In the second half of the twentieth century. integration processes have developed in various regions of the world. By concluding regional trade and economic agreements, states took a course to eliminate restrictions in the movement of goods, services, capital, human resources, to create supranational mechanisms for managing economic interaction, and to harmonize national legislation. However, according to the researchers, in most cases, regional cooperation in Latin America, South Asia, Africa, and the Middle East is still in its early stages and does not give a significant effect. At the same time, some integration associations such as the European Union, NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement), APEC (Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Forum) have made real progress in achieving their goals. In particular, the European states have consistently formed a customs union, a single internal market, an economic and monetary union, as well as complemented the economic dimension of integration with cooperation in the field of ensuring internal and external security.
In Western Europe, there were significant prerequisites for the development of integration processes. "Here, earlier than in other parts of the world, a fairly developed market economy was formed, there was a comparative closeness of the economic, socio-political, legal and cultural environment, and the relatively small size of the territories of states emphasized the narrowness of national borders and the internal market, pushing countries to a mutually beneficial pooling of efforts." Various authors, starting from the Middle Ages, have developed projects for the unification of European states. The practical implementation of the "European idea" in the second half of the twentieth century was represented by several models.
First, Western European states have formulated common goals and established organizations of intergovernmental cooperation in specific areas. Thus, in 1948, the Organization for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) and the Council of Europe were formed. PEEN was designed to solve the problem of economic recovery in Europe within the framework of the Marshall Plan; Council of Europe - to ensure effective protection of human rights. After the main tasks of the PEEN were completed, it was replaced by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). It was created in December 1960 to promote economic growth and improve living standards in the member states, to develop a coordinated economic policy in relation to third countries, to develop world trade on a multilateral and non-discriminatory basis. This organization does not distribute funds and does not have a developed decision-making mechanism. In the words of the former OECD Secretary General J.C. Payet, “The OECD is not a supranational organization, but a place where policymakers can meet and discuss their problems, where governments can compare their points of view and their experiences” [Cit. by: 2, p. 132].
Secondly, France and Germany put forward the initiative to create the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), within the framework of which it was proposed to subordinate the entire set of steel and coal production of the member states to a supranational body. The Paris Treaty establishing the ECSC was signed in 1951 by six European states (France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands). The central place in the ECSC system of institutions was assigned to the Supreme Governing Body. It was empowered to make decisions that are binding, and in all its parts, for the member states. In 1957, the same states created two new integration associations - the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom). In 1992, on the basis of the European Communities, supplemented by new "policies and forms of cooperation", the European Union was created.
Thirdly, at the stage of the creation of the EEC, the basis of which was to be a customs union, disagreements between European states increased on the issue of a more preferable model of trade liberalization. In 1956, England came up with a proposal to limit the creation of a free trade zone, which was supposed to cover all the countries participating in the PEEN. However, as mentioned above, in 1957 treaties were signed on the establishment of the EEC and Euratom, and in December 1958 the British project
The "big" free trade area was not adopted at the session of the PEEN Council. Then seven of the countries remaining outside the EEC (Austria, Great Britain, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Switzerland and Sweden) signed in 1960 the Stockholm Convention establishing the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). Unlike the customs union, this model avoided significant restrictions on national sovereignty in the foreign trade sphere, giving the member states freedom of action in the field of trade with third countries. Accordingly, interaction within the EFTA was carried out on an interstate basis, without the creation of strong supranational institutions. This organization continues to exist at the present time, but now it includes only four states - Switzerland, Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein.
Fourth, in 1949, on the initiative of the USSR, the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) was created, whose members became the states of Central and Eastern Europe, and then a number of non-European states (Mongolia, Cuba, Vietnam). Researchers characterize this association in different ways. Some see in him
"An example of an integration grouping not of a market, but of a planning-distribution, command-administrative type." Others believe that "in the CMEA there was a system of quasi-integration international relations, outwardly very similar to real integration, but in essence it was not."
Fifth, sub-regional integration associations emerged in Europe, which sometimes even outstripped general European trends. Thus, in 1921 the Belgian-Luxembourg Economic Union was created as a customs and monetary union. In 1943 Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg signed a currency agreement, and in 1944 - a customs convention, which entered into force in January 1948.The Benelux Customs Union existed until November 1960. February 3, 1958 Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg concluded in The Hague an agreement on the establishment of the Benelux Economic Union, which entered into force on November 1, 1960, after its ratification by the parliaments of the three countries. The agreement provided for the creation of a single market for its participants, the free movement of persons, goods, capital and services between the three countries, the coordination of their economic, financial and social policies, the appearance of the participating countries as a single whole in the field of external economic relations. The Benelux states also paid attention to the development of collective security instruments. In addition, already in 1960, they signed an agreement "On the transfer of personal checks to the external borders of the Benelux space", which was more than twenty years ahead of the Schengen agreements. The experience of the Nordic countries in the creation of the Northern Passport Union in the 1950s, as well as in the field of harmonization of social legislation, environmental protection, the development of transport networks, etc., can also serve as an example of the development of integration processes at the subregional level.
In the 1990s, after the collapse of the socialist system, the so-called "Visegrad Group" was formed. In February 1991, in the Hungarian city of Vysehrad, a Declaration on Cooperation was signed between Poland, Czechoslovakia and Hungary with the aim of subsequent integration into the structures of the European Communities / European Union. In December 1992, in Krakow, Hungary, Poland, Slovakia and the Czech Republic signed the Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA), which entered into force
March 1, 1993 In this case, subregional integration was seen as an intermediate stage preceding accession to the EU and allowing the candidate states to prepare the necessary economic, legislative, and institutional basis for the adoption of the corresponding obligations.
The circle of participants in almost all associations considered in the framework of the five models expanded at certain stages. But in the long term, the most effective and chosen by the majority of European states was the integration model of the European Communities / European Union. The original homogeneous "core", consisting of six founding states, was joined by Great Britain, Ireland and Denmark (1973), Greece (1981), Spain and Portugal (1986), Austria, Sweden and Finland (1995). The last enlargement of the European Union became the most ambitious - in 2004, ten states became new members of the organization at once. This trend could not but have an impact on the nature of European integration. Differences in the levels of economic development of the member states and the degree of stability of democracy, the peculiarities of political culture and the specifics of social legislation, the divergence of views on the permissible degree of restriction of national sovereignty - these and other manifestations of the growing internal heterogeneity of the European Union led to the emergence of the phenomenon of differentiated integration. As the researchers rightly point out, "not only the process itself is differentiated, but also its designation - in the modern political and scientific vocabulary of Western Europe, one can find over a dozen of its most diverse names." The question of to what extent each of these terms ("Europe of different speeds", "Europe a la carte", "closer cooperation", "concentric circles",
"Variable configuration", etc.) reflects the idea of ​​differentiated integration, is debatable.
Differentiated integration, in our opinion, presupposes the existence of special regimes, which are exceptions to the uniform rules established by the sources of European communitarian law for the member states. The need for such exceptions arises in the following cases: 1) when the state does not meet the criteria allowing for supranational regulation; 2) when the state is not interested in expanding the competence of supranational institutions;
3) when a group of states, on the contrary, is ready to take a step forward and delegate additional powers to supranational institutions, without waiting for the consent of all participating states. Let's consider the relevant examples.
In the first case, a classic illustration can be
"Transitional periods" established for new member states, during which they are obliged to create the necessary conditions for the application of the entire complex of European Union law (the so-called "acquis communautaire"), until these conditions are created, the implementation of the relevant obligations associated with membership in the European Community / European Union are admissible in a limited amount. For example, there have been cases of gradual inclusion of such industries as energy, telecommunications and agriculture into the common market. Special conditions governing access to the single labor market are envisaged in the framework of the last enlargement of the European Union. It should be emphasized that the accession agreements strictly fix the timing of "transition periods". Accordingly, the exceptions are temporary and do not pose a threat to the stability of the integration association.
We can also recall the experience of creating the Economic and Monetary Union. The right to participate in its third stage, during which a single currency, the euro, was introduced, was granted only to those states that met the so-called “convergence criteria”. These criteria, listed in the 1992 Maastricht Treaty (in Article 104 of the Treaty on the European Community and Protocols Nos. 5, 6), set the acceptable limits for the state budget deficit, total public debt, exchange rate fluctuations, inflation and long-term interest rates. Greece, which took a longer time to complete this complex task, entered the euro area on January 1, 2001, two years later than the other participants.
Both examples indicate the possibility of achieving common goals at different rates, and the term “multi-speed integration” can also be applied to them.
In the case when one or several states oppose the expansion of the competence of supranational institutions, many more questions and problems arise. For a number of reasons, the UK is pursuing the most cautious policy here. She, in particular, took a special position on the issues of ensuring internal security, introducing a single currency, and developing social policy (the Conservative government did not support in the early 1990s the provisions governing relations between trade unions and entrepreneurs, as well as working conditions). The position of Denmark has also become an obstacle to the development of the integration process. If the Danish parliament in May 1992 approved the Maastricht Treaty, in accordance with which the European Union was created, then in a referendum in June 1992 a negative answer was given. 50.7% of its participants spoke out against expanding the competencies of EU institutions, especially in the field of immigration, citizenship, common defense policy, and the introduction of a single currency.
The need to overcome such contradictions endowed European integration in the 1980s and 90s. following characteristic features.
First, the different rates of its development in the economic and political spheres became a feature of European integration. This trend manifested itself repeatedly as early as the 1950s. (one can recall the unrealized projects of creating the European Defense Community and the European Political Community), and then found embodiment in the construction of three "pillars" of the EU. For the first time, the Maastricht Treaty included cooperation in the field of justice and home affairs (the so-called third “pillar” of the European Union) and in the foreign policy sphere (the so-called second “pillar” of the European Union) within the competence of the European Union. At the same time, a special legal regulation regime was established here. Its characteristic features were the presence of its own system of acts, which were not subject to jurisdictional control by the Court of Justice of the European Communities, and the priority of instruments of interstate cooperation in the decision-making process.
Secondly, closer cooperation of the group of EU member states has developed outside the framework of the founding treaties. An example is the Schengen agreements (Agreement "On the gradual abolition of checks at common borders" dated June 14
1985 and the Convention of 19 June 1990 concerning the Application of the 1985 Agreement). Their main content was as follows: first, all types of border controls were canceled within the Schengen area; secondly, a single visa regime was established at its external borders; thirdly, the interaction of the law enforcement agencies of the participating states increased (in particular, the Schengen information system began to function in 1995). The Schengen Executive Committee, which was not an institution of the European Communities, was called upon to carry out the normative work in the field of Schengen law.
Schengen Agreements 1985 and 1990 were originally signed by France, West Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg. In 1990, Italy joined the Schengen Agreements, in
1991 - Spain and Portugal, in 1992 - Greece, in 1995 - Austria, in 1996 - Denmark, Finland, Sweden, Iceland and Norway (the last two states are not EU members). The implementation of the provisions of the Schengen agreements in practice required significant technical and legal training. Therefore, we can talk about the actual existence of the Schengen space since 1995, and about the real participation in it of all fifteen states that have assumed the corresponding obligations - since 2001. In December 2007, the Schengen space expanded at the expense of Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Slovakia, Slovenia, Poland, Czech Republic and Estonia; in December 2008 - at the expense of Switzerland (which, like Iceland and Norway, is not part of the EU). Thus, at present, the Schengen area does not include the UK, Ireland, Romania, Bulgaria and Cyprus from the EU countries, but it includes three non-EU states - Iceland, Norway and Switzerland.
It should be noted that in this case, the consistent expansion of the circle of participants in the Schengen agreements made it possible, at a certain stage, to include them in the EU legal order on the basis of the corresponding protocol. This happened with the signing of the 1997 Amsterdam Treaty, which entered into force in 1999. The powers of the Schengen Executive Committee were transferred to the Council of the European Union. New sources of Schengen law are now issued in standard forms, which are provided for by the constituent documents of the EU (regulation, directive, etc.).
Thirdly, some member states were given the opportunity to participate not in all components of the integration process.
Thus, Great Britain, Denmark and Sweden retained their national currencies and did not enter the "euro zone". Denmark, in accordance with the 1992 Edinburgh Declaration, also received the right not to participate in a common defense policy and retain for itself the interstate basis of cooperation in the field of justice and home affairs. Citizenship of the Union will complement, but not replace, the national citizenship of Denmark (a principle that became valid for all member states with the signing of the Amsterdam Treaty).
The features mentioned above, and the very fact of refusal of one or several member states to participate in new stages of the integration process, puts on the agenda the question of the danger that the so-called “Europe a la carte” contains (literally translated “ Europe by choice "or" Europe by order "). Researchers use this term to designate, in contrast to “multi-speed integration,” cooperation in the absence of common goals, towards which all member states should strive. Each state itself chooses those goals that correspond to its interests, and, accordingly, seeks like-minded people or avoids participating in undesirable areas of cooperation. So, characterizing the British policy in the social sphere, E. Raeder emphasizes that “decisions in the area of ​​one of the policies of the European Union are not taken by all member states, and it seems that the position of a state that remains on the sidelines cannot be revised”. This, according to the researcher, is a classic example of “Europe a la carte”, which “threatens the common acquis communautaire and the future integration of the entire Union, since it denies the generally recognized principles of uniform integration”.
At the same time, there are also positive changes. With regard to the position of Great Britain, they can be traced both in the field of general social policy (after the coming of the Labor Party to power, the provisions of the Agreement on Social Policy were included in the text of the Treaty on the European Community in 1997) and in the field of Schengen cooperation. Since 2000, Great Britain and Ireland have taken on a number of obligations in the field of combating drug trafficking, participation in the Schengen information system, etc. As mentioned above, the mechanism for regulating the Schengen cooperation itself has also changed, in which the EU institutions now occupy a central place. Answering a question from an Euronews correspondent in December 2007, is it possible to say that people believe more in the European idea now, after a number of difficult years, the President of the European Commission J.M. Barroso noted that "now the situation is better than in all the previous 8 years, and on a number of issues and 15 years, if you take Denmark."
An interesting trend of the last decade has been the development within the EU of a legal framework for the so-called “advanced cooperation”, that is, the inclusion in the founding treaties of provisions that provide groups of member states with the opportunity to endow the bodies of the European Union with additional competence [see, for example, section VII Treaty on the European Union]. To date, the implementation of this model requires a corresponding interest on the part of at least eight states (regardless of the total number of member states and further enlargement of the European Union). Thus, it is possible that in the future, opposition from some states will become a less significant obstacle to deepening European integration.
Thus, the European integration processes in the second half of the twentieth century. evolved within the framework of various models. The most effective and chosen by the majority of European states was the integration model of the European Communities / European Union. The combination of various forms of differentiated integration is one of the features of the development of the European Union at the present stage. It is naturally associated with the consistent expansion of the circle of member states of this organization and allows you to maintain a single direction of the integration process in the face of increasing internal heterogeneity of the EU.

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5. Topornin B.N. European law. - M .: Jurist, 1998.
6. Chetverikov A.O. Commentary on the Schengen Agreements.
7. Shishkov Yu.V. Integration processes on the threshold of the XXI century: Why the CIS countries are not integrating. - M .: III millennium, 2001.
8. Barroso J.-M .: European idea of ​​knowing more and more ideas.
9. Chaltiel F. Pour une clarification du debat sur l'Europe a plusieurs vitesses // Revue du Marche commun et de l'Union europeenne. - 1995. - No. 384. - P. 5-10.
10. Cloos J. Les cooperations renforcees // Revue du Marche commun et de l'Union europeenne. - 2000. - No. 441. - P. 512-515.
11. Decision du Conseil du 29 mai 2000 relative a la demande du Royaume-Uni et d'Irlande de participer a certain dispositions de l "acquis de Schenge // Journal officiel des Communautes Europeennes. - L 131/43. - du 01.06. 2000.
12. Duff A. La Grande-Bretagne et l'Europe - la relation differente // L'Union europeenne au-dela d'Amsterdam. Nouveaux concepts d'integration europeenne / Sous la dir. de M. Westlake. - Bruxelles: PIE, 1998. - P. 67–87.
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16. Roeder E. Integration at multiple speeds in the European Union.

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Socialist camp, a term used after World War II 1939-1945. in the USSR, states were designated that followed the path of building socialism. It included the USSR and the states of Eastern Europe, in which the communists were in power, China after the end of the civil war (1949), then North Korea and North Vietnam. The confrontation between the two camps (socialism and capitalism) was seen as the most important feature of world development. Socialist camp The term "socialist camp" gradually fell out of use, especially after the deterioration of Soviet-Chinese and Soviet-Albanian relations. The terms "socialist community" and "world socialist system" changed it. The socialist countries included Bulgaria, Hungary, Vietnam, East Germany, Cuba, Mongolia, Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia.

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As a result of World War II, Poland lost almost 40% of its national wealth and more than 6 million people. From the late 1940s to the late 1980s, the Polish economy was organized according to the Soviet model, characterized by central planning and state ownership of the means of production. Economic growth in the first years after the Second World War, despite a significant depletion of resources, proceeded at an accelerated pace. The government limited individual consumption to maintain a high level of investment. Unlike the Soviet Union and other Eastern European countries, there was no general collectivization in Poland. Agriculture was the main source of livelihood for 35% of the population. The importance of manufacturing and extractive industries gradually increased, and in the late 1970s, these industries accounted for half of the country's national income and a third of all jobs. Poland's position after World War II

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Politicians August Zaleski. He served as President of Poland from June 7, 1947 to April 7, 1972. Was proclaimed president in exile. When the 7 years of his reign came to an end, Zaleski renewed his powers for an indefinite period. Because of this, many Polish politicians cut off their contacts with him. Shortly before his death, Zaleski appointed his successor to Stanislav Ostrovsky. Stanislav Ostrovsky is the president of Poland in exile. He served on the post from April 8, 1972 to April 8, 1979. After his term ended, he appointed Edward Raczynski as his successor. Edward Rachinsky was in office for 7 years from April 8, 1972 to April 8, 1979.

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The crisis in Poland in the 80s of the 20th century In the 1980s, the government relaxed its control over the activities of enterprises. At the same time, businesses continued to insist on government subsidies and other forms of support. The authorities, unable to finance higher spending with tax revenues, were forced to resort to emissions. As a result, the government of T. Mazowiecki, which came to power in September 1989, faced a huge budget deficit and rapidly growing inflation. In the 80s of the 20th century, the countries of Eastern Europe, including Poland, were experiencing an economic crisis. The Polish government begins to take action The Minister of Economy L. Balcerowicz has developed a strategy of economic reform, which consisted of two stages. During the first phase, implemented in the fall of 1989, the government established control over the budget and corrected some imbalances in prices, created a system of unemployment benefits and developed a legal basis for bankruptcy proceedings. The second phase began on January 1, 1990 and included a sharp reduction in the budget deficit

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Revolutions in Poland In 1980, the NDP was seized by a new, longest and most acute political crisis. In the summer, a wave of strikes swept across the country, workers in port cities started creating \ "free \", trade unions The most massive was the Independent Trade Union \ "Solidarity \", led by an electrician LVa-Lance. "Solidarity" cells began to form throughout the country. In the fall of 1980, the number of its members exceeded 9 million. the regime of the PUWP. Another change of the party leadership did not stabilize the situation in the country. The Soviet leadership, frightened by the prospect of democratic forces coming to power in Poland, threatened military intervention in Polish affairs according to the Czechoslovak scenario in 1968. On December 13, 1981, martial law was introduced in Poland: the activities of all opposition organizations were banned

Scientific and technological revolution of the second half of the twentieth century.

After the end of World War II, qualitatively new processes are taking place in the world: scientific and technological progress is now at the heart of successful development. Science has finally become a leading factor in the development of social production, a direct productive force. The period of human development in the post-war period is called the scientific and technological revolution (STR).

A significant impetus to the beginning of the scientific and technological revolution was given by World War II, during which the belligerent countries created fundamentally new systems of weapons and military equipment: the atomic bomb, jet aircraft, jet mortar, the first tactical missiles, etc. These inventions were instantly implemented in production and eventually set the direction of scientific and technological revolution. The peculiarity of the world order in the second half of the twentieth century. made her own adjustments to the development of science and technology. A confrontation between the systems of capitalism and socialism has developed in the world, which ultimately resulted in a fierce arms race. Secondly, the collapse of the colonial system of the developed capitalist countries took place, which ended in the 60s of the twentieth century. New conditions for economic development, new needs, as well as a significant backlog of the war era in the field of applied and technical sciences have become a stimulus for a sharp leap in scientific and technological progress.

The prerequisites for scientific and technological revolution were created by scientific discoveries of the first half of the 20th century, in particular: in the field of nuclear physics and quantum mechanics, achievements of cybernetics, microbiology, biochemistry, polymer chemistry, as well as a high technical level of production development. Thus, science began to turn into a direct productive force, which is a characteristic feature of the scientific and technological revolution.

The scientific and technological revolution has an all-encompassing character, influencing all spheres of not only economic life, but also politics, ideology, everyday life, spiritual culture, and the psychology of people. In scientific and technological revolution, two stages are usually distinguished:

Stage I- 40-60s. XX century The main direction in the development of scientific and technical thought at this stage was the integrated automation of production, control and management, the creation of microprocessor technology, the discovery and use of new energy sources (mastering the energy of the atomic nucleus), space exploration, the emergence of television, the development of chemistry, biotechnology, and genetics.

Automatic control and automatic regulation have become the predominant trend in industrial development. The machine has acquired the ability to independently perform a long chain of complex operations. In this case, the role of man is reduced to the design and creation of a machine, as well as to maintaining it in a working condition. Programmable automation and the use of computers are the brightest touches of modern life.

The emergence of robotics - the science of machines that replace humans and automatically perform tasks - dates back to this time. The practical principles of robotics were formulated by the Englishman S. Kenward in 1957.

The main discoveries and inventions of the first stage of scientific and technological revolution:

- television, transistors, computers, radar, missiles, atomic bomb, synthetic fibers, penicillin (1940s);

- a hydrogen bomb, artificial earth satellites, a jet passenger plane, an electric power plant based on a nuclear reactor, computer numerical control (CNC) machines (50s);

- lasers, integrated circuits, communication satellites, high-speed express trains (60s).

The border between the two stages of scientific and technological revolution is the creation and introduction into the national economy of computers of the fourth generation, on the basis of which complex automation was completed and the transition to a new technological state of all sectors of the economy began.

II stage- since the mid-70s. XX century and continues to the present. The main content of this second wave of scientific and technological revolution (it is also called the technotronic revolution) was the massive computerization of production, the development of science-intensive and the curtailment of traditional industries, the introduction of energy and resource-saving technologies, the growth of the service sector, an improvement in the quality of life, as well as functional changes in science itself.

Advances in science and technology have been rapid and often unpredictable. The industry of electronic engineering developed very rapidly: from traditional vacuum electronics (lighting and receiving-amplifying lamps, picture tubes, night vision devices) to solid-state electronics (semiconductor diodes and transistors, various integrated circuits). The revolution of electronic devices made it possible to revolutionize electronic systems, the emergence of modern televisions, personal computers, microprocessor control.

The main discoveries and inventions of the second stage of scientific and technological revolution:

- microprocessors, fiber-optic information transmission, industrial robots, biotechnology (1970s);

- very large and volumetric integrated circuits, ultra-strong ceramics, fifth generation computers, genetic engineering, thermonuclear fusion (1980s).

The accelerated development of scientific and technological progress and the introduction of its achievements into production was stimulated by the desire of large national corporations in conditions of domestic and international competition to ensure a sustainable growth in the profitability of production. An important role in the scientific and technological revolution was played by the rivalry of two military-political blocs: NATO (led by the United States) and the Warsaw Pact countries (USSR). The prolonged confrontation between these blocs during the Cold War triggered an arms race on an unprecedented scale. The main condition for "victory" in this process was technological superiority, and therefore the possibility of creating new types of weapons of mass destruction.

Among the inventions that embodied all the latest achievements in science and production were: strategic bombers, ballistic intercontinental missiles, various types of weapons of mass destruction (atomic and hydrogen, infrasonic (acoustic), radio frequency (radiological), genetic, fuel-air weapons) mixtures, geophysical, chemical, biological and others).

Initially, the military sphere was in the lead in the scientific and technological revolution, but achievements in it made it possible to implement military developments for peaceful purposes. Mastering the energy of the atomic nucleus opened the way to a new source of energy, which made it possible for unlimited industrial growth and required great efforts of scientific potential. And Soviet intercontinental missiles were modernized to launch the first artificial Earth satellite (October 1957) and the first spacecraft piloted by Yu.A. Gagarin (April 1961).

One of the fundamental directions has become the development of electronic devices and devices, which have found wide application and have become indispensable in communication equipment, automation, measuring technology, electronic computers and other important areas. Radio electronics, which has become widely used in production, science, and people's everyday life, is one of the most important areas of technical progress, a powerful means of increasing labor productivity. The most important invention of radio electronics became electronic computers (computers), whose development led to the computer revolution.

It is computers (computers) that make it possible to store, quickly search and transfer information, which means a revolution in the systems of accumulation and access to acquired knowledge. An important stage in the life of mankind is entering the stage of "paperless informatics": information is sent to specialists directly at the workplace on the appropriate display devices (displays) located in convenient and easily accessible places for the consumer. Moreover, the information infrastructure based on the fusion of computers, communication systems (including space) and knowledge bases is becoming a major factor in the further development of electronic and computer technology and information technology.

Total:

The main features of the initial period of the scientific and technological revolution were:

- the involvement of all industries and spheres of human activity;

- reducing the time between opening and implementation in production, constant obsolescence and renewal;

- increasing requirements for the level of qualifications of labor resources;

- improving the types of weapons and equipment.

- development of higher-level technologies associated with the concept of computer hardware (electronics, computer technology, telecommunications, radar, optoelectronics, laser technology, nuclear power, polymer chemistry);

- significant changes in the social structure of world society (growth of the urban population, an increase in the share of those employed in the service sector and trade, a change in the way of life of people, a change in priorities and values).

Internal situation

After the war, the standard of living of the population fell sharply, especially in the western, very ruined parts of the country (Belarus, Ukraine).
Members of almost every family in the USSR became victims of the Second World War (every fourth person died in Belarus). After the war, many orphans remained in the country, the number of women significantly exceeded the number of men. For another 20 years after the war, advertisements appeared in newspapers about the search for loved ones lost during the Second World War.

Renewal of terror

Thanks to the victory in the Second World War, the personality cult of Stalin was strengthened and terror gradually resumed, and lack of freedom increased. The prisoners of war who returned from Germany were accused of treason and exiled to the Gulag camps.

International situation

Russia, as one of the victorious countries, has again acquired great international political weight.

Yalta conference

On February 4-11, 1945, a meeting of the leaders of the three countries of the anti-Hitler coalition took place in Yalta - the USA, Great Britain, and the USSR.
The conference made the main decisions on the future division of the world between the winning countries. Each victorious power had power in the territories where its troops were located.

Satellite states of the USSR

Several years after the end of the war, communist parties came to power in many states of Eastern and Central Europe with the support of Moscow.
"Iron curtain" divided Europe into obedient Moscow socialist camp and western countries. The political institutions, economic and social organization, and cultural life of the socialist countries were transformed along the Soviet lines.

Cold War

The Cold War, a period of geopolitical confrontation between the allied blocs of the USSR and the United States, began around 1946 (lasted until the collapse of the USSR). Almost the whole world was divided into two political blocs - capitalist (with the military organization NATO) and socialist (Warsaw Pact Organization). When the 1980 Olympic Games took place in Moscow, athletes from Western countries refused to come.
Both camps were promoting their own ideology and discrediting enemy countries. To prevent the penetration of Western thinking into the Soviet Union, cultural and intellectual exchange with non-communist countries was banned.
Each side accumulated huge stocks of weapons, including nuclear ones.

Death of Stalin

In 1953, Stalin died, which marked the beginning of the curtailment of the campaign of terror and repression in the USSR.

Thaw (1955-1964)

In 1955 he became the party leader and head of the USSR.

Report on Stalin's personality cult

In 1956, at a special meeting of the 20th Party Congress, Khrushchev made a report on the personality cult of Stalin. This report gave impetus to criticism of Stalinism and the softening of the regime. In subsequent years, the name of Stalin was actually banned.

Khrushchev's reforms

• thousands of political prisoners were released from the camps and rehabilitated.
• Translations of contemporary Western writers have appeared. The Moscow Kremlin was opened to tourists. However, jamming of foreign radio stations continued.
• Travel restrictions overseas have been eased.
• Khrushchev tried to reorganize industry (he paid more attention to the production of consumer goods and housing construction) and to raise the lagging agriculture (mainly corn crops were increased, which was imposed even on those areas where natural conditions were unsuitable).
• Between 1950 and 1965 the volume of oil production has increased many times.
• Large scientific and industrial centers are emerging in Siberia (bureaucratic procedures were less rigid there, many young people moved here).
• Crimea was transferred to Ukraine.
• The start of the space program - on April 12, 1961, the first man, Yu.A. Gagarin, flew into space.

Stagnation (1964-1984)

As a result of a party coup in 1964, Khrushchev was removed from power.
New Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev quickly curtailed Khrushchev's reforms, and a ban was put in the name of Khrushchev for 20 years.

Economy

• Economic growth in the country slowed down significantly.
• Most of the funding was spent on the military industry and the space program.
• Consumer goods, the production of which was not given sufficient attention, were of low quality, but in conditions of scarcity and the absence of external competition, even they were instantly sold out. People went to the capital for shopping. Long lines lined up in stores.
• The external debt of the USSR increased rapidly.

The atmosphere in society

• The society was stratified - party and state leaders received different privileges. (They, for example, could use special shops to buy high-quality products and imported goods, special medical institutions, sanatoriums, watch films inaccessible to the people.) The population suffered from a constant shortage. However, at present, some Russians recall this era with nostalgia - education and medical care were received free of charge, there was order in the country.
• The moral qualities of society were spoiled.
• Alcohol consumption increased 4 times.
• The ecological situation and health of the population deteriorated.

Dissident movement

The opposition to the regime was the dissident movement (A.I.Solzhenitsyn, academician A.D. Sakharov). The democratic movement included writers, artists, scholars, religious leaders, relatives of victims of Stalin's purges, and representatives of repressed minority groups.
The authorities imprisoned their political opponents, in contrast to previous times, also in psychiatric hospitals. World-renowned dissidents were forced to emigrate.

Occupation of Czechoslovakia

In August 1968, the troops of the five Warsaw Pact countries, led by the USSR, suppressed the Czechoslovak reform movement Prague Spring... Thus, all hopes for the countries of the socialist camp to develop their own models of society were destroyed.

After Brezhnev died in 1982, he was replaced first Yu.V. Andropov and then K.U. Chernenko... Both deep and sick old men, they too soon died.

Gorbachev's reforms (1985-1991)

In 1985, he took up the post of Secretary General Mikhail Gorbachev... The personality of this leader of the USSR and his historical role still cause an ambiguous reaction among historians, political scientists and the Russian population in general.

With Gorbachev, there was a change in political style. He was a calm, but energetic, smiling, good orator; The USSR received a relatively young leader (at 54, he was 20 years younger than other members of the Politburo).

Gorbachev's reforms

Restructuring

Perestroika is a restructuring of the economy and, ultimately, of the entire socio-political system, an attempt to reform socialism: “We are not building a new house, but trying to renovate the old one.”
The purpose of the restructuring was

• efficiency and modernization of production (the Soviet product was defective: “We know how to make comic rockets, but our refrigerators do not work.”; because of poorly built houses, many people suffered during the earthquake in Armenia.)
• the rise of labor discipline Gorbachev organized a campaign against drunkenness - he reduced the opening hours of shops selling alcohol, and also reduced the production of wine and vodka products.

Publicity

Glasnost - freedom of speech and openness of information, abolition of censorship in the media.
Glasnost brought freedom of the press (criticism of Gorbachev himself, recognition of the ecological catastrophe of the Aral Sea, the presence of homeless people in the USSR, and so on), declassification of data on the Stalinist terror. However, for example, about Chernobyl accident the population was by no means objectively informed.

Domestic policy and democratization of the country

• In the USSR, political opposition parties were created, and numerous social groups arose. Gorbachev stopped persecuting dissidents, freed Academician Sakharov from home exile and invited him to Moscow
• The authorities softened their attitude towards the Russian Orthodox Church (on Easter, a divine service was broadcast on television for the first time - earlier on this holiday they showed the most popular films so that people stay at home, physically made it difficult to enter churches)
• The phenomenon of "returned literature" and culture is emerging - previously forbidden books were published, films were shown.
• The unspoken ban on rock music has been lifted, casinos are opening, the first McDonald's in Moscow, the first competition for the title of “beauty queen” is being held, a nightlife that has never existed before is flaring up in cities.

In 1989, the first relatively free elections were held in the USSR.
In 1990, Gorbachev was elected the first and last president of the USSR.

Foreign policy

The West respected Gorbachev very much. (Time declared him "Person of the Decade.")

• The end of the Cold War is connected with Gorbachev, and an agreement was signed with the United States on the elimination of nuclear missiles. The USSR suffered a complete defeat in the Cold War, both ideologically and politically and economically.
• Gorbachev canceled the old order, under which strict subordination of the countries of the socialist camp to the Soviet Union reigned, which later led to the collapse of the socialist camp.
• Gorbachev withdrew troops from Afghanistan.

By the fall of 1989, it became clear that, despite the reforms, the country's economy was in deep crisis; in 1990 the economic stagnation turned into a serious recession. The work of many enterprises was paralyzed, groceries disappeared from the shops - there was a shortage of even such everyday goods as bread and cigarettes.
It has become dangerous on the streets - the number of thefts and robberies has increased (previously, crime was under the strict control of the police and the informant system).
The weakening of the regime caused national conflicts within the USSR - in the Baltics, Central Asia, in the Caucasus, a movement for independence is rising.

Gorbachev's influence was weakening, the top did not obey his orders. Around B.N. Yeltsin, a former close associate of Gorbachev and a very popular politician, an opposition bloc has formed.

In June 1991, direct presidential elections were held in the RSFSR, in which Yeltsin won.
On August 19, 1991, Gorbachev was placed under house arrest at his dacha in Crimea.
On August 20, 1991, a putsch took place in Moscow (the last attempt of ministers, leaders of the army and the KGB to save the USSR), tanks appeared in the capital, and a state of emergency was declared. Yeltsin led the resistance to the putschists. After the collapse of the coup, the conspirators were arrested. By Yeltsin's decree, the activity of the CPSU was terminated on the territory of Russia.

December 8, 1991 The Soviet Union ceased to exist. The presidents of the three republics - Russia, Ukraine and Belarus - stated at a meeting in Minsk the termination of the existence of the USSR and signed an Agreement on the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), which included 12 former republics of the USSR.
RSFSR received a new name - Russian Federation... Was founded December 26, 1991

Armenian SSR
Azerbaijan SSR
Byelorussian SSR
Estonian SSR
Georgian SSR
Kazakh SSR
Kirghiz SSR
Latvian SSR
Lithuanian SSR
Moldavian SSR
Russian SFSR
Tajik SSR
Turkmen SSR
Ukrainian SSR
Uzbek SSR

Russian Federation under Yeltsin

Boris Nikolayevich Yeltsin is the first president of the Russian Federation.

Economic reforms

The era of B. Yeltsin is the era of “wild capitalism”.

The principles of a market economy were introduced in the Russian Federation. Privatization took place, product prices were liberalized. The banking and exchange systems arose and began to develop.
The reforms caused a deep economic crisis, accompanied by destabilization, unemployment, and corruption. Citizens' deposits in state banks have depreciated due to “hyperinflation”.
The economic crisis has caused social upheaval. The difference in the social status of different groups of the population has increased. The funds ended up in the hands of a small group of people, the so-called. new Russians.

The standard of living of most of the population has fallen sharply. Even educated people received very low earnings (aviation engineers work in bars, grandmothers stand on the street all day and sell cigarettes, flowers ...).
The activities of the mafia reached enormous proportions.

Reassessing history

In the 90s. the history of the 20th century was reevaluated by the Russians. Former Soviet leaders and socialist symbols are turning into satire, and even advertising and business.

1993 coup

In the spring of 1993, the Congress of People's Deputies attempted to remove President Yeltsin from office, but in the end the proposal was not accepted. In April, an all-Russian referendum on confidence in President Yeltsin was scheduled. After the success in the referendum, Boris Yeltsin announced the dissolution of the Congress of People's Deputies. The clash between the president and the deputies continued and ended in an armed conflict. Supporters of the Supreme Soviet stormed the building of the Moscow mayor's office, Yeltsin and forces loyal to him fired at the building of the Supreme Soviet. According to official figures, 150 people became victims.
After the suppression of the putsch, new elections to the State Duma were announced; a new constitution was adopted.

Chechen War

In 1994, the first war in Chechnya began. Yeltsin believed his generals, who argued that the problem of Chechen separatism could be solved by military means. The hostilities in Chechnya resulted in numerous casualties among the military and civilian population and ended with the withdrawal of federal troops (1996).

Financial crisis

In 1998, there was a recession in the economy, a financial crisis, a collapse of enterprises, and a monetary reform (1000 rubles> 1 rubles).

In 1999, Yeltsin resigned and transferred power V. V. Putin as acting president. Putin personally supervised the course of anti-terrorist operations on the territory of Chechnya (the beginning of the second Chechen war - 2000).

Russian emigration

For religious reasons, people from Russia fled as early as the 17th century. Old Believers moved to Siberia, Lithuania, Romania.
In the 19th century. political parties banned in Russia operated abroad.

In the 20th century. Russia has experienced three waves of emigration:
First wave: after 1917 - mass (1 million)
White Guards, scientists, intellectuals, nobles, priests, writers, artists, engineers, students left Bolshevik Russia. Almost everyone had to live abroad in difficult conditions, physically work (a taxi driver's job was considered a good job). The centers of emigration were Constantinople, Paris, Prague, Warsaw, Berlin, Sofia. Russian schools, magazines, publishing houses, organizations worked in the “Russian Abroad”.
Second wave: at the end of World War II
Many prisoners of war remained in Germany, a large part of them later moved to America.
Third wave: in the mid-70s after Khrushchev's "thaw"
Relatively few people emigrated - artists, writers, intellectuals

One of the reasons for the current demographic decline is also the emigration of the population.

I ... Testing.

1. The split of Germany into 2 states occurred:

A) in 1945; B) in 1946; C) in 1948;D) in 1949

2. The American program of post-war aid to European countries was called:

A) the Truman Doctrine; B) the Monroe doctrine;C) the Marshall plan; D) "new course".

3.150-1953 are the years:

A) Vietnam War;B) the wars in Korea; C) wars in Afghanistan; D) the years of the "cold war".

4. The United Nations was founded in:

A) April 25 - June 26, 1945; B) January 17 - March 23, 1946;

C) May 12 - June 23, 1947; D) February 1 - March 29, 1949;

5. What policy did M. Thatcher pursue as the head of parliament?

A) strict limitation of government spending; B) granting benefits to small business entrepreneurs;

C) offered a "third way" of development; D) construction of cheap dwellings

6. What were the views of President Viscari d Esten?

A) liberal; B) right-wing conservative; C) socialist; D) nationalistic.

7. The peculiarity of the Italian party - political system is:

A) frequent change of political parties;

B) the dominant position of the CDA;

C) a strong coalition of the CDP and the Socialist Party;

D) the dominant position of the Socialist Party;

8. What support did the Labor governments in Great Britain enjoy?

A) small and medium-sized entrepreneurs;

B) the active part of the labor force and trade unions;

C) the big industrial bourgeoisie;

D) the peasantry and agricultural workers.

9. Which of the following tasks becomes the main one for the state in the context of globalization?

A) pursuing a policy of protectionism in the interests of the national economy;

B) ensuring the international competitiveness of the country;

C) reducing the cost of the social network;

D) carrying out the nationalization of industrial production;

10. Mass demonstrations of the French in May 1968 testify to:

A) the maturation of situations leading to a revolution;

B) the collapse of the traditional value system;

C) on the intensification of the activities of terrorist groups;

D) deterioration of the economic situation in the country.

11. The Italian "economic miracle" is called:

A) a dynamic leap in the development of the Italian economy;

B) stabilization of the Italian economy

C) the development of Italy according to plan;

D) overcoming the crisis at the expense of Italian entrepreneurs.

12. The confrontation between the "western" and "eastern" blocs, which lasted from the mid-1940s. until the mid-1980s, received the name:

A) "undeclared war"; B) "policy of containment";

C) "nuclear dialogue";D) "cold war".

13. Referendum on the state. the device of Italy (monarchy or republic) took place in:

A) 1943; B) 1945; C) 1946; D) 1954

14. The reason for the Italian economic miracle of the 50-60s. XX century is an:

A) the presence of rich mineral deposits;

B) powerful industry in the South of the country;

C) cheap labor and the introduction of advanced technologies into production ;

D) the growth of military orders from the state.

15. Operation Clean Hands 1992 in Italy revealed:

A) massive violations in the food industry;

B) the connection of the mafia with the state. apparatus on an alarming scale;

C) unfair competition in the textile industry;

D) contractual football matches.

16. Victory in the 1994 elections. in Italy won:

A) the Communist Party of Italy; B) the Socialist Party of Italy;

C) "Forward, Italy!" (S. Berlusconi's movement); D) Christian Democratic Party of Italy.

17. "New Eastern Policy" is associated with the name:

A) V. Brandt; B) K. Adenauer; C) G. Kohl; D) G. Schroeder.

18. The main rivals in politics in the FRG are the parties:

A) Christian Democratic Union (CDU) and the Greens;

B) CDU and the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD);

C) the SPD and the NSDAP;

D) CDU and communists.

19. Most influential political force in Ulster:

A) Shin Fein ; B) IRA; C) Unionists; D) Republicans.

20. A new round of the arms race at the end of the 70s is associated with:

A) With the introduction of troops into Afghanistan ;

B) With the military support of Vietnam in the fight against the United States;

C) With the introduction of troops into Czechoslovakia;

D) With the military support of India in the fight against England.

II ... Give a name, term, concept.

1. Complete the sentence: “The military, economic, political and ideological confrontation between the two systems, most vividly expressed in the creation of military-political blocs, the arms race, mutual threats, the struggle for spheres of influence in different regions of the world, crises that have repeatedly put humanity on the brink of a new world war is called ... "

2. This term was first used by the former British Prime Minister W. Churchill during a trip to the United States, in a speech on March 5, 1946 in Fulton. Describing the situation in Europe, Churchill said that “this is not the Europe we fought for during the war. He sank over her ... " This term was often used in Western journalism to show their attitude to a particular country of socialism or the entire socialist. camp as a whole. What term are we talking about?

3. Who are we talking about?

During her premiership, she actively fought against the influence, which, in her opinion, negatively affected parliamentary democracy and economic results due to regular strikes. Her first term as prime minister was marked by a series of strikes organized by part of the trade unions in response to new legislation that limited their powers. In in

4. Identify the name of the organization (one answer):

1) a military-political alliance created at the initiative of the United States;

2) headquarters located in Brussels;

3) created in 1949;

4) has a contingent of peacekeeping forces.

Answer: NATO

5. Define the term (one term):

1) scientific or philosophical theory;

2) the political system;

3) a set of principles;

4) a guiding principle, either theoretical or political.

Answer: doctrine

III ... Choose several correct answers.

1. Which 3 of the following organizations are associated with the process of European economic integration?

A) Free Trade Agreement in North America;

B) European Economic Community (EEC);

C) International Monetary Fund;

D) European Coal and Steel Community;

E) European Free Trade Association;

E) Council for Mutual Economic Assistance

Answer: 1) ABV 2) BVD 3) BGD 4) AGE

2. The political regime of the Fifth Republic in France is characterized by:

A) strengthening the power of the president;

C) strengthening the power of parliament;

D) parliamentary elections of the president.

Answer. 1) AB 2) BV 3) VG 4) AG.