Since ancient times, control theory has been the object of attention of all famous philosophers. Its most important manifestations are the state and power. The concept of "power" originated in ancient Greece. Here for the first time there was a need to regulate the relationship between citizens and achieve agreement between them. This is where power appeared as a violent activity aimed at protecting certain subjects and having a regulatory effect on people.

One of the first management theories was created by Confucius (551-478 BC). He developed the concept of a noble person, not by origin, but by upbringing. The law of ideal relationships was expressed by the principle "What you do not wish for yourself, do not do to others." “Human government” means ruling without compromise, caring for people and their welfare, and, moreover, defending the ideas of strict social differentiation and the hierarchical division of responsibilities between members of society. Moreover, the state should rely on the wisdom and virtue of the ruler and his assistants.

The ancient Greek philosopher Plato (427-343 BC) interpreted the state as the maximum possible embodiment of the ideas of the world in social society. In his opinion, in the state everyone should mind their own business, not interfering in the affairs of others, this requirement corresponds to hierarchical subordination in the name of the whole. In the ideal state of Plato, there is no private property, women are equal in rights with men, children are brought up by the state, there is a fair administration of the best and noble. "I see the imminent destruction of a state where the law has no force and is under someone else's authority."

"Politics" of Aristotle (384-322 BC) begins with the words: "Every state is a form of community life." The full power of the law: "Law has no passion." Aristotle introduced a classification of forms of power: three correct (monarchy, aristocracy, polity) and three incorrect (tyranny, oligarchy, democracy). Monarchy - the power given by God, is permissible for a person who surpasses all others. Aristocracy - power is in the hands of a few, but noble and possessing high personal virtues. Management is possible where personal merit is valued by the people. Politia (republic) - the rule of the majority, although each member of the majority is worse than an individual member of the minority, but, in general, the majority is better than the minority. Tyranny is a power that "does not agree with the nature of man." Oligarchy is the power of individual members based on wealth. Democracy is the rule of the majority, based on the “desire of the crowd”.

During the Renaissance, the most famous work of the Italian Nicollo Machiavelli. His judgments were based on the principles of Aristotle's theory of government, but the main motive for governing the state is the rejection of everything in the name of the country. “People need to be taken caress or get rid of them altogether.”

In the 70s of the XVIII century, when the United States was created, the most important documents regulating the freedom of the individual were adopted. These are the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution, the Bill of Rights. "All men are created equal and they are all gifted by their creator...".

Relativistic concepts of power consider it as a relationship between partners, in which one of them has a decisive influence on the other.

Behavioral concepts of power come from its interpretation as a relationship between people in which some dominate and others obey.

Systemic concepts of power are interpreted as a systematizing principle in the political system. Three approaches can be distinguished: 1) power as a property and attribute of a macrosocial system; 2) power at the level of specific systems - family, organization; 3) power as the interaction of individuals acting within the social system.

Having considered various views on power (as a form of management), let's turn to the dictionary, which interprets management as a function of organized systems (biological, technical, social), ensuring the preservation of their structure, maintaining the mode of activity, the implementation of its program, goals.

It follows from the definition that management as a system presupposes the existence of subsystems that operate and develop under a certain control in order to achieve the goal of the supersystem. At the same time, the elements of the system must work in a certain mode, corresponding to the rhythm of the system.

The management process can be divided into several stages:

1. Collection and processing of information, its analysis, diagnosis, prognosis.
2. Systematization, synthesis.
3. Establishing goals on this basis, developing solutions.
4. implementation of these goals.

Management can be divided into two types - spontaneous and conscious. The first impact occurs as a result of the interaction of subjects (synergistic management). The second - as a result of the planned impact of the object (hierarchical management). Thus, we can conclude that management is the process of bringing the system to a new qualitative level as a result of the impact of energy on matter in a certain space of manifestation during the implementation of the goal.

Management is the knowledge of ways to integrate life systems according to the universal scheme of the most effective direction of development. Therefore, development is the ascent to the universality of the most effective management. In the process of development of society, the relevance of using new methods of system management, which provide universalization, and therefore optimization and the greatest efficiency of the functioning of systems, as well as the consistency of their actions, increases.

The existing and improving system of management of life forms is designed to increase the efficiency of their activities and create conditions for solving the tasks set. This becomes possible through the introduction of researched innovative management technologies, which are based on the universal laws of system relations developed by new educational programs revealing the abilities and initiative of the individual in search non-standard solutions in the system of collective, public and international co-creation of people.

Such a control system makes it possible to predict the structure of life form control and the stages of its formation, stability, flexibility, adaptability to new conditions of socio-economic development.

In one of the first textbooks on the scientific foundations of management (1969), management was defined as a purposeful impact on groups of people to organize and coordinate their activities in the production process.

AT encyclopedic dictionary(1980) management is defined as an element, a function of organizational systems that ensures the preservation of the structure, the maintenance of the mode of activity, the implementation of their programs and goals.

In the Oxford Russian-English Dictionary (1994), the word management is translated into English by such a term as management.

Therefore, the term "management" comes from the English manage - management, leadership. But the content of the concept of management is revealed widely and multilaterally: management as a way of management, guidance, direction or control; it is the art of management and leadership, these are people who control and direct the work of organizations, as well as management personnel.

Management is the efficient use and coordination of resources such as capital, buildings, materials, and labor to achieve given goals with maximum efficiency.

Management is a multi-valued concept, since there is an organizational, functional, structural part of it. The organizational and structural side of management is the structure of the organization's management, the hierarchy of all levels of management - top, middle and lower levels.

The functional characteristic of management is a streaming process of performing the functions of managing an organization. Finally, management as the art of managing a process, a specific person, is his personal characteristic.

The organizational part of management covers the organization of structures, information channels, office work, accounting, control, analysis, planning, decision making and organization of work in the broadest sense of the word. The cardinal problem of this part of management is optimal use workforce, taking into account the psychological and physical capabilities of a person, as well as the working time of team members.

An important part of management is the creation of appropriate conditions for the flow of the production (educational) process. These are the legal rules governing the process.

Management activities are also associated with the economic support of business processes. Management and management in the special management literature are considered from almost the same positions.

Management as a concept has many definitions, the number of which is in the hundreds. Each author emphasizes one or another side of the concept. In American practice, it has become a rule to find out what profession or field of knowledge the author of the concept of management belongs to, since professional preferences often single out only one characteristic side of the concept.

This article will consider management from the point of view of the causal-system approach in management activity as one of the general approaches of science based on universal laws.

Management will be considered as a way of streamlining the structure of the organization, its internal and external systemic relations in order to achieve the greatest efficiency of functioning in the performance of the target function.

Cybernetics has established that control is inherent only in system objects, that it has a purposeful character. The common thing in the processes is its anti-entropy nature, the focus on the ordering of the system. An indispensable feature of the management process is the processing of information, the establishment of feedback.

A system is a set of elements united by a common purpose of functioning, structure and a common functional environment. So the organization includes many elements and their homogeneous sets - subsystems. An organization as a system performs a certain function in the space of its manifestation in a larger system - a supersystem, of which it is a part.

The purpose of the functioning of the organization is set by its supersystem. Since the supersystem acts as a cause in relation to the system as a consequence, the goal of functioning set by it is hidden from the system. The true purpose is hidden in the unmanifested, in the cause. Therefore, the system seeks to know its purpose of functioning and the purpose of the supersystem through interaction and the establishment a large number multilevel relationships with similar systems in the supersystem.

The structure of a system is a universal set of links that provide energy and information exchange between the elements of the system and its subsystems.

The functional environment of the system is a characteristic universal set of the algorithm and parameters, according to which both the interaction between the elements of the system (and subsystems) and the functioning of the system as a whole is carried out.

In the general case, management is characterized as the process of coordinating the goals of the control (sphere) of the cause with the controlled (sphere) of the effect. At the same time, an algorithm for the transition process should be established, which will ensure the greatest efficiency of the systems and their conflict-free functioning. In the absence of a universal management scheme, there is always a predisposition to the emergence of a revolutionary situation: when the top cannot manage in a new way, and the lower classes do not want to live in the old way.

Therefore, on present stage Development in managerial activity requires deep knowledge of the laws governing the evolution of the surrounding world, the goals, motives for the development of mankind, and, most importantly, the mechanism for implementing these goals.

The history of the development of mankind shows that, first of all, a high level of culture in general, as a level of consciousness, and, in particular, the level of culture of development management, determines a person's ability for cooperation, commonwealth, integration and more effective development.

The developed control system is most effective when it has absorbed all the previous experience accumulated by many different trends and scientifically substantiated. The new management system, the management system has the deepest roots, which originated at the beginning of the 20th century.

Friedrich Winston Taylor (1856-1915), the founder of the theory and practice of management, divided the entire management cycle into separate functions. He set himself the goal of identifying principles that allow him to maximize the "benefit" from any physical labor, movement. And based on the analysis of statistical data, he substantiated the need to replace the then dominant system of general management management with one that is based on the widespread use of narrow specialists. He drew attention to the need to ensure the correct selection, reasonable use of specialists, which he saw in the deepening of the specialization of the functions of workers. He believed that the essence of the functions of the administration lies in such a distribution of management work, when each employee, from assistant director to lower positions, is called upon to perform as few functions as possible.

Taylor believed that a good organizer must have qualities: intelligence, education, special technical knowledge, physical dexterity, tact, energy, common sense, good health.

But, despite the importance of personal and business qualities specialist, administrator, he believed that the main condition is the "system" of the organization, which the head should establish.

Thanks to Taylor's activities, the first scientific "classical administrative school of management" was created. The goal of the classical school was to create universal principles of government. Its most prominent representatives, besides Taylor, are L. Gyulik, A. Fayol, J. Mooney, and L. F. Urwick. The views of this school were supported by Henry Ford, who wrote that "business matters should be decided by the system, and not by the geniuses of the organization."

The French engineer Henri Fayol (1841-1925) was one of the first theorists who tried to develop a "general approach" to administration and to formulate some principles of administrative theory. Exploring the management apparatus, he formulated the general principles of administrative management: division of labor, ensuring the specialization of functions, responsibility, discipline, unity of command, unity of direction, subordination of private interest to the general, remuneration of labor, centralization, order, justice, stability of the workplace for staff, initiative, corporate spirit. A great contribution to the study of the principles of organization was made by the German sociologist Max Weber. He owns the theory of the ideal type of administrative organization, which he called "bureaucracy". Management theorists highly appreciated the heuristic value of Weber's organizational model, however, the vast majority of management theorists, unlike Weber, believe that informal relationships, informal practices often make a significant contribution to the effectiveness of organizations.

Another prominent figure in the science of enterprise management is Hamilton Church. He focused on the principles of organizational activity. He believed that "whatever goals we set - whether we will lead the military operations of the army or the production of a particular product - our work will still be reduced to two processes, namely, analysis and synthesis."

Along with research to improve the technical side of management in the mid-30s, more and more attention in the science of management began to be given to the "human factor", "human relations". Their underestimation, a simplified view of the motives of human behavior, inherent in the "classical" theory of organizational management, became the subject of sharp criticism, which served as one of the prerequisites for the emergence of the second main school in American management theory - the doctrine of "human relations" and "human behavior". The subject of research of this school is the psychological motives of people's behavior in the production process, group relations, group norms, problems of conflict and cooperation, communication barriers, informal organizations.

Elton Mayo, Mary Parquet Follet and Fritz Roethlisberg are considered to be the founders of the concept of "human relations". Mayo and his group, on the basis of numerous experiments, came to the conclusion that: "Psychological factors have a decisive significance and influence on labor productivity." E. Mayo outlined the results of his research in the book "Human Problems of Industrial Civilization". In his opinion, taking into account the psychological factor leads to a sharp increase in labor productivity, high production efficiency. He argued that the main condition for the growth of labor productivity is not material, but, above all, psychological factors.

An important condition for improving the performance of an enterprise is to increase common culture organization of production. An important role in the formation of this direction was played by the research of Mary Parquet Follet in the field of substantiation of the psychological aspects of management. "The theory of management should be based not on intuitive ideas about the nature of man and the motives of his behavior, but on the achievements of scientific psychology."

In the 60s of the twentieth century, F. Herzberg founded the "movement for the enrichment of labor", the most important goal of which is to increase the interest of workers in work. It was based on taking into account the needs of the staff and their motivation.

In the late 70s of the twentieth century, the theory of human resource management attracted attention. Its representatives E. Shane, R. Peterson, L. Tracy and others took into account a wide range of factors affecting personnel management: changes in the content of the work of workers, in technology, the influence of the state, trade unions, etc. “It was designed to concentrate the attention of managers on the forms and methods of the integrated use of the potential and abilities of employees”. “Good management,” admits T. Mills, one of the leading American labor experts, “is trying to get new benefits from the intelligence, education, and even from the emotions of workers as well as from their hands.” There was an expansion of the boundaries of the object of influence: this is the worker himself, and groups of workers, and the relationship between them, as well as connections with the production process.

Along with this, attempts were made to synthesize the technical-organizational and socio-psychological aspects of the labor process. On this basis, the school social systems". One of its most prominent representatives is G. Simon. A general description of the principles of the school of "social systems" allows us to conclude that its representatives are trying to identify the permanent elements of any organization (organizational universals), but inherent in both clockwork and society. This desire is based on the application of cybernetics to the analysis of social processes, mathematical methods etc. However, the main goal pursued by the school of "social systems" is to create a universal and normative theory of organizational management.

The area of ​​complex study and problem solving is the system of managerial decision making. In particular, R. Falk, an American management theorist, put forward 7 principles of management activity, which played a certain role in improving the efficiency of the management system.

In the 60s - 70s of the twentieth century, the so-called "situational approach" theory arose, whose representatives R. Mockler, W. Reddin, F. Fiedler and others are guided by the search and formulation of standard solutions applicable to specific classes of situations in the process of managerial activities. They point out "that every organization is largely unique and requires forms and methods of management suited to its own situation." “This may sound like heresy to the old guard of management theorists,” writes Mauclair, but my own experience has taught me that there are few, if any, once and for all principles of management that can be applied universally. It is because of this that many of the management studies and publications of the past, which have often attempted to develop such principles, have failed to provide managers with sufficient practical guidance.

Simultaneously with the theory of the "situational approach", a similar "relativistic" direction is being developed, which makes an attempt to revise the provisions of organizational management in the light of the complex variety of situations, goals and values, their relative, relative nature. "Too many management theorists in the past have tended to develop oversimplified general theories and have consequently lost touch with the reality of actual management work."

In our time, the situational approach occupies an increasingly wide area and is used in almost all major schools and directions of American management theory. The situational approach recognizes that although there are general patterns, the specific techniques that a manager must use to effectively achieve the goals of the organization can vary significantly.

Yu. A. Konarzhevsky was one of the first scientists who attempted to discover the patterns of the process of managing and managing the system. In the course of his research, he formulated and revealed certain patterns that show that they characterize the procedural and technological connections that exist in management activities. Somewhat from a broader standpoint, A.A. Orlov. B. I. Korotyaev singles out some patterns of school management.

Along with schools, there are 4 most general approaches to management theory:

• process;
• systemic;
• situational;
• universal.

The process approach has developed as a development of the provisions of the "administrative classical school" about the idea of ​​the existence of some universal management functions.

Systems approach developed on the basis of general systems theory. An organization is a system, in the fullest and strictest sense of this concept, that is, a certain integrity, consisting of interdependent subsystems, each of which contributes to the functioning of the whole.

The situational approach arose as an attempt to integrate the achievements of all schools of management and other branches of science. According to this approach, any organization is an open system that is in constant interaction with external environment, therefore, the main reasons for what happens inside the organization should be sought outside it, that is, in the situation in which it actually functions.

The universal approach has developed on the basis of the scientific school of Universology, the theory of Universal Control, the theory of transient processes, the theory of relativity of consciousness, and in accordance with the Universal laws of development, according to which any system develops, consisting of many subsystems that have coordinated vertical and horizontal connections.

There are various approaches to defining the essence and role of management.

Management as an art. The concept of management as an art is the ability to effectively apply the accumulated experience in practice, based on the concepts, theories, principles, forms and methods underlying it, so that the members of the team direct their efforts towards achieving its goals in conditions of the fullest disclosure of the potential of the team .

Management as a science has its own subject of study, its own specific problems and approaches to their solution. The efforts of science are aimed at explaining the nature of managerial work, establishing links between cause and effect, identifying factors and conditions under which the joint work of people becomes more effective and useful. The science of management has its own theory, the content of which is the laws and regularities, principles and functions, forms and methods of purposeful activity of people in the process of management.

Management as a function is implemented through the performance of a number of management actions (management functions) - planning, organization, order, coordination, control, motivation, leadership, communications, research, evaluation, decision making, selection of qualified specialists, representation, negotiation, conclusion of deals for educational services.

Consideration of management as a function is associated with the development of the composition and content of all types of management activities, as well as their relationship in space and time.

Management as a process reflects the desire to integrate all types of activities to solve management problems into a single chain. At the same time, management is presented as dynamically changing in space and time, interconnected management functions, the purpose of which is to solve the problems and tasks of an educational institution.

Management - people who manage organizations - when the management process is provided by professionally trained management specialists who form and manage organizations by setting goals and developing mechanisms to achieve them.

Therefore, management is also the ability to achieve goals by directing labor, intellect, and motives for the behavior of team members.

Management is the apparatus - how component any organization. Its main task is the effective use and coordination of all resources of the organization (material resources, buildings, equipment, labor, information) to achieve its goals. At the same time, attention is focused on its structural composition, the nature of the links between the links and elements of the management structure, the degree of centralization and decentralization of the distribution of functions, the powers and responsibilities of team members occupying various positions.

^ 8. General characteristics of the regulators of social processes

Regulators of social relations - a set of certain norms that regulate the behavior of people or the state of other objects of regulation in various spheres of life.

In any society, there are many different rules behavior, develops and acts whole system regulators of social relations. Even in primitive society, there were their own regulators - a system of mononorms (ritual, myth, custom), which regulated the most important social relations that were significant for the life of the tribal community.

Regulators existing in modern society are divided into two large groups: social and technical.

Technical regulations include technical norms. Technical norm - rules for the operation of technical means and mechanisms that regulate relations between a person and the outside world (nature or technology) that do not have social content (Building Norms and Rules, GOSTs, Rules traffic, Operating instructions for household appliances).

Social regulation - the impact on people's behavior, social relations in order to give them a certain direction in development. Social regulation should be distinguished from technical, biological and similar regulation, since, unlike those mentioned, it affects only relations between people.

Social regulation as a whole is usually divided into normative and causal. Regulatory regulation affects an individually indefinite circle of people (that is, all people), and casual regulation affects a specific person or a specific group of people by name.

A social norm is a rule of conduct aimed at regulating social relations, to some extent supported by measures of social influence. A person lives in society, therefore, inevitably enters into social relations (relations with people and organizations), which are regulated by social norms.

Signs of a social norm

The general nature, which is as follows:

addressed to an individually indefinite circle of persons (simultaneously to all people);

regulates the most typical sustainable social relations;

designed for repeated use;

there is a long, predetermined period of time.

Regulates only social relations, that is, relations between people.

It is backed up by measures of social influence in order to encourage people to fulfill it. an individual act is an instruction to perform certain actions or refrain from any actions, addressed to an individually defined person (a specific person or a certain group of people).

^ 9. Types of management (classification) and their features

Control- a process aimed at achieving the goal. The management of socio-economic production systems was called management (English management, from the Old French word ménagement "the art of accompanying, directing", from Latin manu agere "pointing with the hand").

^ Control types:

Public administration- this is a purposeful organizing and regulating influence of the state (through the system of its bodies and officials) on social processes, relationships and activities of people. It is a kind of social control.

^ State Administration - a type of activity for managing the affairs of the state, within the framework of which the executive power, its bodies and officials are practically implemented at all levels of the state-administrative structure: federal, constituent entities of the Russian Federation, local.

^ Public Administration - the practical activities of state bodies, the technological process of preparing, adopting and executing managerial decisions in the totality of methods and means by which the tasks of the state and its structures at various levels are solved.

^ public administration - the impact of the subject of management on society (social processes, relations) in accordance with the socially significant functions and powers assigned to it; public interaction between the state apparatus and society in making important decisions for the country (society, population). It can be said that public administration is the management of society together with society.

Fundamental in management is the definition of the role, place of a person as an object of management. According to this criterion, democratic and authoritarian styles of management are distinguished. Democratic Governance involves the delegation of authority, the provision of great independence in accordance with the functions, involvement in decision-making. Discussions are allowed, unanimous support of the leader is not required. Authoritarian management proceeds from the fact that the average person initially avoids work, is not ambitious, evades responsibility, accepts guidance over himself with satisfaction. Therefore, in order to increase the efficiency of labor, it must be forced, controlled. And this can provide power, unity of command. In authoritarian governance, responsibility and control are concentrated mainly at the top level; there is a regime of personal power, the elite demonstrates loyalty to the leader, everyone is ready to follow his instructions.

According to the nature of the relationship between the central government and the administrative, national units that are part of the state, the public administration system can be coordinating or subordinate. Coordinating Department implemented in the form of a federation or confederation. The federation has, but the confederation does not have a single body of state power. Federation members can have their own constitutions, legislative, executive, judicial bodies. Along with this, unified federal bodies of state power are being formed; common citizenship, currency, etc. are established. under a confederation, the states forming it retain their independence, have their own bodies of state power and administration. To coordinate actions for certain purposes (higher political, military, etc.), states create joint bodies. Subordinate management is based on strict administrative subordination, influence on lower officials of the governing bodies, coercion to carry out commands coming from higher governing bodies. It is typical for a unitary state, which does not have federal units in its composition, but is subdivided into administrative-territorial units (oblasts, districts, etc.). In a unitary state, authorities at all levels act according to uniform standards, the administrative apparatus meets the needs public system there is virtually no separation of powers.

^ Sectoral management implies the presence of a vertical of subordination from the center to the enterprise. It is most effectively implemented in management through ministries that implement a unified technical policy in the industry and ensure the necessary intra-industry proportions. Forms intersectoral management- corporations operating on a joint-stock basis. The corporation does not leave the sphere of state administration, but serves as its second step. Territorial administration It is carried out by three sources of power: federal executive bodies, state authorities of the constituent entity of the Russian Federation, local self-government. Territorial administration provides rational placement production, deepening specialization and integrated development of regions, leveling the levels of their economic and social development and solution of other tasks of the state regional policy. It involves the delimitation of rights and responsibilities between federal and regional, legislative and executive authorities.

According to the method of taking into account the interests of management objects, administrative and economic management are distinguished. ^ Administrative management directly affects the interests of the governed by means of permission, prohibition, coercion, applied regardless of their opinion. It is a necessary component of any governance, although its scope may vary. In the structure of executive bodies with several levels of management, it has a self-contained value and is realized through appointments, dismissals, rewards, and punishments of officials. In state regulation of the economy, administration is carried out in licensing activities, quotas for exports, imports, and in other cases. economic management affects the interests of control objects indirectly, i.e. through economic legislation, financial, monetary and credit state policy.

^ 10. Legal support of various types of management

The detailed characteristics of the nature and types of management given above make it possible to identify their "legal cut". There are two aspects of interest here. The first concerns the field of application of legal means. Being a complex phenomenon, management uses various means for its purposes - economic, material, personnel, ideological, legal, technical. Legal means have both their own field of application and an adjacent field where they mediate the use of other means. Finding a measure of their legal reflection is a complicated matter, and it is not always possible to carry it out correctly.

The second aspect is related to the radius of legal reflection, meaning different types management. Law as a whole, all its branches serve as legal support for management in society, social management and management of the state, state affairs. Public administration in a narrower sense is mediated by constitutional and administrative law.

It is administrative law that regulates the organization and activities of a special apparatus - executive authorities, the actual management activities. And at the same time, administrative law in a functional sense covers both the management of society and the management of the state, since its norms create legal regimes of functional purpose. A wide range of subjects of law is inevitably included in the orbit of these regimes of technologically uniform activity. Otherwise, it is impossible to ensure the permanent, prompt and specialized implementation and protection of public interests.

These are the two main aspects characteristic of the legal mediation of all types of management. Their more detailed disclosure will serve as an explanation of the nature of law and the legal reflection of the organization and activities of subjects and objects of management. Society and the state are interested in the full introduction of the legal foundations of governance and in its consistent democratization.

^ 11. Correlation between the concepts of public administration and public authority

State power is a way of managing (managing) society, which is characterized by reliance on a special apparatus of coercion (authority of force).

Government:

It is a public authority (officially manages the affairs of the whole society as a whole) and political, i.e. it regulates the relationship between big and small social groups and, being relatively isolated from society (socially heterogeneous in the face of classes, ethnic groups, nations, national minorities, etc.), leads it in the interests of that part of it, more or less, that has seized this power (serves as an instrument for realizing the will political forces those in power);

It is a sovereign power, i.e. in the sphere of state affairs, it has the supremacy, independence and independence in relation to any other authority both within the state and outside it;

It is carried out on an ongoing basis by a special apparatus of power (state apparatus);

Has the monopoly right to apply coercion in the territory of its operation (territory of the state);

It has a monopoly right to tax certain persons located on the territory of the state (for the formation of the budget - the treasury of the state);

It applies to all persons (individuals, legal entities) located on the territory of the state (exception: for example, foreign diplomats);

Publishes normative-legal acts.

^ 12.Modern management theories

Management theory - the science of the principles and methods of management various systems, processes and objects.

The foundations of control theory are cybernetics and information theory.

The essence of control theory: on the basis of system analysis, a mathematical model of the control object (OC) is compiled, after which a control algorithm (AC) is synthesized to obtain the desired characteristics of the process or control goals.

Definition and objectives

Cybernetics has established that control is inherent only in system objects. They are characterized by a decrease in entropy, a focus on ordering the system.

The management process can be divided into several stages :

Collection and processing of information.

Analysis, systematization, synthesis.

Setting goals on this basis. Choice of control method, forecast.

Implementation of the selected management method.

Evaluation of the effectiveness of the selected control method (feedback).

The ultimate goal of control theory is universalization, which means consistency, optimization and the greatest efficiency of systems functioning.

Management can be divided into two types :

spontaneous: the impact occurs as a result of the interaction of subjects (synergistic management);

conscious: systematic impact of the object (hierarchical control).

In hierarchical management, the purpose of the functioning of the system is set by its supersystem.

Examples modern methods controls:

Nonlinear control

Adaptive control

Construction of optimal robust controllers

Game methods in management

Intelligent control

Implementation of the selected management method

When introducing something new, there is always a predisposition to the emergence of a revolutionary situation, when "the top cannot manage in a new way, and the bottom does not want to live in the old way." Therefore, an algorithm for the transition process should also be developed, which would ensure a conflict-free transition of systems to a new type of functioning for them.

Classification

There are the following most general approaches to control theory:

The process approach is based on the idea of ​​the existence of some universal control functions.

The systems approach has developed on the basis of the general theory of systems: a system is a kind of integrity, consisting of interdependent subsystems, each of which contributes to the functioning of the whole.

The situational approach considers any organization as open system, constantly interacting with the external environment, therefore, the main reasons for what happens inside the organization should be sought outside it, that is, in the situation in which it actually functions.

The universal approach has developed on the basis of the scientific school of Universology, the theory of Universal Control, the theory of transient processes, the theory of relativity of consciousness, and considers any system in the aggregate of its vertical and horizontal connections.

A substratum approach based on the structural optimization of the strategy and decisions made by identifying substrates (key points of efficiency) in significant classes of the information context of the managerial situation. The process of constructing such a structural-substrate-optimal strategy is called structural optimization.

^ 13. Modern concepts of states and public administration (USA, Europe, Asia)

Public administration - the activities of public authorities and their officials for the practical implementation of the developed on the basis of relevant procedures political course(public policy). Public administration activities are traditionally opposed, on the one hand, political activity, and on the other hand, activities to formulate a political course. In the theory of public administration, there are three main approaches to formulating the basic principles of public administration:

legal approach;

political approach;

managerial approach.

According to the legal approach, the key values ​​of public administration are the values ​​of the rule of law, the protection of the rights of citizens. A civil servant is subordinate not so much to his leadership as to the requirements of the rule of law and the Constitution.

According to the political approach, the main task of public administration is the best possible embodiment of the will of the people. Civil servants must be politically responsible (accountable), receptive to the current interests of citizens. In order to realize this, it is sometimes proposed to implement the concept of "representative bureaucracy", in which the executive authorities should be a miniature social model of society. It is assumed that in this situation it will be easier for the departments to take into account the interests existing in society, and the opportunities for discrimination of certain groups will be reduced.

Common to all three approaches is the problem of compliance of the actions of civil servants with the principles formulated in advance:

adherence to the principle of the rule of law (legal approach);

following the will of the people (political approach);

following the goal of obtaining the desired socio-economic result (manager approach).

Modern theories of public administration contain universal principles applicable to any state. There is a trend towards convergence government systems and management models. Basically, the experience of the Anglo-Saxon countries serves as a role model. However, the reasons for borrowing in public administration should be sought in the processes of globalization. At present, it is not a single country that acts as an integral system, but the world community as a whole. The processes taking place at the global level are immediately reflected in the development of many countries. This has to be taken into account by the governments of states that are not only active in the international arena, but also countries that face numerous internal problems due to changes in international politics.

In the theory of public administration, four main traditions are usually distinguished:

1. Anglo-Saxon (minimal state concept)

2. Germanic (organicism)

3. French (Bonopartism or Napoleonism)

4. Scandinavian (a mixture of Anglo-Saxon and Germanic traditions)

The German and French models are collectively referred to as the continental European model. In the Anglo-Saxon model, legally, the concept of "state" as a legal entity or public legal entity is absent. The legal meaning is "government" or individual government agencies. The state is seen as an agreement between members of society. Relations between the state and society are characterized by a system of negotiations and deals, great flexibility and freedom.

In the French tradition, the state is seen as a single and indivisible entity that penetrates into all spheres of public life. Authorities are divided in detail between sectors and levels of government.

Traditionally, the basic theory of public administration has been the postulate that public bodies and services are called upon to comply with and implement programs and policies that are established by the legislature, the head of state and the government (the concept of neutral competence). With this approach, state bodies are officially deprived of independence and in fact cannot set goals and objectives for their activities. In the US, this model was followed by Woodrow Wilson, one of the fathers of the science of public administration. Thanks to this approach, in the United States with late XIX century, the idea of ​​separating government from politics became widespread (see the article on public service in the United States for more details).

There are currently two competing approaches to the organization of the state:

1. centralized approach (A state-centric approach)

2. decentralized approach (A Decentered Theory of Governance or Decentering Governance)

In principle, we can talk about two competing paradigms: bureaucratic and managerial. Both have their supporters and opponents. Nevertheless, in recent years, the ideas of managerialism have increasingly penetrated into the sphere of public administration and public service, according to which, management methods developed by corporations are transferred to the public sector.

General control theory

Management principles

Rice. 1.1. Management process

·

· Compensation principle

· Feedback principle

· spontaneous

· conscious

At hierarchical management

connection.

control.

feedback.

cybernetic

control system.

–

The communication system includes direct link X, feedback channel Y,

W signal)

1. Decision functions (

3. Communication functions

Complex organizations.

Complex organizations have kit interrelated goals .

The mission of an organization is an expression of its philosophy and raison d'être. The mission usually declares the status of the enterprise, the principles of its work, the intentions of the management, is directed to the future and should not depend on the current state of the organization. The mission is formed by the top management of the organization, which is fully responsible for its implementation by setting and implementing the goals of the organization.

The mission of each company is defined by five elements:

· story,

existing preferences of owners and managers,

The market environment

the resources

certain business abilities and opportunities.

There are two types of goals: long term and short term. Short-term goals are characterized by a much greater than long-term, concretization and detailing in matters of achievement. If the need arises, between long-term and short-term goals, intermediate goals are also set, which are called medium-term.

The main role in the development of the organization is played by its organizational structure. Organizational structure of the management apparatus- a form of division of labor in the management of the organization.

The organizational structure regulates: the division of tasks into departments and subdivisions; their competence in solving certain problems; the general interaction of these elements.

Any organization has its own internal environment and an external environment in which its operations are carried out.

Internal variables are goals, structure, tasks, technology, people. All internal variables are interconnected. Changing one of them to some extent affects all others.

To external environment organizations include suppliers, competitors, buyers, business partners, the state and its structures, culture, morality, traditions, economic and political factors, international environment.

Allocate:

· external environment of direct influence(suppliers, competitors, buyers, business partners, the state and its structures)

· external environment of indirect impact(political, economic, social, technological, environmental and legal components of the macro- and mega-economic environment) .

The life cycle of organizations - a certain sequence of typical changes in the state of the organization since its inception. Applying the concept life cycle, it can be seen that there are distinct stages that organizations go through and that transitions from one stage to another are predictable and not random (Figure 3.1).

Zhts includes a trace. Stages:

1. creation

3. maturity

Numerous studies show that organizations during the life cycle

confident develop, when they have a sound strategy and use resources efficiently;

· are being rebuilt when they cease to meet their chosen goals;

· are dying when they are unable to perform their tasks.

Methodological foundations management;

Methodology in the literal sense (logos - word, concept, science, knowledge, and method - the path, direction of knowledge) a system of principles and methods of organizing and building theoretical and practical activities, as well as the doctrine of this system

A methodology can be defined as a system that implements three functions:

1) Obtaining, creating new knowledge;

2) Structuring this knowledge in the form of new concepts, categories, laws, hypotheses, theoretical ideas, theories;

3) Organization of the use of new knowledge in public practice (training, education, production activity, culture and art, everyday life).

Management infrastructure

Infrastructure(from Latin infra - below, under and structura - structure, location) - a complex of interconnected, serving structures that make up and / or provide the basis for solving a problem (task).

At each level of management, depending on the situation, the specifics of management, the object of management, it is also required specified types of management support from the following set:

scientific and methodological support: includes the development of original or the use of existing modern scientific methodologies and methods for implementing the management process, the study of controlled systems, advanced domestic and foreign experience, the choice of management tools, conducting labor market research, conducting research on the development prospects of the organization;

financial support: includes substantiation, planning and obtaining financial resources for carrying out work on managing the facility (budgeting), drawing up an estimate of management costs and monitoring its implementation;

logistical security: availability of funds
organizational technology, obtaining and processing information necessary for management;

organizational support: includes the development and implementation of projects for the division of labor, organization, specialization and cooperation of jobs based on modern principles, organizing the maintenance of the information and reference apparatus, structuring the management system;

legal support includes a thorough
the legal framework for all actions related to management, including economic, civil, administrative, labor and other types of law, as well as regulatory documents at all levels that regulate the activities of employees, divisions, and the organization as a whole;

Information Support: receiving and processing all
available information for making management decisions, including information about the state and trends in the external environment and in the organization itself;

staffing: the presence in the management system itself at all positions of qualified personnel who are able to carry out the entire range of work listed above independently or with the involvement of specialists.

Management system is a holistic set of interrelated and regularly performed actions that allows you to effectively manage a company and achieve long-term entrepreneurial success with maximum profit for a particular business by ensuring the competitiveness of products and a commercial enterprise as a whole.

Management infrastructure (management system structure)- this is a set of scientific approaches, principles and methods, as well as target, providing, managed and managing subsystems (Fig. 5.1).

Power home

Four of the seven functions in the first approximation can be arranged in a sequence - a certain sequence of actions is planned, an organizational structure adequate to the plan is created, process participants are motivated, and the preparation, flow and results of the process are controlled.

There are also other options for the allocation of management functions.

Thus, management functions can be concentrated in three main groups:

· general management(establishment of regulatory requirements and management policies, innovation policies, planning, organization of work, motivation, coordination, control, responsibility);

management of the structure of the enterprise (its creation, subject of activity, legal forms, relations with other enterprises, territorial issues, organization, reconstruction, liquidation);

specific areas of management (marketing, research and development, production, personnel, finance, fixed assets).

Communications

Communications - the process by which information is communicated and exchanged between two or more people, usually for the purpose of motivating or influencing behavior.

Information moves within the organization from level to level within vertical communications. It can be transmitted via descending, i.e. from higher levels to lower ones. In this way, the subordinate levels of management are informed about current tasks, changes in priorities, specific tasks, recommended procedures, etc.

Upward communication those. from bottom to top, also perform the function of alerting the top about what is being done at the lower levels. In this way, management learns about current or emerging problems and suggests possible options for correcting the situation. Upward exchange of information usually takes the form of reports, proposals and explanatory notes.

In addition to the exchange of information on the downstream or upstream organization need horizontal communications. The organization consists of many departments, so the exchange of information between them is necessary to coordinate tasks and actions. Horizontal exchanges often involve committees or ad hoc groups. Additional benefits of horizontal communication are the formation of equal relations. It is proved that such relationships are an important component of the satisfaction of the employees of the organization.

Types of communes within companies

1Communications "Head-subordinate". Although they serve as an example of vertical information exchange, this type of information exchange is considered separately, since it constitutes the main part of the communicative activity of the leader. Studies have shown that 2/3 of this activity is carried out between managers and managed.

2 Communications "Head - working group". In addition to the exchange of information between the leader and the subordinate, there is an exchange between the leader and his work group. Communication with the working group as a whole allows the leader to increase the effectiveness of the group's actions.

3Informal communications. The channel of informal communications can be called a channel for spreading rumors. Since information is transmitted much faster through rumor channels than through formal communication channels, managers use the former for planned leaks and dissemination of certain information or "just between us" information. The channel accuracy is from 70 to 90%.

Communication process is the exchange of information between two or more people.

During the exchange of information, four basic elements.

1. Sender, a person who generates ideas or collects information and communicates it.

2. Message, the actual information encoded using symbols.

3. Channel, means of communication.

4. Recipient, the person to whom the information is intended and who interprets it.

Stages of the process communes:

1. The birth of an idea.

2. Encoding and channel selection.

3. Transfer.

The birth of an idea. The exchange of information begins with the formulation of an idea or the selection of information. The sender decides what meaningful idea or message should be exchanged. You need to be aware of what ideas are meant to be conveyed before you send a message and be sure that your ideas are adequate and appropriate for the specific situation and purpose.

Encoding and channel selection. Before conveying an idea, the sender must use symbols to encode it using words, intonations and gestures (body language). This coding turns an idea into a message.

The sender must also select a channel that is compatible with the character type used for encoding. Some well-known channels include the transmission of speech and written materials, as well as electronic means of communication, including computer networks, email, video tapes and video conferencing

Broadcast. In the third step, the sender uses a channel to deliver a message (an encoded idea or set of ideas) to the recipient. It is about the physical transmission of a message, which many people mistakenly take for the process of communication itself. At the same time, as we have seen, communication is only one of the most important stages that must be passed through in order to convey an idea to another person.

Decoding. After the message is transmitted by the sender, the receiver decodes it. Decoding is the translation of the sender's characters into the recipient's thoughts. If the characters chosen by the sender have exactly the same meaning for the recipient, the latter will know exactly what the sender had in mind when his idea was formulated. If no reaction to the idea is required, the information exchange process should end there.

Communication network– A communication network describes communication relationships and information flows between individuals.

3 types of comm network

1. "Chain" - may be acceptable for solving fairly simple tasks that require little interaction between group members. Such networks are more centralized with information flows in given channels.

2. "Wheel" - also known as a star, the most centralized network. Such a network is most effective for simple tasks. Such tasks are solved quickly with a small number of errors and minimal information flows. If, however, the task is complex, more connections are required and efficiency drops.

3. "Omnichannel" - a fully decentralized network with open communications. This network is good at a high level of interaction between all members of the group when solving complex problems. Leadership is not expressed here. Under the pressure of the leader, such a network breaks up or transforms into a wheel.

General control theory

Control theory - the science of the principles and methods of control of various systems, processes and objects.

This area of ​​knowledge is well developed and finds wide application in modern technology. Here, on the basis of system analysis, a mathematical model of the control object (OC) is compiled, after which a control algorithm (AC) is synthesized to obtain the desired characteristics of the process or control goals.

In socio-economic systems, the theory of management is devoted to techniques and methods of analysis, forecasting and the possibilities of regulating the activities of various communities of people (the world community, regional associations, nations, socio-economic groups).

limitation arising from the principle - "the system cannot explain itself."

The management process can be divided into several stages:

1. Collection and processing of information.

2. Analysis, systematization, synthesis.

3. Setting goals on this basis. Choice of control method, forecast.

4. Implementation of the selected management method.

5. Evaluation of the effectiveness of the selected management method (feedback).

The ultimate goal of control theory is universalization, which means consistency, optimization and the greatest efficiency of systems functioning.

Management principles

Rice. 1.1. Management process

Control methods considered by the theory of control of technical systems and other objects can use any of the three fundamental principles:

· Open loop principle consists in the fact that the control program is rigidly specified in the storage device or by an external influence G(t), and the control does not take into account the effect of disturbances on the process parameters. Examples of systems are clocks, tape recorders, etc.

· Compensation principle is used to neutralize known disturbing influences if they can distort the state of the control object to unacceptable limits. With an a priori known connection between the state of the object and the disturbing influence, the value of the signal u(t) is corrected inversely proportional to the disturbing influence x(t). Examples of compensation systems: a bimetallic pendulum in a clock, a compensation winding of a DC machine, etc. The advantage of the compensation principle is the speed of response to disturbances. The disadvantage is the impossibility of taking into account all possible perturbations in this way.

· Feedback principle received the greatest distribution in technical control systems, while the control action is adjusted depending on the output value y(t). If the value of y(t) deviates from the required value, then the signal u(t) is corrected in order to reduce this deviation. The connection between the output of the op-amp and the input of the control device that corrects the signal u(t) is called the main feedback (OS).

Management can also be divided into:

· spontaneous: the impact occurs as a result of the interaction of subjects / processes (synergistic management);

· conscious: systematic influence of the subject of management on the object of management (hierarchical management).

At hierarchical management the purpose of the functioning of the system is set by its supersystem.

Fig.2.2. Organization as a cybernetic system with control

According to the cybernetic approach, management is considered, first of all, as a process of information transformation: information about the control object is perceived by the control system, processed in accordance with a particular control goal and transmitted to the control object in the form of control actions.

The processes of obtaining information, its storage and transmission in this case are identified with the concept connection.

The processing of perceived information into signals that direct activity in an object is identified with the concept control.

If systems are able to perceive and use information about the results of their functioning, then they say that they have feedback. Feedback creates the possibility of effective control in changing conditions of the operation of the control object, even in cases where disturbing influences cannot be measured or when their influence is not known in advance.

Systems with control, or purposeful, are called cybernetic. These include technical, biological, organizational, social, economic systems and etc.

The control system together with the communication system forms control system.

The main element of organizational and technical management systems is decision maker (DM)– an individual or a group of individuals who have the right to make final decisions on the choice of one of several control actions.

The communication system includes direct link X, over which input information is transmitted, including command information, and feedback channel Y, through which information about the state of the OS is transmitted.

The external environment affects both the functioning of the control object ( W signal), and is taken into account when developing control actions in the control system.

The functions of the control system can be divided into three groups:

1. Decision functions ( information content transformations) are expressed in the creation of new information in the course of analysis, planning (forecasting) and operational management(regulation, coordination of actions). This is due to the transformation of the content of information about the state of the CO and the environment into control information when solving logical problems and performing analytical calculations carried out by the decision maker when generating and choosing alternatives. This group of functions is the main one, since it provides the development of information actions to keep it in its current position or when the system is transferred to a new state;

2. Routine Information Processing Functions cover accounting, control, storage, search, display, replication, transformation of the form of information, etc. This group of information transformation functions does not change its meaning, i.e. these are routine functions not related to meaningful information processing;

3. Communication functions associated with bringing the developed impacts to the OS and the exchange of information between decision makers (limiting access, receiving (collecting), transferring management information in text, graphic, tabular and other forms by telephone, data transmission systems, etc.).

Approaches to the management process

· process the approach is based on the idea of ​​the existence of some universal control functions.

· Systemic The approach was developed on the basis of the general theory of systems: a system is a kind of integrity, consisting of interdependent subsystems, each of which contributes to the functioning of the whole.

· situational The approach considers any organization as an open system that constantly interacts with the external environment, therefore, the main reasons for what happens inside the organization should be sought outside it, that is, in the situation in which it actually functions.

Typology of the management process

The main stages of the management process

Management process

Organization management It appears as a process of implementing a certain type of interrelated actions to form and use the organization's resources to achieve its specific goals. There are different points of view in the definition of the management process.

Let's introduce some of them:

1. Control how activity is implemented in a set of management processes, that is, targeted decisions and actions carried out by managers in a certain sequence and combination.

These management processes are being improved along with the development of the organization itself. Management processes contain both hard, formal elements (rules, procedures, official powers), and rather soft ones (leadership style, organizational values). The purpose of a particular management process is to change or maintain the existing management situation that have, or may have an impact on the development of the organization.

2. Control organization appears as a process of implementation of a certain set of specific interrelated actions. The peculiarity of the management process is that in its meaningful interpretation it is not equivalent to all the activities of the organization to achieve certain interrelated goals, but includes only those functions and actions that are associated with coordination and establishing interaction within the organization, with an incentive to implement production and other activities.

Content and set of actions and functions, carried out in the management process, directly depend both on the type of organization (business, administrative, public, educational, military), on the size of the organization, as well as on the scope of its activities (production of goods or provision of services), on the level of managerial hierarchy(top management, middle management, lower level management), functions within the organization (production, marketing, personnel, finance) and many more factors.

The management process within the organization is characterized by the presence of homogeneous activities.

Scientists believe that it is possible to group all types of managerial activities into general management functions:

To this we must add that goal-setting, i.e. the choice of goals and the formulation of tasks also applies to management.

Management process consists of the alternation of certain stages and manifests itself as a continuous sequence of purposeful actions of the management apparatus and the leader to achieve certain results.

Separation process the stages is a certain analytical tool that allows you to identify the patterns of the management process, and highlight those ways that will be able to improve it in a certain way.

Stage of the management process can be defined as a set of management operations, actions, which is characterized by qualitative certainty and uniformity, reflects the need for their existence.

traditional management process It is presented in the form of sequentially replacing each other stages, such as goal-setting, situation assessment, problem definition, development of a managerial decision. Schematically, this process is shown in Fig. 1

Rice. 2 The content of the stages in the management process

According to a number of scientists, the logical scheme of the control process is as follows.

1 . First step the beginning of the development of the management process here is the emergence of new goals and the structuring of new tasks. Therefore, goal-setting can be considered as the first step towards a logical scheme for the development of management as a process.

2 . second step in this scheme is the development in the management system of a reaction to new tasks - which should lead to the development of the management process. Three types of reactions are possible.

First type- an attempt not to change anything in management or to make small, partial changes, focusing on identifying the causes that require change.

Second type - stereotyped approach to solving emerging problems. This is an attempt to solve managerial tasks practically regardless of their content, nature and dynamics with the help of previously justified approaches to the transformation of the management system. The most widespread approach to solving any new problems is to carry out organizational restructuring in management, the creation of new management bodies.

Third type- a comprehensive restructuring of the management system in accordance with the content and essence of the new tasks that arise before management, and the possibility of transforming management.

3 . third step The logical scheme of management development is the restructuring of the fundamental principles on which the management system is built. This involves the implementation of the principles underlying the management system, in accordance with the essence and content of the tasks facing management.

After the formation of a new subsystem of principles in the management system, the next step comes

4 Fourth step restructuring of the structure and elements of the management system. Often this step is considered as an equivalent of the management process itself, because it is the restructuring of the structure, management methods, management personnel that is considered as a management process.

Structural restructuring and elements in the control system, the control development logic is not completed. The final step remains - the consolidation in the process of management of new qualities and properties instilled in him in the process of change. This implies, firstly, the corresponding development of the information - behavioral subsystem. Secondly, at this step, a regular study of the course of development and analysis of the results of activities carried out as part of the restructuring is carried out.

Thirdly, at this step, a purposeful adjustment of both the entire management process and its individual components is carried out. The adjustment is carried out in order to abandon unjustified or impossible for the full implementation of management development directions, as well as to carry out new, previously unforeseen management transformations, the expediency and necessity of which arose in the process of its development.

The allocation of certain stages of the management process is associated with taking into account certain aspects of the process.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT PROCESS

Effective project implementation based on the sequential execution of all processes management. The project management process can be defined as a set of activities that produces a measurable result.

SYSTEM

SUPERSYSTEM

N

Figure 3. The model of managing the system by a human manager to achieve a 100% target setting in a new type of economy.

The project management process forms a direct and feedback relationship between the subjects and objects of management. Under subjects of management understand the main participants of the project, and under objects:

A collection of several interrelated projects,

Project-oriented enterprises,

As well as phases of the project cycle.

Project charter

- is a document that defines the business need of the project,

Designed to create effective system project management.

Indicates the idea of ​​the project, the main goals and principles of project management.

This is a regulatory document that regulates the implementation of the project,

establishing the rules for organizing work on the project and the procedure

interactions between its members.

It contains not only the terminology, goals and methodology of project management, but also

strategy, organizational structure project management, functional

responsibilities of the main participants.

Aimed at identifying and agreeing on the best scope and course of action,

necessary to achieve the objectives of the project.

Justification of the total amount of necessary investments is carried out,

the order of execution of technological processes is developed,

efficiency is calculated.

The main thing is that in the development process a business plan of the project is drawn up.

1. SETTING GOALS	· What are you going to achieve? SMART principle
2.GENERATION AND EVALUATION OF OPTIONS	• What are the different courses of action to achieve the goals? · Which one is optimal? Involvement of staff, brainstorming technique, development of criteria for evaluating options
3.DETERMINATION OF THE NATURE OF ACTION	· What needs to be done to implement the chosen option? · Definition of all individual activities within the selection.
4. DETERMINATION OF THE SEQUENCE OF ACTION	What is best order taking action? · Technique of key events planning, Gantt chart, network methods.
5.DEFINITION OF RESOURCES	· What resources are needed to implement the plan (materials, people, money, time, etc.) · A rough assessment of resources is usually carried out already at the initial stages, here a detailed analysis takes place.
6. PLAN ANALYSIS	Will the plan work? Will it lead to the achievement of the goal? Have you missed any important events? Are the costs within the budget? How flexible is that plan? · If the plan is not so good, then there are three possible courses of action. 1. Go to the end 2. Return 3. Return no matter what to stage 2 to stage 1 no matter what or 3
7. PREPARATION OF THE ACTION PLAN	· Who, what and when is going to do? Formation of instructions and instructions, as well as the definition of control mechanisms and coordination
8. MONITORING AND CONTROL OF THE PLAN IMPLEMENTATION	· Monitoring the results of the implementation of the plan. Correction of the plan and corrective actions if necessary

Reduce or eliminate uncertainty about the scope of work, resources

and the timing of the project,

Consistency of actions of participants and efficiency of operations.

Planning is a platform for current and final control over the progress

project implementation.

The planning process includes both major and minor

procedures.

The main procedures have clear logical and informational relationships and are performed several times during each phase of the project (Fig. 23).

it

- breakdown into smaller components, which allows you to visualize not only the levels of subordination of goals and work, but also the areas of responsibility, as well as the reporting procedure.

The specific number of decomposition levels is determined by the complexity and duration of the project

At the lowest level of decomposition, there are final works that require one or more performers.

Decomposition of works is carried out:

By area of ​​responsibility (separate the work performed by the general contractor and subcontractors);

For individual structural elements (roof, walls, etc.);

At the location of the project (if the project is implemented by various contractors);

According to the needs of the customer (for example, for the preparation of tender documentation or the implementation of various monetary settlements);

According to the needs of the contractor (for example, for cost accounting purposes).

2. Determination of the composition and relationships of operations (works ) of the project allows you to document not only the list of operations that make up the implementation of various stages of the project, but also the technological and informational relationships between them.

3. Estimation of durations or volumes consists in determining the number of working time intervals or volumes of work required to complete individual operations.

4. Determination of the total amount of all types of resources , which can be used in the work of the project and their characteristics, which form the basis of the procedure for determining resources, differs from the procedure for assigning resources, i.e., determining the resources necessary to perform individual project operations.

5. Determination of the components of the cost of project operations is the basis for estimating both the overall project budget and individual budgets for the various phases and stages of the project.

6. Scheduling work consists in determining the sequence and duration of operations, the distribution of needs for various resources in time, taking into account the imposed restrictions and relationships.

7. Summarizing execution results The previously listed procedures are reduced to the development of a project execution plan and the definition of criteria for evaluating its performance.

work tree

- displays the project as a continuous and complex process, consisting of

many interrelated works

Allows you to optimize the project in terms of duration, workload of participants and

resource use

Allows you to predict the progress of the project

Allows you to work not only with one project or its parts, but also with

several projects interconnected in terms of time, performers and resources

Carry out and adjust the types of work planned in the project

Network graphs are compiled in the following sequence:

1. A list of works for the project is compiled;

2. Either the duration of the work or the deadlines for the completion of the work are determined;

3. The sequence and logical temporal relationship between the work of the project is established;

4. A network graph is compiled;

5. The critical path of the project and its duration are identified;

6. The components of the network graph are defined: jobs, events informing about the start or completion of jobs, path, critical path;

7. The event parameters are calculated: the number of the event, the early and late time of the event, the reserve of the event.

8. Work parameters are calculated: early possible start and finish dates, late allowable start and finish dates, full reserve of work, reserve of work of the first and second kind.

9. The network graph is optimized in terms of timing;

10. The network graph is being optimized for the loading of performers;

11. Optimization is being made for the use of resources.

Applying the critical path method to develop a project schedule involves four stages of analysis. To illustrate this analysis, take sample project for building a garage.

1. OBJECTIVES AND LIMITATIONS .

The first step was to determine goals and restrictions project. The goals and constraints of a project are usually related to the three dimensions of the project (duration, cost, and quality), the availability of inputs (such as labor and equipment), and other special considerations. Using the example of building a garage, the goal can be defined as the fastest completion of construction under the following limiting conditions:

The cost of the entire project should not exceed 232500 rub.

Compliance with project specifications and all building codes is mandatory.

For the construction of a garage there is only 2 (two) workers.

Some types of work cannot be performed in inclement weather.

2. DURATION OF OPERATIONS .

The second step is to determine the work included in the project, and calculate the duration of each work or operation. Waiting for the concrete slab to harden is considered an operation because it takes time and it is not possible to start other operations before the slab has hardened. The list of operations during the construction of a garage and their duration are shown in table 4.