end of the XIX century. great colonial empires, covering vast expanses and numerous peoples and countries in all parts of the globe. It should be noted that colonialism and imperialism were not the exclusive monopoly of Europe or Western world new and modern times. The history of conquest is as old as the history of civilizations. Empire as a form of political organization of countries and peoples existed almost from the very beginning of human history. Suffice it to recall, for example, the empire of Alexander the Great, the Roman and Byzantine empires, the Holy Roman Empire, the empires of Qing Shi Huang and Genghis Khan, etc.

In the modern sense, the term "empire" (as well as the term "imperialism" derived from it) is associated with the Latin word "emperor" and is usually associated with ideas of dictatorial power and coercive methods of government. In modern times, it first came into use in France in the 30s of the 19th century. and applied to supporters Napoleonic Empire. In the following decades, with the intensification of the colonial expansion of Britain and other countries, this term gained popularity as an equivalent of the term "colonialism". At the turn of the XIX and XX centuries. imperialism began to be regarded as a special stage in the development of capitalism, characterized by the intensification of the exploitation of the lower classes within the country by the intensification of the struggle for the redivision of the world in the international arena.

Imperialism is also characterized by special relations of domination and dependence. Different nations are not equal in their origin, influence, resources, and opportunities. Some of them are large, others are small, some have a developed industry, while others are far behind in the process of modernization. International inequality has always been a reality, which led to the suppression and subjugation of weak peoples and countries by strong and powerful empires and world powers.

As historical experience shows, any strong civilization invariably showed a tendency to spatial expansion. Therefore, it inevitably acquired an imperial character. In the last five centuries, the initiative in expansion belonged to the Europeans, and then to the West as a whole. Chronologically, the beginning of the formation of the Eurocentric capitalist civilization coincided with the beginning of the Great Geographical Discoveries. The developing young dynamic civilization seemed to immediately declare its claims to the entire globe. During the four centuries following the discoveries of X. Columbus and Vasco da Gama, the rest of the world was either mastered and settled, or the rest of the world was conquered.

19th century industrial revolution gave a new impetus to the overseas expansion of European powers. Territorial seizures began to be seen as a means of increasing wealth, prestige, military power and gaining additional trump cards in the diplomatic game. A fierce competition for spheres and regions of the most profitable investment of capital, as well as markets for goods, unfolded between the leading industrial powers. End of the 19th century was marked by the intensification of the struggle of the leading European countries for the conquest of still unoccupied territories and countries in Africa, Asia and Oceania.

By the beginning of the XX century. the wave of creation of huge colonial empires ended, the largest of which was the British Empire, spread over vast expanses from Hong Kong in the East to Canada in the West. The whole world turned out to be divided, there were almost no "no man's" territories left on the planet. The great era of European expansion is over. In the course of many wars for the division and redistribution of territories, European peoples have extended their dominance over almost the entire globe.

Until the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. non-European peoples mastered European scientific, technical, economic, intellectual and other achievements passively; Now the stage of their active development, as it were from within, has begun. The priority in this regard undoubtedly belongs to Japan, which, as a result of the Meiji reforms in 1868, embarked on the path of capitalist development. The reforms marked the beginning of a noticeable economic growth of the country, which, in turn, gave it the opportunity to switch to the path of external expansion. The attack by Japanese aircraft on December 7, 1941 on the American naval base at Pearl Harbor demonstrated with one's own eyes the real beginning of the end of the Eurocentric world and became the starting point of a new era in world history. But until the second half of the XX century. the world remained Eurocentric: Western countries continued to dictate their will and determine the rules of the political game in the international arena. The overwhelming majority of other countries and peoples were assigned only a passive role as objects of the policy of the great powers.

Formation of the world economy World economic relations take their origin in world trade, which is calculated for thousands of years. In pre-industrial eras, the paradigm (from Gr. paradeigma - sample) of economic development can be characterized as "sustained consumption". At that time, simple reproduction was typical, and subsistence farming was dominant. From the point of view of the socio-economic form, this corresponded to the primitive, slave-owning and feudal modes of production. Enrichment of the ruling classes was carried out by non-economic coercion of slaves and peasants.

World trade and world economic relations acquired their new quality on the basis of the Great geographical discoveries of the late XV-XVI centuries. and the dissolution of feudalism in Europe. The great geographical discoveries were not accidental. They were the result of the development of technology and science, economics, cities, commodity-money relations. The creation of a new type of sailing ships - caravels allowed the expedition of X. Columbus to cross the Atlantic Ocean (1492). A compass began to be used, in combination with an astrolabe, helping to navigate the high seas. Improved cartography.

The “lust for gold” became a huge stimulus. It was determined not only by the desire of kings and other nobles to replenish their treasury, not only by the adventurers' passion for enrichment, but also by the need for a growing trade turnover. The pursuit of money, their fetishization began. Trade interests were important. The capture of Constantinople by the Seljuk Turks interrupted the Levantine trade. All this stimulated the geographical expeditions of the Spaniards and the Portuguese, and later the French, Dutch, and British.

Russia played an outstanding role in the exploration and development of the northern coast of Asia and America, the Arctic and Pacific Oceans. The consequences of geographical discoveries were extremely important. A significant share of colonial booty went into the hands of kings and court nobility and received feudal use. Large land ownership, serfdom, and even plantation slavery were imposed in the colonies. But still, the capitalist consequences were predominant - the process of primitive accumulation of capital.

Throughout the 16th century the territory known to Europeans increased by 6 times. The territorial base of trade has reached gigantic proportions. It has become global, oceanic. The scope of the international division of labor has expanded. Huge masses of new goods were involved in the trade turnover. European capital became more full-blooded and viable. Penetrating into industry, he forced the development of manufacturing capitalism. There was a movement of trade routes to the Atlantic and Indian oceans.

The Mediterranean Sea began to lose its importance, the cities of its coast fell into decay. But Lisbon, Seville, Cadiz (Spain), Antwerp, Amsterdam, London towered. Economic centers during this period move to the west. The influx of cheap gold and silver caused in the XVI century. "revolution of prices" - they increased by 2-5 times. This accelerated the enrichment of merchants and manufacturers, who sold goods at ever-increasing prices and paid wages ever cheaper money. Wealthy peasants, who speculated in raw materials and food, were also getting richer. As for the workers and the rural poor, they suffered from high prices. The incomes of the nobility were depleted, as cash dues were depreciated.

One of the most important consequences of geographical discoveries was colonialism. The acceleration of the economic development of Western Europe took place at the cost of unequal exchange, robbery and enslavement of the peoples of America, Africa, and Asia. All of the above allows us to conclude that it was the Great geographical discoveries that laid the foundation for the formation of the world economy.

From the standpoint of socio-economic forms of society, this stage is characterized by the process of decomposition of feudal relations, the feudal mode of production as a whole, the genesis of capitalism - the initial accumulation of capital, which, on the basis of geographical discoveries, exploitation of the subsoil and enslaved peoples, also received a new quality. In this regard, the initial stage of the formation of the world economy is usually associated with the final victory over the feudal mode of production, the process of primitive accumulation of capital and the formation of free competition. There has been a fundamental change in the paradigm of economic development. The central figure in the movement of the economy becomes an "economic man" with strong motives and benefits, enterprising, ready to take risks for the sake of profit. pace economic growth increased sharply. Great Britain is becoming the most developed, advanced country in the world.

Great geographical discoveries contributed to its economic rise. Before that, England occupied a rather modest place. The process of the formation of capitalism here took place more intensively and with greater distinctness than in other countries. Therefore, England is considered a "classical" country of capitalism.

The main commodity sector of the country was agriculture. Wool was exported for processing in Flanders and Florence. Own industrial production was also developed on the basis of guild craft. The great geographical discoveries expanded the world market, increased demand and prices. Thanks to lower production costs, manufactory quickly supplanted small-scale handicraft production.

For further development more raw materials and free labor were needed. Sheep breeding was profitable for the feudal lords, but ran into limited pastures. Landlords seized communal pastures, drove peasants from the land, which in history was called fencing. In this case, cruel measures were used, entire areas were devastated. Driven from the land, the peasants lost their livelihood, turned into beggars and vagabonds.

Agrarian revolution in the 16th century created conditions for the rapid growth of the wool industry, providing it with raw materials and labor. The "bloody" legislation formed a new capitalist labor discipline. Workers received meager wages with long working hours (from 5 o'clock in the morning to 6-8 o'clock in the evening). Development industrial production and the growth of the non-agricultural population contributed to the formation of an internal market, the size of which was limited by low effective demand. This oriented production to the foreign market.

The characteristic policy at that time was mercantilism. However, the growing bourgeoisie experienced oppression from the ruling elite of the nobility, which caused them to fight against the feudal system. Bourgeois revolution 1642-1649 put an end to feudalism in England, ended the Middle Ages and opened the period new history- capitalism. In the economy, this contributed to the industrial revolution and the formation of a new stage in the world economy. Thus, the first stage of the formation of the world economy can be conditionally limited to the end of the XV - late XVIII centuries The industrial revolution of the late 18th century marked a new stage in the development of the world economy. The central place in the economy is beginning to be occupied by industrial capital, which has also changed the paradigm of economic development, the model of which is becoming an industrialized economy.

Stages of development of the world economy In its formation and development, the world economy has come a long and difficult path.

By the middle of the 20th century, the world economy was split into two parts: the world capitalist and the world socialist.

Since the 1960s, developing countries have been included in the MX system. By the mid-70s, the following stand out among them: the so-called "new industrial countries" of Southeast Asia (the first wave - 4 "small dragons" - South Korea, Taiwan, “Hong Kong, Singapore) and Latin American countries: Brazil, Argentina, Mexico. After the collapse of the USSR and revolutionary changes in the countries of Eastern Europe the world economy begins to acquire the features of a single, integral entity. The emerging global world economy, not being homogeneous, includes the national economies of industrialized countries, developing countries and countries with economic system transitional type. Preserving many contradictions and diverse trends, MX at the turn of the 21st century is incomparably more holistic, integrated, dynamic than in the middle of the 20th century.

The world economy at the turn of the 21st century is global in scope; it is based entirely on the principles market economy, the objective laws of the international division of labor, the internationalization of production and capital. By the end of the 1990s, a number of stable trends emerged in the world economy. These include: - stable rates of economic growth.

The average growth rate of all countries in the world rose from less than 1% in the early 1990s to 3% per annum at the end of the decade; - increasing the external economic factor in economic development. Significantly increased the scale and qualitatively changed the nature of traditional international trade in tangible goods, as well as services. “Electronic commerce” has appeared, i.e. trade in the Internet system; - globalization of financial markets and increased interdependence of national economies; - growth specific gravity services in the national economy and international exchange; - development of regional integration processes. The achieved degree of unity of trade, production and the credit and financial sphere of the industrially developed countries is a sign of the formation of the world economic complex (IEC).

Russia and Europe in the 18th century. Changes in the international position of the empire.

The outcome of the palace struggle of the end of the 17th century, having cleared the power Peter, predetermined the nature of the further development of transformations. Peter sharply advanced the German technical direction to the detriment of the Polish scholastic one and concentrated his vigorous activity on the continuation of military, financial and administrative reforms. The starting points for the reform had already been given by the experiments of the seventeenth century.

The development of the reform was devoid of systematic planning and proceeded in shocks, under the direct influence of current military events and growing financial difficulties. Only in the second half of the reign, by the 20s of the XVIII century, a more systematic plan of reform was outlined, inspired by Western theories of enlightened absolutism and mercantilism and based on models of foreign, mainly Swedish, institutions.

The development of this transformative plan was the collective work of a number of people who submitted transformative projects to Peter on monotonous questions. Understanding these projects, Peter gave the implementation of the planned transformations a coercive, terrorist character. Along with the properties of Peter's personal character, the feverishly excited pace of the work of transformation was determined by the course of external events.

The war filled the entire reign of Peter. The end of the 90s of the XVII century was occupied by the Azov campaigns. They were a continuation of Russia's participation in the European coalition against Turkey, which was formed under Peter's predecessors. By the capture of Azov and the construction of the Voronezh fleet, the prestige of Russia, shaken by the failures of Prince Golitsyn, was raised both in the eyes of the allies and in the eyes of Turkey. Moldavia and Wallachia turned to Peter with an offer of citizenship and the transfer of hostilities against Turkey to the banks of the Danube. But at this time, the members of the coalition were already in a hurry to make peace with Turkey: Western Europe was preparing for another grandiose struggle - for the Spanish inheritance.

The collapse of the coalition forced Russia to conclude a truce with Turkey for 30 years (July 3, 1700). Azov went to Russia, the annual tribute of Russia to the Crimean Khan was destroyed. Two months after the conclusion of this truce, a war began with Sweden, against which, back in 1699, Peter concluded an alliance with Poland. The Polish king Augustus and the Livland nobleman Patkul, who was busy making a lot of efforts to conclude a Polish-Russian alliance, dreamed that when dividing future conquests, Peter would be satisfied with Ingermanland and Karelia.

The defeat of the Russians near Narva further increased the claims and hopes of Augustus. He demanded from Peter the concession to Poland of Little Russia; but the union was renewed without fulfilling this condition. Charles XII after the Narva victory, in the words of Peter, "stuck in Poland", and the Russians at that time ravaged Livonia, captured Derpt and Narva and established themselves on the Neva by taking Noteburg and Nyenschanz and founding Petersburg (1703). Having reached the sea, Peter began to think about peace with Sweden and requested mediation from Austria, England, Holland and France. The powers that fought against Louis XIV did not sympathize with the strengthening of Russia and coldly met Peter's request. Negotiations with Sweden began with the mediation of France, but were interrupted due to the demand of Charles XII to return all Russian conquests to Sweden.

Russia occupied Courland; Karl, having forced Poland to peace and replaced Augustus on the Polish throne with Stanislav Leshchinsky, was preparing for a campaign deep into Russia. Peter was afraid of the Swedes' campaign against Moscow, but Charles, counting on the Little Russian Cossacks and the Crimean Khan, moved to Ukraine. The Battle of Poltava (1709) turned the whole course of both military and diplomatic actions. Charles fled to Turkey; With its success, Russia attracted the keen attention of all Europe, combined with fear. Fear was hostile. France and Poland raised Turkey against Russia. Peter went to the break, encouraged by the hope of the Balkan Slavs, who did not stop during this reign of Peter to appeal to the protection of Russia. The rulers of Moldavia and Wallachia entered into formal alliances with Peter against the Turks, under the condition of declaring the independence of their states. The betrayal of the Wallachian ruler Brankovan exposed the Russian army to terrible danger from the Turks and forced the Prut campaign to end with a difficult peace for Russia with Turkey: Azov again passed to Turkey, the newly built Russian cities near the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov were devastated, Charles XII was guaranteed a free return to Swedish possessions.

1711 - 1715 were busy with military operations in Pomerania and Finland. The deepening of Russian troops into Germany further increased the anxiety of Europe hostile to Russia. The end of the War of the Spanish Succession made it possible for the European powers to closely monitor the political growth of Russia. England, Austria, France behaved towards Russia partly with cold stiffness, partly with open hostility. Poland, where Augustus reigned again after the Battle of Poltava, Denmark and Prussia were allied with Peter, but the first two powers were afraid of Russia and intrigued against her successes.

Despite all this, Peter, after successes in Finland, drew up a plan for the landing of a combined Russian-Danish fleet in southern Sweden. The plan was not carried out due to discord among the allies. Peter then began to seek rapprochement with France. After his trip to Paris, an alliance was concluded between Russia, France and Prussia, with the obligation to open negotiations with Sweden through the mediation of France.

Simultaneously with this agreement, however, at the suggestion of the Swedish diplomat Hertz, a congress of Russian and Swedish representatives in the Åland Islands was decided, without the participation of French representatives. The Åland Congress, during which Charles XII was replaced on the throne by Ulrik Eleanor, did not lead to anything. Peter resumed the war. Despite the demonstrative cruising of the English fleet in the Baltic Sea, the Russian army landed several times in Sweden and devastated the environs of Stockholm. This led to the conclusion of peace in Nystadt, in 1721 Finland, except for Vyborg, was returned to Sweden, but Russia received Livonia, Estland, Ingermanland, with the payment of 2 million rubles to Sweden. Russia's two-century longing for the Baltic coast was satisfied. Not later than a year later, Peter set off on a new campaign, to Persia.

The idea of ​​Caspian acquisitions occupied Peter from the beginning of his reign and became even more intensified after the Prut campaign. The strengthening of Russia in the Caspian Sea was supposed to be a reward for the failure in the Black Sea. The internal disorder of the Persian monarchy, revealed by Volynsky's embassy to Persia (1716), further strengthened Peter in terms of the Persian campaign. Russian troops quickly occupied the western shore of the Caspian Sea.

The Persian war caused in Europe a new outburst of hostile mistrust towards Russia and almost led to a new break with Turkey, to which Persia turned for help and which was zealously incited against Russia by Austrian and British diplomats. Peter's conquests raised the international position of Russia to an unprecedented height and increased the state territory by more than 10,000 square miles, but terribly increased the size of the army. In the first decade of the 18th century, the war caused an increase in the army from 40 to 100 thousand people and required the creation of a navy.

Military spending increased, compared with the budget of 1680, by 40 million, and spending on military needs accounted for 65% of the total state spending. The growth of troops and military spending led to a new reorganization of the military and financial system, which in turn caused a number of social and administrative changes. The archery infantry and the local noble cavalry of the old time were replaced by a regular army.

In the first half of the reign, new direct taxes were introduced, new objects of taxation were found, defacement of coins was widely used by re-minting silver money, state quitrent items were re-turned, owner's fishing, domestic baths, mills, inns were again taxed, a number of state monopolies were established. None of this prevented a financial crisis. In 1710, a half-million deficit was expected.

The house-to-house census carried out in 1710 showed a huge decline in the population throughout Russia. The decentralization of financial management, carried out with the establishment of the provinces, did not contribute to the increase and streamlining of revenues; new "request" and "extraordinary" fees came with ever greater arrears. The government again faced the task that had already been solved at the end of the 17th century - the reform of the taxation procedure and the consolidation of the direct tax. This was done in the 20s of the 18th century.

Podvornoe taxation was replaced by poll tax, for the sake of better achieving universality and uniformity of taxation. Indirect taxes temporarily occupy a secondary place in the revenue budget. Military and financial reforms helped to change the structure of Russian society. Changes in the order of service completed the estate-corporate organization of the nobility; the reform of taxation was accompanied by a further assertion of the serfdom of the peasantry.

After the special duty of the service class, military service, was turned into an all-class duty, the nobility received its special role in the performance of this duty: after serving ordinary service in the guard, the nobles became officers in the army, constituting in it a noble-officer corporation. Another special-class duty of the nobility was compulsory education according to the program approved by the government. The civil service still remained for the nobility indefinite and obligatory: civil service in the offices was put on a par with military service in the regiments, and the distribution of members of each noble family between both branches of service was subject to the proportion established by law.

With the abolition of the local militias, the land ceased to serve as the material basis for the distribution of service burdens, but all noble lands, both former estates and former estates, began to be regarded as a fund officially assigned to the nobility for the material support of service noble families.

Therefore, the decree of 1714 legitimized the inalienability and indivisibility of noble lands. By creating a service class corporation from the nobility, Peter opened free access to outside elements in his environment. The table of ranks finally replaced the old beginning of the breed in the service routine with the beginning of personal length of service, legitimizing the receipt of nobility by rank, which greatly contributed to the democratization of the social system.

The decrees on revision and the poll tax completed the transformation of the lower social strata into a homogeneous, enslaved mass. These decrees changed the legal basis for attachment, legitimizing the attachment of a peasant with a note to the landowner in the revision tale, and extended serfdom to new social ranks - to the children of the parish clergy who did not have certain occupations, people walking and serfs, who, along with the peasants, were recorded in the revision tales for the owners and are subject to a capitation salary. All this legally united serf mass was placed under the control of landowners-nobles, who were responsible to the treasury for the tax service of their peasants and the police order within their estates. The administrative reform of Peter stood in the same close connection with the military and financial transformations.

In the first half of the reign, under the pressure of military anxieties and in view of the need to ensure the maintenance of a new regular army, the system of military administrative districts outlined already in the 17th century is being completed. The empire was divided into eight such districts, called provinces. The constant movement of troops, on the occasion of hostilities, did not make it possible to carry out the territorialization of the army in these districts; nevertheless, financially, each part of the army was assigned to one of the provinces, and the main function of the provincial administration was the transfer of provincial dues directly to the maintenance of the regiments. The indefinitely broad power of the governors had to be somewhat moderated by the introduction of a collegiate and elective principle into the mechanism of the provincial administration.

In fact, however, the elections of the Landrats soon gave way to an appointment. In 1719-20, the administrative system underwent a new revision, under the influence of Swedish models and in the spirit of bureaucratic centralization. The collegiate principle was transferred from the region to the center, and the elective principle was eliminated. The collegiums, established according to the Swedish model, distributed the administration of the empire among themselves according to the nature of their affairs. On the a short time The Senate became, as it were, the common presence of the collegiate presidents, who were appointed from among the senators; but this order was soon abolished, as contrary to the controlling role of the Senate in relation to the colleges. The boards received new, low-ranking presidents, and the old noble presidents remained in the Senate, which gave personnel The Senate had an aristocratic connotation and turned the colleges into subordinate organs of the Senate.

Collegia remained in an exceptional position Military, Admiralty and Foreign: they retained the former presidents and did not fall under the subordination of the Senate, which clearly expressed the primary importance of issues of external struggle in the circle of immediate state tasks. With the establishment of the central collegiums, the Landrat collegiums in the provinces disappeared.

The elective principle was retained in the districts, where Zemstvo commissars, elected from local nobles, were vested with very diverse powers, from collecting taxes to the moral police, inclusive. In practice, however, the commissars soon turned into subordinate agents of the military authorities, mainly in the collection of the poll tax. Having established the administration on the basis of centralization and bureaucratic guardianship, having paralyzed the weak germs of public control, Peter subordinated the administrative mechanism to double crown control: secret over finances - to the fiscals and overtly over the courts - to the prosecutor's office; the top leadership of both was concentrated in the hands of the prosecutor general. Public autonomy in the field of urban management has become somewhat wider.

Developing the reform of the 1680s, Peter transferred financial collections, management and court over the commercial and industrial population of cities to burmisters elected from among this population, who were subordinate to the burmister chamber or town hall, also composed of elected persons. However, in this area, with the transformation of town halls into magistrates, a bureaucratic element was introduced in the 20s of the 18th century. Service in the magistrates was made, as it were, the privilege of the highest, "primary" stratum of the city merchants.

This was the main trend of Peter's economic policy - the encouragement of large-scale urban industry, bequeathed to him by the transformative program of the 17th century. Rapprochement with the West gradually developed this trend into a conscious mercantilistic system, expressed in three directions: 1) in encouraging the mining industry in order to increase the country's metal reserves, 2) in regulating foreign trade on the basis of the balance of trade and 3) in encouraging the native factory industry.

Until 1719, Peter continues, like his predecessors, to call foreign technicians and craftsmen from Austria, Venice, Holland, Sweden, Germany to Russia, and also send Russians abroad to learn skills. In 1719, with the establishment of the Manufactory College, these activities were systematized. All the measures of Peter, however, could not accelerate the growth of the factory industry, which was not yet based on the natural successes of the national economy.

At the beginning of the 18th century, Russia was still a country of agricultural and small-scale domestic industry. Peter's reform forever put an end to the external forms of the old Muscovite statehood, but at the same time brought to the highest development the very principles that underlay the previous one. political system. The reorganization of the military and tax organization proceeded from the old principle of absorbing all national resources by the needs of the fiscal, the needs of state military defense.

The estate reforms changed the former order of distribution of state duties between social classes, but still left the entire population from top to bottom enslaved to service and tax.

Administrative reforms changed the scheme of government institutions, but even more sharply carried out the elimination of public unions from participation in the current administration, which was completely transferred to the bureaucracy. Economic, educational and educational measures were aimed at bringing to life two really new forces that had not previously played a prominent role in state building - industrial capital and scientific knowledge. But the experiments of the first category anticipated the forthcoming results of economic development in the future, and therefore did not quite reach the goal, and the experiments with the implantation of knowledge proceeded from the old, narrowly applied view of book learning, with the transfer of only interest from questions of spiritual salvation to questions of technical progress.

Completing the previous process of state structure, Peter's reform nonetheless prepared a new era for the progressive development of Russian life. The rapprochement with the West, undertaken for the sake of borrowing a purely technical nature, did not stop within these initial limits and gradually captured all new spheres of life. Already in the first half of XVIII century in the upper strata of society, the influence of political and philosophical Western European literature is quite widespread. The ideas of natural law, the contractual origin of the state, popular sovereignty were perceived by Russian leaders and appropriately applied to the native movements that emerged among the Russian nobility. These movements themselves were, in turn, an indirect consequence of the Petrine reforms.

Topic: "The formation of the colonial system, the impact of colonialism on the development of Europe"

Specialty 18.02.09. Oil and gas processing.

Performed):

Group student gr.

Checked by teacher
stories:

Volgograd
2016

1.1 Formation of the colonial system in the world………………………….3-7

1.2. Types of colonies……………………………………………………….……8-10

1.3.Features of colony management………………………………….11-16

1.4. The collapse of the colonial system and its consequences……………...…….17-25

List of used literature……………………………………………...26

Application

Formation of the colonial system in the world.

The countries of Europe, having carried out modernization, received huge advantages in comparison with the rest of the world, which was based on the principles of traditionalism. This advantage also affected the military potential. Therefore, following the era of great geographical discoveries, associated mainly with reconnaissance expeditions, already in the 17th-18th centuries. colonial expansion to the East of the most developed countries of Europe began. Traditional civilizations, due to the backwardness of their development, were not able to resist this expansion and turned into easy prey for their stronger opponents. The prerequisites for colonialism originated in the era of the great geographical discoveries, namely in the 15th century, when Vasco da Gama opened the way to India, and Columbus reached the shores of America. When confronted with peoples of other cultures, Europeans demonstrated their technological superiority (ocean sailing ships and firearms). The first colonies were founded in the New World by the Spaniards. The robbery of the states of the American Indians contributed to the development of the European banking system, the growth of financial investments in science and stimulated the development of industry, which, in turn, required new raw materials.

The colonial policy of the period of primitive accumulation of capital is characterized by: the desire to establish a monopoly in trade with conquered territories, the seizure and plunder of entire countries, the use or imposition of predatory feudal and slave-owning forms of exploitation of the local population. This policy played a huge role in the process of primitive accumulation. It led to the concentration of large capital in the countries of Europe on the basis of the robbery of the colonies and the slave trade, which especially developed from the 2nd half of the 17th century and served as one of the levers for turning England into the most developed country of that time.

In the enslaved countries, the colonial policy caused the destruction of the productive forces, retarded the economic and political development of these countries, led to the plunder of vast regions and the extermination of entire peoples. Military confiscation methods played a major role in the exploitation of the colonies during that period. A striking example of the use of such methods is the policy of the British East India Company in Bengal, which it conquered in 1757. The consequence of this policy was the famine of 1769-1773, which killed 10 million Bengalis. In Ireland, during the XVI-XVII centuries, the British government confiscated and transferred to the English colonists almost all the land that belonged to the native Irish.

At the first stage of the colonization of traditional societies, Spain and Portugal were in the lead. They managed to conquer most of South America.

Colonialism in modern times. As the transition from manufactory to large-scale factory industry, significant changes took place in colonial policy. The colonies are economically more closely associated with the metropolises, turning into their agricultural and raw material appendages with a monocultural direction of development. Agriculture, to markets industrial products and sources of raw materials for the growing capitalist industry of the mother countries. Thus, for example, the export of British cotton fabrics to India from 1814 to 1835 increased 65 times.

The spread of new methods of exploitation, the need to create special organs of colonial administration that could consolidate dominance over local peoples, as well as the rivalry of various sections of the bourgeoisie in the metropolises, led to the liquidation of monopoly colonial trading companies and the transition of the occupied countries and territories under public administration metropolises.

The change in the forms and methods of exploitation of the colonies was not accompanied by a decrease in its intensity. Huge wealth was exported from the colonies. Their use led to the acceleration of socio-economic development in Europe and North America. Although the colonialists were interested in the growth of the marketability of the peasant economy in the colonies, they often maintained and consolidated feudal and pre-feudal relations, considering the feudal and tribal nobility in the colonized countries as their social support.

With the advent of the industrial age, Great Britain became the largest colonial power. Having defeated France in the course of a long struggle in the 18th and 19th centuries, she increased her possessions at her expense, as well as at the expense of the Netherlands, Spain and Portugal. Great Britain subjugated India. In 1840-42, and together with France in 1856-60, she waged the so-called Opium Wars against China, as a result of which she imposed favorable treaties on China. She took possession of Xianggang (Hong Kong), tried to subjugate Afghanistan, captured strongholds in the Persian Gulf, Aden. The colonial monopoly, together with the industrial monopoly, ensured Great Britain the position of the most powerful power throughout almost the entire 19th century. Colonial expansion was also carried out by other powers. France subjugated Algeria (1830-48), Vietnam (50-80s of the 19th century), established its protectorate over Cambodia (1863), Laos (1893). In 1885, the Congo became the possession of the Belgian King Leopold II, and a system of forced labor was established in the country.

In the middle of the XVIII century. Spain and Portugal began to fall behind in economic development and how maritime powers were relegated to the background. Leadership in the colonial conquests passed to England. Beginning in 1757, the trading English East India Company for almost a hundred years captured almost the entire Hindustan. Since 1706, the active colonization of North America by the British began. In parallel, the development of Australia was going on, on the territory of which the British sent criminals convicted to hard labor. The Dutch East India Company took over Indonesia. France established colonial rule in the West Indies, as well as in the New World (Canada).

African continent in the XVII-XVIII centuries. Europeans settled only on the coast and was used mainly as a source of slaves. In the 19th century Europeans moved far into the interior of the continent and by the middle of the 19th century. Africa was almost completely colonized. The exceptions were two countries: Christian Ethiopia, which offered staunch resistance to Italy, and Liberia, created by former slaves, immigrants from the United States.

In Southeast Asia, the French captured most of the territory of Indochina. Only Siam (Thailand) retained relative independence, but a large territory was also taken away from it.

By the middle of the XIX century. The Ottoman Empire was subjected to strong pressure from the developed countries of Europe. The countries of the Levant (Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine), which were officially considered part of Ottoman Empire during this period, became a zone of active penetration of the Western powers - France, England, Germany. During the same period, Iran lost not only economic but also political independence. At the end of the XIX century. its territory was divided into spheres of influence between England and Russia. Thus, in the XIX century. practically all the countries of the East fell into one form or another of dependence on the most powerful capitalist countries, turning into colonies or semi-colonies. For Western countries, the colonies were a source of raw materials, financial resources, work force as well as markets. The exploitation of the colonies by the Western metropolises was of the most cruel, predatory nature. At the price of merciless exploitation and robbery, the wealth of the western metropolises was created, maintained relatively high level the lives of their population.

Colony types

According to the type of management, settlement and economic development in the history of colonialism, three main types of colonies were distinguished:

Resettlement colonies.

· Raw colonies (or exploited colonies).

· Mixed (resettlement-raw material colonies).

Migration colonialism is a type of colonization management, main goal which was the expansion of the living space (the so-called Lebensraum) of the titular ethnos of the metropolis to the detriment of the autochthonous peoples. There is a massive influx of immigrants from the metropolis into the resettlement colonies, who usually form a new political and economic elite. The local population is suppressed, forced out, and often physically destroyed (i.e. genocide is carried out). The metropolis often encourages resettlement to a new place as a means of regulating the size of its own population, as well as how it uses new lands to exile undesirable elements (criminals, prostitutes, recalcitrant national minorities - Irish, Basques and others), etc. Israel is an example of a modern migrant colony.

The key points in the creation of resettlement colonies are two conditions: low density autochthonous population with a relative abundance of land and other natural resources. Naturally, migrant colonialism leads to a deep structural restructuring of the life and ecology of the region in comparison with resource (raw material colonialism), which, as a rule, ends with decolonization sooner or later. In the world there are examples of mixed migration and raw materials colonies.

The first examples of a mixed-type migrant colony were the colonies of Spain (Mexico, Peru) and Portugal (Brazil). But it was the British Empire, followed by the United States, the Netherlands and Germany, that began to pursue a policy of complete genocide of the autochthonous population in the new occupied lands in order to create uniformly white, English-speaking, Protestant migrant colonies, which later turned into dominions. Having once made a mistake with regard to 13 North American colonies, England softened its attitude towards the new settler colonies. From the very beginning, they were granted administrative and then political autonomy. These were the settlement colonies in Canada, Australia and New Zealand. But the attitude towards the autochthonous population remained extremely cruel. worldwide fame received the Road of Tears in the USA and the White Australia policy in Australia. No less bloody were the reprisals of the British against their European competitors: the "Great Trouble" in French Acadia and the conquest of Quebec, the French settlement colonies of the New World. At the same time, British India with its rapidly growing population of 300 million, Hong Kong, Malaysia turned out to be unsuitable for British colonization due to its dense population and the presence of aggressive Muslim minorities. In South Africa, the local and migrant (Boer) populations were already quite numerous, but institutional segregation helped the British carve out certain economic niches and land for a small group of privileged British colonists. Often, to marginalize the local population, white settlers also attracted third groups: black slaves from Africa in the USA and Brazil; Jewish refugees from Europe in Canada, laborers from the countries of Southern and Eastern Europe who did not have their own colonies; Hindus, Vietnamese and Javanese coolies in Guiana, South Africa, USA, etc. The conquest of Siberia and America by Russia, as well as their further settlement by Russian and Russian-speaking settlers, also had much in common with resettlement colonialism. In addition to the Russians, Ukrainians, Germans and other peoples took part in this process.

As time passed, the migrant colonies turned into new nations. This is how Argentines, Peruvians, Mexicans, Canadians, Brazilians, US Americans, Guiana Creoles, New Caledonian Caldoches, Breyons, French-Acadians, Cajuns and French-Canadians (Quebecs) arose. They continue to be connected with the former metropolis by language, religion and common culture. The fate of some resettlement colonies ended tragically: the pie noirs of Algeria (Franco-Algerians), since the end of the twentieth century, European settlers and their descendants have been intensively leaving the country Central Asia and Africa (repatriation): in South Africa their share fell from 21% in 1940 to 9% in 2010; in Kyrgyzstan from 40% in 1960 to 10% in 2010. In Windhoek, the share of whites fell from 54% in 1970 to 16% in 2010. Their share is also rapidly declining throughout the New World: in the USA it fell from 88% in 1930 up to about 64% in 2010; in Brazil from 63% in 1960 to 48% in 2010.

History [Crib] Fortunatov Vladimir Valentinovich

26. Formation of the colonial system and the world capitalist economy

After the first overseas expedition of Christopher Columbus in 1492 began conquest and colonization Western hemisphere by Europeans. The main territories of South and Central America and Mexico at the end of the 15th - the first half of the 16th century. joined the first colonial empires Spain and Portugal. Under the auspices of Pope Alexander IV, it was signed in 1494 Tardesillas Agreement, the first agreement in world history on the division of the world. Portugal "got" a huge territory from Brazil to Southeast Asia, Spain - America and the basin Pacific Ocean. The ancient Indian civilizations of America were destroyed. A significant part of the local Indian population was subjected to merciless extermination. In Latin America, over three centuries of colonization, as a result of a complex ethnogenesis several racial and ethnic groups emerged: Creoles(European colonists and their descendants), mestizos(from marriages of Caucasians with Indians), mulattos(from marriages of representatives of the Caucasian race with black slaves). Latin American society, forming as a mixed society, has become a kind of ethnocultural symbiosis.

In America and the West Indies, the Portuguese, Dutch, French, and especially the English colonialists deployed plantation economy. Africa became a bloody hunting ground for black slaves, who were taken by the millions across the Atlantic to work in the cotton fields. American Indians to heavy physical labor were unable to.

During the era of colonialism, primitive accumulation of capital" size and character slave trade changed drastically. The Portuguese were the first to bring slaves to the Lisbon market in 1442, but before the discovery of the New World, the slave trade was still limited. The Spanish nobles and the church were engaged in the slave trade. In the 17th century The main participants in the Atlantic slave trade were the British, French, as well as the Dutch, Danes and Hanseatic merchants of German cities. The golden age of the European slave trade was the 18th century.

Slaves were exported mainly from the interior of West Africa, the Congo Basin, Angola, Mozambique. Millions died of starvation and inhuman treatment during long journeys on slave ships, in transit points and prisons, under the blows of overseers. The Europeans themselves usually did not engage in the capture of future slaves. Their slave traders bought from local African rulers in exchange for weapons, alcoholic beverages and various rubbish. For America, the slave trade was the most important source of the plantation economy, which exported sugar cane, coffee, tobacco and other goods to Europe.

The European and Arab slave trade caused irreparable damage to Africa. The demographic balance was disturbed, as the most able-bodied part of the male and female population was exported. The withdrawal of labor power affected the normal historical and socio-economic development of the continent. According to scientists, about 100 million people were taken out of Africa.

From the 16th century formation begins world market. International economic relations include all populated continents except Australia.

The first biggest benefit is through participation in international trade received by Portugal. But Portugal lacked its own forces to supply Europe. The Netherlands got involved. Soon Antwerp with more favorable geographic location became the main point of sale of Indian goods. One successful voyage of a merchant ship was enough enrichment.

Many new products for everyday consumption began to enter Europe: potatoes, corn, tomatoes, rice, sugar, coffee, cocoa, etc. Diet become more versatile and useful. The process has begun introductions plants, that is, the introduction (cultivars) of plants into places where they did not grow before, or the introduction into cultivation wild plants. There are two forms of introduction: naturalization and acclimatization. The introduction of plants raised the level of European agricultural culture. Specialization began to develop and the productivity of agriculture began to grow.

Within a few decades after the discovery and development of sea routes to India and America by Europeans, there was a real revolution in the economic life of the Old and New Worlds.