Never Forget the Essentials I sincerely believe that you can earn enough money through your writing, but I must warn you that it may happen that a few years of your life will be very difficult. At some point you will even think

MISCELLANEOUS IN BRIEF USE DRIBLING With a sluggish bite, experienced master anglers often use the so-called dribbling, when the bait trembles finely for 5-10 seconds. near the bottom, attracting fish that are a few meters from the hole. Bite usually

MISCELLANEOUS AT A GLANCE TROUT FLAVORS Like any other hobby, there is no limit to how you can improve your skills in fishing. One of the components of success in this case is the use of modern baits, developed taking into account the latest achievements of science. Many fishing

BRIEFLY ABOUT MISCELLANEOUS ON UNDERWATER BREYS Many both predatory and non-predatory fish prefer to get their livelihood on various kinds of underwater brows. Therefore, in order to achieve good results in fishing, you need to carefully study these places. Sometimes some types of predatory

BRIEFLY ABOUT MISCELLANEOUS baits What is the secret of the catchability of oscillating lures made of two plates of different metals? Such baits are usually called bimetallic. Their peculiarity lies in the fact that the heterogeneous components of the spinner in this

Quite briefly ... Pascal once said: only when we finish a planned work, we understand ourselves with what we should have started it. Well, for a professional author, this is just an excuse to go back and rewrite what was planned, for that he is a pro, but for a beginner, this is an impetus to cowardice and

Ottoman Empire in the XV - XVII centuries. Istanbul

The Ottoman Empire, created as a result of the conquests of the Turkish sultans, occupied at the turn of the 16th-17th centuries. vast territory in three parts of the world - in Europe, Asia and Africa. The management of this gigantic state with a diverse population, diverse climatic conditions and household traditions was not an easy task. And if the Turkish sultans in the second half of the XV century. and in the 16th century. succeeded in solving this problem in general, then the main components of success were: a consistent policy of centralization and strengthening of political unity, a well-organized and well-oiled military machine, closely connected with the timar (military-fief) system of land tenure. And all these three levers for ensuring the power of the empire were firmly held in the hands of the sultans, who personified the fullness of power, not only secular, but also spiritual, for the sultan bore the title of caliph - the spiritual head of all Sunni Muslims.

The residence of the sultans since the middle of the XV century. Until the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, there was Istanbul - the center of the entire system of government, the center of the highest authorities. The French researcher of the history of the Ottoman capital, Robert Mantran, rightly sees in this city the embodiment of all the specifics of the Ottoman state. “Despite the diversity of territories and peoples that were under the rule of the Sultan,” he writes, “throughout its history, the Ottoman capital, Istanbul, was the embodiment of empire at first due to the cosmopolitan nature of its population, where, however, the Turkish element was dominant and predominant, and then due to the fact that it was a synthesis of this empire in the form of its administrative and military, economic and cultural center.

Having become the capital of one of the most powerful states of the Middle Ages, the ancient city on the banks of the Bosphorus once again in its history turned into a political and economic center of world significance. It again became the most important point of transit trade. And although the great geographical discoveries of the XV-XVI centuries. led to the displacement of the main routes of world trade from mediterranean sea to the Atlantic, the Black Sea straits remained the most important trade artery. Istanbul, as the residence of the caliphs, acquired the significance of the religious and cultural center of the Muslim world. The former capital of Eastern Christianity became the main bastion of Islam. Mehmed II moved his residence from Edirne to Istanbul only in the winter of 1457/58. But even before that, he ordered to populate the deserted city. The first new inhabitants of Istanbul were Turks from Aksaray and Armenians from Bursa, as well as Greeks from the Seas and from the islands of the Aegean Sea.

The new capital suffered from the plague more than once. In 1466, 600 inhabitants perished every day from this terrible disease in Istanbul. The dead were not always buried on time, because there were not enough gravediggers in the city. Mehmed II, who at that moment returned from a military campaign in Albania, preferred to wait out the terrible time in the Macedonian mountains. Less than ten years later, an even more devastating epidemic hit the city. This time, the entire court of the Sultan moved to the Balkan Mountains. Plague epidemics occurred in Istanbul in subsequent centuries. Tens of thousands of lives were claimed, in particular, by the plague epidemic that raged in the capital in 1625.

And yet the number of inhabitants of the new Turkish capital increased rapidly. Already by the end of the XV century. it exceeded 200 thousand. To estimate this figure, we will give two examples. In 1500, only six European cities had a population of more than 100 thousand - Paris, Venice, Milan, Naples, Moscow and Istanbul. In the Balkan region, Istanbul was the most big city. So, if Edirne and Thessaloniki in the late XV - early XVI century. numbered 5 thousand households subject to taxes, then in Istanbul already in the 70s of the XV century. there were more than 16 thousand such farms, and in the 16th century. Istanbul's population growth was even more significant. Selim I resettled many Vlachs in his capital. After the conquest of Belgrade, many Serb artisans settled in Istanbul, and the conquest of Syria and Egypt led to the appearance of Syrian and Egyptian artisans in the city. Further population growth was predetermined rapid development crafts and trade, as well as extensive construction, which required many laborers. By the middle of the XVI century. in Istanbul, there were from 400 to 500 thousand inhabitants.

The ethnic composition of the inhabitants of medieval Istanbul was diverse. Most of the population were Turks. Quarters appeared in Istanbul, populated by immigrants from the cities of Asia Minor and named after these cities - Aksaray, Karaman, Charshamba. AT short term in the capital there were also significant groups of non-Turkish population, mainly Greek and Armenian. By order of the Sultan, new residents were provided with houses that were empty after the death or enslavement of their former residents. New settlers were provided with various benefits to encourage crafts or trade.

The most significant group of non-Turkish population were Greeks - people from the Seas, from the islands of the Aegean Sea and from Asia Minor. Greek quarters arose around churches and the residence of the Greek patriarch. Because the Orthodox churches there were about three dozen and they were scattered throughout the city, quarters with a compact Greek population arose gradually in different districts of Istanbul and in its suburbs. The Istanbul Greeks played an important role in trade, fishing and navigation, and occupied a strong position in handicraft production. Most drinking establishments belonged to the Greeks. A significant part of the city was occupied by quarters of Armenians and Jews, who also settled, as a rule, around their prayer houses - churches and synagogues - or near the residences of the spiritual heads of their communities - the Armenian patriarch and chief rabbi.

Armenians were the second largest non-Turkish population in the capital. After the transformation of Istanbul into a major transit point, they became actively involved in international trade as intermediaries. Over time, the Armenians have taken an important place in banking. They also played a very prominent role in the handicraft production of Istanbul.

The third place belonged to the Jews. Initially, they occupied a dozen blocks near the Golden Horn, and then began to settle in a number of other areas of the old city. Jewish quarters also appeared on the northern bank of the Golden Horn. Jews traditionally participated in intermediary operations international trade played an important role in banking.

There were many Arabs in Istanbul, mostly immigrants from Egypt and Syria. Albanians also settled here, mostly Muslims. Serbs and Vlachs, Georgians and Abkhazians, Persians and Gypsies also lived in the Turkish capital. Here one could meet representatives of almost all the peoples of the Mediterranean and the Middle East. An even more colorful picture of the Turkish capital was made by a colony of Europeans - Italians, French, Dutch and British, who were engaged in trade, medical or pharmaceutical practice. In Istanbul, they were usually called "Franks", uniting under this name people from different countries of Western Europe.

Interesting data on the Muslim and non-Muslim population of Istanbul in dynamics. In 1478 the city was 58.11% Muslim and 41.89% non-Muslim. In 1520-1530. this ratio looked the same: Muslims 58.3% and non-Muslims 41.7%. Travelers noted approximately the same ratio in the 17th century. As can be seen from the data presented, Istanbul was very different in population composition from all other cities of the Ottoman Empire, where non-Muslims were usually in the minority. Turkish sultans in the first centuries of the existence of the empire, as it were, demonstrated by the example of the capital the possibility of coexistence between the conquerors and the conquered. However, this never obscured the difference in their legal status.

In the second half of the XV century. Turkish sultans established that spiritual and some civil affairs(issues of marriage and divorce, property litigation, etc.) of Greeks, Armenians and Jews will be in charge of their religious communities (millets). Through the heads of these communities, the Sultan's authorities also levied various taxes and fees from non-Muslims. The patriarchs of the Greek Orthodox and Armenian-Gregorian communities, as well as the chief rabbi of the Jewish community, were placed in the position of mediators between the sultan and the non-Muslim population. The sultans patronized the heads of the communities, granted them all sorts of favors as a payment for maintaining the spirit of humility and obedience in their flock.

Non-Muslims in the Ottoman Empire were denied access to administrative or military careers. Therefore, most of the inhabitants of Istanbul - non-Muslims usually engaged in crafts or trade. The exception was a small part of the Greeks from wealthy families who lived in the Phanar quarter on the European coast of the Golden Horn. The Phanariot Greeks were in the public service, mainly in the positions of dragomaniacs - official translators.

The Sultan's residence was the center of the political and administrative life of the empire. All state affairs were decided on the territory of the Topkapi palace complex. The trend towards maximum centralization of power was already expressed in the empire in the fact that all the main state departments were located on the territory of the Sultan's residence or next to it. This, as it were, emphasized that the person of the sultan is the center of all power in the empire, and dignitaries, even the highest, are only executors of his will, and their own life and property entirely dependent on the ruler.

In the first courtyard of Topkapi were located the administration of finance and archives, the mint, the administration of waqfs (lands and property, the proceeds of which went to religious or charitable purposes), and an arsenal. In the second courtyard there was a sofa - an advisory council under the Sultan; the sultan's office and the state treasury were also located here. In the third courtyard were the personal residence of the Sultan, his harem and personal treasury. From the middle of the XVII century. one of the palaces built near Topkapi became the permanent residence of the great vizier. In the immediate vicinity of Topkapi, the barracks of the Janissary corps were set up, which usually housed from 10 thousand to 12 thousand Janissaries.

Since the sultan was considered the supreme leader and commander-in-chief of all the warriors of Islam in the holy war against the "infidels", the very ceremony of the accession of the Turkish sultans to the throne was accompanied by the rite of "girding with a sword." Departing for this kind of coronation, the new sultan arrived at the Eyyub mosque, located on the shores of the Golden Horn Bay. In this mosque, the sheikh of the revered order of the Mevlevi dervishes girded the new sultan with the saber of the legendary Osman. Returning to his palace, the Sultan drank a traditional bowl of sherbet at the Janissary barracks, having accepted it from the hands of one of the highest Janissary military leaders. Having then filled the cup with gold coins and assured the Janissaries of their constant readiness to fight against the "infidels", the Sultan, as it were, assured the Janissary army of his goodwill.

The personal treasury of the Sultan, unlike the state treasury, usually did not experience a shortage of funds. She was constantly replenished with the most different ways- tribute from the vassal Danubian principalities and Egypt, income from waqf institutions, endless offerings and gifts.

Fabulous sums were spent on the maintenance of the Sultan's court. The palace servants numbered in the thousands. More than 10 thousand people lived and fed in the palace complex - courtiers, sultan's wives and concubines, eunuchs, servants, palace guards. The staff of courtiers was especially numerous. Here were not only the usual court ranks - stewards and keykeepers, bedkeepers and falconers, stirrups and huntsmen - but also the main court astrologer, the guardians of the fur coat and turban of the Sultan, even the guards of his nightingale and parrot!

In accordance with Muslim tradition, the Sultan's palace consisted of a male half, where the Sultan's chambers and all official premises were located, and a female half, called a harem. This part of the palace was under the unrelenting protection of black eunuchs, whose head had the title of “kyzlar agasy” (“lord of the girls”) and occupied one of the highest places in the court hierarchy. He not only omnipotently disposed of the life of the harem, but also was in charge of the personal treasury of the Sultan. He was also in charge of the waqfs of Mecca and Medina. The head of the black eunuchs was special, close to the Sultan, enjoyed his trust and had very great power. Over time, the influence of this person became so significant that his opinion turned out to be decisive in deciding the most important affairs of the empire. More than one grand vizier owed his appointment or removal to the head of the black eunuchs. It happened, however, that the chiefs of black eunuchs ended badly. The first person in the harem was the sultana-mother (“Valide-Sultan”). She played a significant role in political affairs. In general, the harem has always been the focus of palace intrigues. Many conspiracies directed not only against the highest dignitaries, but also against the Sultan himself, arose within the walls of the harem.

The luxury of the Sultan's court was intended to emphasize the greatness and significance of the ruler in the eyes of not only his subjects, but also representatives of other states with which the Ottoman Empire had diplomatic relations.

Although the Turkish sultans had unlimited power, it happened that they themselves became victims of palace intrigues and conspiracies. Therefore, the sultans tried in every possible way to protect themselves, bodyguards had to constantly protect them from an unexpected attack. Even under Bayezid II, a rule was established that forbade armed people to approach the person of the Sultan. Moreover, under the successors of Mehmed II, any person could approach the Sultan only accompanied by two guards who took him by the arms. Measures were constantly taken to exclude the possibility of poisoning the Sultan.

Since fratricide in the Osman dynasty was legalized under Mehmed II, during the XV and XVI centuries. dozens of princes ended their days, others in infancy by the will of the sultans. However, even such a cruel law could not protect the Turkish monarchs from palace conspiracies. Already during the reign of Sultan Suleiman I, two of his sons, Bayezid and Mustafa, were deprived of their lives. This was the result of the intrigue of Suleiman's beloved wife, Sultana Roksolana, who is so cruel way cleared the way to the throne for her son Selim.

On behalf of the Sultan, the country was ruled by the Grand Vizier, in whose residence the most important administrative, financial and military affairs were considered and decided. The sultan entrusted the exercise of his spiritual power to Sheikh-ul-Islam, the highest Muslim cleric of the empire. And although the Sultan himself entrusted these two highest dignitaries with all the fullness of secular and spiritual power, the real power in the state was very often concentrated in the hands of his close associates. More than once it happened that state affairs were conducted in the chambers of the sultana-mother, in the circle of persons close to her from the court administration.

In the complex vicissitudes of palace life, the Janissaries invariably played the most important role. The Janissary corps, which for several centuries formed the basis of the Turkish standing army, was one of the strongest pillars of the Sultan's throne. The sultans sought to win the hearts of the Janissaries with generosity. There was, in particular, a custom according to which the sultans had to give them gifts upon accession to the throne. This custom eventually turned into a kind of tribute of the sultans to the Janissary corps. Over time, the Janissaries became something of a Praetorian guard. They played first fiddle in almost all palace coups, the sultans continually removed the highest dignitaries who did not please the Janissary freemen. In Istanbul, as a rule, there were about a third of the Janissary corps, that is, from 10 thousand to 15 thousand people. From time to time, the capital was shaken by riots, which usually occurred in one of the Janissary barracks.

In 1617-1623. Janissary riots led to the change of sultans four times. One of them, Sultan Osman II, was enthroned at the age of fourteen, and four years later he was killed by the Janissaries. This happened in 1622. And ten years later, in 1632, a Janissary revolt broke out again in Istanbul. Returning to the capital from an unsuccessful campaign, they besieged the Sultan's palace, and then a deputation of Janissaries and sipahis broke into the Sultan's chambers, demanded the appointment of a new grand vizier they liked and the extradition of dignitaries, to whom the rebels had claims. The rebellion was suppressed, as always yielding to the Janissaries, but their passions were already so raging that with the onset of the Muslim holy days of Ramadan, crowds of Janissaries with torches in their hands rushed around the city at night, threatening to extort money and property from dignitaries and wealthy citizens.

Most often, ordinary Janissaries turned out to be a simple tool in the hands of palace groups that opposed each other. The head of the corps - the Janissary aga - was one of the most influential figures in the Sultan's administration, the highest dignitaries of the empire valued his location. The sultans treated the Janissaries with emphatic attention, periodically arranging all sorts of entertainment and spectacles for them. In the most difficult moments for the state, none of the dignitaries risked delaying the payment of salaries to the Janissaries, because this could cost a head. The prerogatives of the Janissaries were guarded so carefully that sometimes it came to sad curiosities. Once it happened that the master of ceremonies on the day of the Muslim holiday mistakenly allowed the cavalry and artillery commanders of the formerly Janissary agha to kiss the mantle of the Sultan. The absent-minded master of ceremonies was immediately executed.

Janissary riots were also dangerous for the sultans. In the summer of 1703, the uprising of the Janissaries ended with the overthrow of Sultan Mustafa II from the throne.

The riot started quite normally. Its instigators were several companies of Janissaries who did not want to go on the appointed campaign in Georgia, citing a delay in paying salaries. The rebels, supported by a significant part of the Janissaries who were in the city, as well as softs (students of theological schools - madrasahs), artisans and merchants, turned out to be practically the masters of the capital. The Sultan and his court were at that time in Edirne. A split began among the dignitaries and ulema of the capital, some joined the rebels. Crowds of rebels smashed the houses of dignitaries they objected to, including the house of the Istanbul mayor - kaymakam. One of the commanders hated by the Janissaries, Hashim-zade Murtaza-aga, was killed. The leaders of the rebels appointed new dignitaries to the highest posts, and then sent a deputation to the Sultan in Edirne, demanding the extradition of a number of courtiers, whom they considered guilty of disrupting public affairs.

The Sultan tried to pay off the rebels by sending a large sum to Istanbul to pay salaries and give cash gifts to the Janissaries. But this did not bring the desired result. Mustafa had to remove and send into exile the Sheikh-ul-Islam Feyzullah Effendi, who was objectionable to the rebels. At the same time, he gathered troops loyal to him in Edirne. Then, on August 10, 1703, the Janissaries moved from Istanbul to Edirne; already on the way, they proclaimed Mustafa II's brother, Ahmed, as the new sultan. The case went off without bloodshed. Negotiations between the commanders of the rebels and the military leaders who led the Sultan's troops ended in a fatwa of the new sheikh-ul-Islam on the deposition of Mustafa II and the accession to the throne of Ahmed III. The direct participants in the rebellion received the highest forgiveness, but when the unrest in the capital subsided and the government again controlled the situation, some of the leaders of the rebels were still executed.

We have already said that the centralized administration of a huge empire required a significant government apparatus. The heads of the main state departments, among whom the first was the grand vizier, together with a number of the highest dignitaries of the empire, constituted an advisory council under the sultan, called a divan. This council discussed government issues of particular importance.

The office of the great vizier was called "Bab-i Ali", which literally meant "High Gates". In French - the language of diplomacy of that time - it sounded like "La Sublime Porte", that is, "The Brilliant [or High] Gate." In the language of Russian diplomacy, the French "Porte" has become "Port". So "Brilliant Port" or "High Port" for a long time became the name of the Ottoman government in Russia. "Ottoman Port" was sometimes called not only the highest body of the secular power of the Ottoman Empire, but also the Turkish state itself.

The post of grand vizier has existed since the founding of the Ottoman dynasty (established in 1327). The Grand Vizier always had access to the Sultan, he managed state affairs on behalf of the sovereign. The symbol of his power was the state seal he kept. When the sultan ordered the grand vizier to transfer the seal to another dignitary, this meant, at best, immediate resignation. Often this order meant exile, and sometimes a death sentence. The Office of the Grand Vizier supervised all state affairs, including the military. The heads of other state departments, as well as the beylerbeys (governors) of Anatolia and Rumelia and the dignitaries who ruled the sanjaks (provinces) were subordinate to its head. But still, the power of the great vizier depended on many reasons, including such accidental ones as the whim or caprice of the Sultan, the intrigues of the palace camarilla.

A high post in the capital of the empire meant unusually large incomes. The highest dignitaries received land grants from the Sultan, which brought in colossal sums of money. As a result, many top dignitaries amassed enormous wealth. For example, when the treasures of the great vizier Sinan Pasha, who died at the end of the 16th century, fell into the treasury, their size amazed contemporaries so much that the story about this fell into one of the well-known Turkish medieval chronicles.

An important state department was the administration of the kadiasker. It supervised the organs of justice and courts, as well as school affairs. Since the norms of Sharia - Muslim law were the basis of legal proceedings and the system of education, the office of the qadiasker was subordinate not only to the great vizier, but also to Sheikh-ul-Islam. Until 1480, there was a single department of the Rumelian kadiasker and the Anatolian kadiasker.

The finances of the empire were managed by the office of the defterdar (literally, "keeper of the registry"). The administration of nishanji was a kind of protocol department of the empire, because its officials issued numerous decrees of the sultans, supplying them with a skillfully executed tughra - the monogram of the ruling sultan, without which the decree did not receive the force of law. Until the middle of the XVII century. The department of nishanji also carried out the relations of the Ottoman Empire with other countries.

Numerous officials of all ranks were considered "Slaves of the Sultan". Many dignitaries actually started their careers as real slaves in the palace or military service. But even after receiving a high post in the empire, each of them knew that his position and life depended only on the will of the Sultan. The life path of one of the great viziers of the 16th century is remarkable. - Lutfi Pasha, who is known as the author of an essay on the functions of the great viziers ("Asaf-name"). He came to the palace of the Sultan as a boy among the children of Christians who were forcibly recruited for service in the Janissary corps, served in the personal guard of the Sultan, changed a number of posts in the Janissary army, became the beylerbey of Anatolia, and then Rumelia. Lutfi Pasha was married to the sister of Sultan Suleiman. It helped my career. But he lost the post of Grand Vizier as soon as he dared to break with his high-born wife. However, he suffered a far from worse fate.

Executions were common in medieval Istanbul. The table of ranks was reflected even in the treatment of the heads of the executed, which were usually exhibited at the walls of the Sultan's palace. The severed head of the vizier was supposed to be a silver dish and a place on a marble column at the palace gates. A lesser dignitary could only count on a simple wooden plate for his head that had flown off his shoulders, and even the heads of ordinary officials who had been fined or innocently executed were laid without any supports on the ground near the walls of the palace.

Sheikh-ul-Islam occupied a special place in the Ottoman Empire and in the life of its capital. The higher clergy, the ulema, consisted of qadis - judges in Muslim courts, muftis - Islamic theologians and Muderrises - teachers of madrasahs. The strength of the Muslim clergy was determined not only by its exclusive role in the spiritual life and administration of the empire. It owned vast lands, as well as various property in cities.

Only Sheikh-ul-Islam had the right to interpret any decision of the secular authorities of the empire from the point of view of the provisions of the Koran and Sharia. His fatwa is a document approving acts supreme power, - was also necessary for the Sultan's decree. Fatwas even sanctioned the deposition of sultans and their accession to the throne. Sheikh-ul-Islam occupied a place in the Ottoman official hierarchy equal to that of a grand vizier. The latter annually paid him a traditional official visit, emphasizing the respect of the secular authorities to the head of the Muslim clergy. Sheikh-ul-Islam received a huge salary from the treasury.

The Ottoman bureaucracy was not characterized by purity of morals. Already in the decree of Sultan Mehmed III (1595-1603), issued on the occasion of his accession to the throne, it was said that in the past in the Ottoman Empire no one suffered from injustice and extortion, now the code of laws guaranteeing justice is neglected, and in In administrative affairs there are all sorts of injustices. Over time, corruption and abuse of power, sale of profitable places and rampant bribery have become very common.

As the power of the Ottoman Empire grew, many European sovereigns began to show more and more interest in friendly relations with it. Istanbul often hosted foreign embassies and missions. The Venetians were especially active, whose ambassador visited the court of Mehmed II already in 1454. At the end of the 15th century. diplomatic relations between the Porte and France and the Muscovite state began. And already in the XVI century. diplomats of the European powers fought in Istanbul for influence on the Sultan and Porto.

In the middle of the XVI century. arose, preserved until the end of the 18th century. the custom to provide foreign embassies for the duration of their stay in the possessions of the sultans with allowances from the treasury. So, in 1589, the High Porte gave the Persian ambassador one hundred rams and one hundred sweet breads a day, as well as a significant sum of money. Ambassadors of Muslim states received support in larger size than representatives of the Christian powers.

For almost 200 years after the fall of Constantinople, foreign embassies were located in Istanbul itself, where a special building was set aside for them, called "Elchi Khan" ("Ambassador's Court"). From the middle of the XVII century. the ambassadors were given residences in Galata and Pera, and representatives of the states - vassals of the Sultan were located in Elchikhan.

The reception of foreign ambassadors was carried out according to a carefully designed ceremonial, which was supposed to testify to the power of the Ottoman Empire and the power of the monarch himself. They tried to impress distinguished guests not only with the decoration of the Sultan's residence, but also with the formidable appearance of the Janissaries, who in such cases lined up in front of the palace in thousands as a guard of honor. The culmination of the reception was usually the admission of ambassadors and their retinue to the throne room, where they could approach the person of the Sultan only accompanied by his personal bodyguard. At the same time, according to tradition, each of the guests was led to the throne under the arms of two of the Sultan's guards, who were responsible for the safety of their master. Rich gifts to the Sultan and the Grand Vizier were an indispensable attribute of any foreign embassy. Violations of this tradition were rare and usually cost the perpetrators dearly. In 1572, the French ambassador never received an audience with Selim II, because he did not bring gifts from his king. Even worse was the case in 1585 with the Austrian ambassador, who also appeared at the Sultan's court without gifts. He was simply imprisoned. The custom of offering gifts to the Sultan by foreign ambassadors existed until the middle of the 18th century.

The relations of foreign representatives with the grand vizier and other high dignitaries of the empire were also usually associated with many formalities and conventions, and the need to give them expensive gifts remained until the second half of the 18th century. the norm business relations with the Porte and its departments.

When war was declared, the ambassadors were imprisoned, in particular, in the casemates of Yedikule, the Seven-Tower Castle. But even in peacetime, cases of insulting ambassadors and even physical violence against them or arbitrary imprisonment were not an extraordinary phenomenon. The Sultan and the Port treated the representatives of Russia, perhaps, more respectfully than other foreign ambassadors. With the exception of imprisonment in the Seven-Tower Castle, when wars with Russia broke out, Russian representatives were not subjected to public humiliation or violence. The first Moscow ambassador in Istanbul, the stolnik Pleshcheev (1496), was received by Sultan Bayezid II, and the sultan's letters of return contained assurances of friendship to the Moscow state, and indeed very good words about Pleshcheev himself. The attitude of the Sultan and the Porte to the Russian ambassadors in subsequent times was obviously determined by the unwillingness to worsen relations with a powerful neighbor.

However, Istanbul was not only the political center of the Ottoman Empire. “By its significance and as the residence of the caliph, Istanbul became the first city of Muslims, as fabulous as the ancient capital of the Arab caliphs,” notes N. Todorov. - Huge wealth was concentrated in it, which was the booty of victorious wars, indemnities, a constant influx of taxes and other revenues, and income from developing trade. The nodal geographical position - at the crossroads of several major trade routes by land and sea - and the supply privileges that Istanbul enjoyed for several centuries, turned it into the largest European city.

The capital of the Turkish sultans had the glory of a beautiful and prosperous city. Samples of Muslim architecture fit well into the magnificent natural pattern of the city. The new architectural image of the city did not appear immediately. Extensive construction was carried out in Istanbul for a long time, starting from the second half of the 15th century. The sultans took care of the restoration and further strengthening of the city walls. Then new buildings began to appear - the Sultan's residence, mosques, palaces.

The giant city naturally fell into three parts: Istanbul proper, located on a cape between the Sea of ​​Marmara and the Golden Horn, Galata and Pera on the northern shore of the Golden Horn, and Uskudar on the Asian shore of the Bosphorus, the third major district of the Turkish capital, which grew up on the site of ancient Chrysopolis. The main part of the urban ensemble was Istanbul, whose boundaries were determined by the lines of the land and sea walls of the former Byzantine capital. It was here, in the old part of the city, that the political, religious and administrative center of the Ottoman Empire was formed. Here were the residence of the Sultan, all government agencies and departments, the most important places of worship. In this part of the city, according to the tradition that has been preserved since Byzantine times, the largest trading companies and craft workshops were located.

Eyewitnesses, unanimously admiring the general panorama and location of the city, were equally unanimous in the disappointment that arose with a closer acquaintance with it. “The city inside does not match its beautiful external appearance,” wrote an Italian traveler of the early 17th century. Pietro della Balle. “On the contrary, it’s rather ugly, since no one cares about keeping the streets clean… due to the negligence of the residents, the streets have become dirty and uncomfortable… There are very few streets that can be easily passed by… road carriages.” - they are used only by women and those who cannot walk. All the rest of the streets can only be ridden or walked without much satisfaction.” Narrow and crooked, mostly unpaved, with continuous descents and ascents, dirty and gloomy - almost all the streets of medieval Istanbul look like this in the descriptions of eyewitnesses. Only one of the streets of the old part of the city - Divan Iolu - was wide, relatively neat and even beautiful. But that was the central highway along which the Sultan's cortege usually passed through the whole city from the Adrianople Gate to the Topkapi Palace.

Travelers were disappointed by the sight of many old buildings in Istanbul. But gradually, as the Ottoman Empire expanded, the Turks perceived a higher culture of the peoples they conquered, which, of course, was reflected in urban planning. However, in the XVI-XVIII centuries. residential buildings of the Turkish capital looked more than modest and did not arouse admiration at all. European travelers noted that the private houses of Istanbul, with the exception of the palaces of dignitaries and wealthy merchants, are unattractive buildings.

In medieval Istanbul, there were from 30 thousand to 40 thousand buildings - residential buildings, trade and craft establishments. Most of them were one-story wooden houses. However, in the second half of the XV-XVII centuries. in the Ottoman capital, many buildings were built that became examples of Ottoman architecture. These were cathedral and small mosques, numerous Muslim religious schools - madrasahs, dervish cloisters - tekke, caravanserais, buildings of markets and various Muslim charitable institutions, palaces of the Sultan and his nobles. In the very first years after the conquest of Constantinople, the Eski Saray Palace (Old Palace) was built, where the residence of Sultan Mehmed II was located for 15 years.

In 1466, on the square where he once was ancient acropolis Byzantium, the construction of a new Sultan's residence, Topkapi, began. It remained the seat of the Ottoman sultans until the 19th century. The construction of palace buildings on the territory of Topkapi continued in the 16th-18th centuries. The main charm of the Topkapi palace complex was its location: it was located on a high hill, literally hanging over the waters of the Sea of ​​Marmara, it was decorated with beautiful gardens.

Mosques and mausoleums, palace buildings and ensembles, madrasahs and tekkes were not only examples of Ottoman architecture. Many of them have also become monuments of Turkish medieval applied art. Masters of artistic processing of stone and marble, wood and metal, bone and leather participated in the exterior decoration of buildings, but especially their interiors. The finest carving decorated wooden doors rich mosques and palace buildings. Amazing work of tiled panels and colored stained-glass windows, skilfully made bronze candelabra, famous carpets from the Asia Minor city of Ushak - all this was evidence of the talent and diligence of numerous nameless craftsmen who created genuine examples of medieval applied art. Fountains were built in many places in Istanbul, the construction of which was considered by Muslims, who highly honored water, as a charitable deed.

Along with Muslim places of worship, the famous Turkish baths gave Istanbul a peculiar look. “After mosques,” one of the travelers noted, “the first objects that strike a visitor in a Turkish city are buildings crowned with lead domes, in which checkerboard pattern holes with convex glass. These are "gammams", or public baths. They belong to the best works architecture in Turkey, and there is no town so miserable and homeless, where there would not be public baths open from four in the morning until eight in the evening. There are up to three hundred of them in Constantinople.”

Baths in Istanbul, as in all Turkish cities, were also a place of rest and meetings for residents, something like a club where, after bathing, one could spend many hours in conversations over a traditional cup of coffee.

Like baths, markets were an integral part of the image of the Turkish capital. There were many markets in Istanbul, most of them covered. There were markets selling flour, meat and fish, vegetables and fruits, furs and fabrics. There was also a specialist

The Ottoman Empire arose in 1299 in the northwest of Asia Minor and lasted 624 years, having managed to conquer many peoples and become one of the greatest powers in the history of mankind.

From the spot to the quarry

The position of the Turks at the end of the 13th century looked unpromising, if only because of the presence of Byzantium and Persia in the neighborhood. Plus the sultans of Konya (the capital of Lycaonia - regions in Asia Minor), depending on which, albeit formally, the Turks were.

However, all this did not prevent Osman (1288-1326) from expanding and strengthening his young state. By the way, by the name of their first sultan, the Turks began to be called the Ottomans.
Osman was actively engaged in the development of internal culture and carefully treated someone else's. Therefore, many Greek cities, who were in Asia Minor, preferred to voluntarily recognize his supremacy. Thus, they "killed two birds with one stone": they both received protection and preserved their traditions.
Osman's son Orkhan I (1326-1359) brilliantly continued his father's work. Declaring that he was going to unite all the faithful under his rule, the Sultan set off to conquer not the countries of the East, which would be logical, but the western lands. And Byzantium was the first to stand in his way.

By this time, the empire was in decline, which the Turkish Sultan took advantage of. Like a cold-blooded butcher, he "chopped off" area after area from the Byzantine "body". Soon the entire northwestern part of Asia Minor came under the rule of the Turks. They also established themselves on the European coast of the Aegean and Marmara Seas, as well as the Dardanelles. And the territory of Byzantium was reduced to Constantinople and its environs.
Subsequent sultans continued the expansion of Eastern Europe, where they successfully fought against Serbia and Macedonia. And Bayazet (1389 -1402) "marked" the defeat of the Christian army, which in Crusade King Sigismund of Hungary led against the Turks.

From defeat to triumph

Under the same Bayazet, one of the most severe defeats of the Ottoman army happened. The Sultan personally opposed Timur's army and in the Battle of Ankara (1402) he was defeated, and he himself was taken prisoner, where he died.
The heirs by hook or by crook tried to ascend the throne. The state was on the verge of collapse due to internal unrest. Only under Murad II (1421-1451) did the situation stabilize, and the Turks were able to regain control of the lost Greek cities and conquer part of Albania. The Sultan dreamed of finally cracking down on Byzantium, but did not have time. His son, Mehmed II (1451-1481), was destined to become the killer of the Orthodox empire.

On May 29, 1453, the hour of X came for Byzantium. The Turks besieged Constantinople for two months. Such a short time was enough to break the inhabitants of the city. Instead of everyone taking up arms, the townspeople simply prayed to God for help, not leaving churches for days. The last emperor, Constantine Palaiologos, asked for help from the Pope, but he demanded in return the unification of churches. Konstantin refused.

Perhaps the city would have held out even if not for the betrayal. One of the officials agreed to the bribe and opened the gate. He did not take into account one important fact - the Turkish Sultan, in addition to the female harem, also had a male one. That's where the comely son of a traitor got.
The city fell. The civilized world has stopped. Now all the states of both Europe and Asia have realized that the time has come for a new superpower - the Ottoman Empire.

European campaigns and confrontations with Russia

The Turks did not think to stop there. After the death of Byzantium, no one blocked their way to rich and unfaithful Europe, even conditionally.
Soon, Serbia was annexed to the empire (except for Belgrade, but the Turks would capture it in the 16th century), the Duchy of Athens (and, accordingly, most of all of Greece), the island of Lesbos, Wallachia, and Bosnia.

In Eastern Europe, the territorial appetites of the Turks intersected with those of Venice. The ruler of the latter quickly enlisted the support of Naples, the Pope and Karaman (Khanate in Asia Minor). The confrontation lasted 16 years and ended with the complete victory of the Ottomans. After that, no one prevented them from "getting" the remaining Greek cities and islands, as well as annexing Albania and Herzegovina. The Turks were so carried away by the expansion of their borders that they successfully attacked even the Crimean Khanate.
Panic broke out in Europe. Pope Sixtus IV began to make plans for the evacuation of Rome, and at the same time hastened to announce a Crusade against the Ottoman Empire. Only Hungary responded to the call. In 1481, Mehmed II died, and the era of great conquests ended temporarily.
In the 16th century, when internal unrest in the empire subsided, the Turks again directed their weapons at their neighbors. First there was a war with Persia. Although the Turks won it, the territorial acquisitions were insignificant.
After success in North African Tripoli and Algiers, Sultan Suleiman invaded Austria and Hungary in 1527 and laid siege to Vienna two years later. It was not possible to take it - bad weather and mass diseases prevented it.
As for relations with Russia, for the first time the interests of states clashed in Crimea.

The first war took place in 1568 and ended in 1570 with the victory of Russia. Empires fought each other for 350 years (1568 - 1918) - one war fell on average for a quarter of a century.
During this time, there were 12 wars (including the Azov, Prut campaign, Crimean and Caucasian fronts during the First World War). And in most cases, the victory remained with Russia.

Dawn and sunset of the Janissaries

Talking about the Ottoman Empire, one cannot fail to mention its regular troops - the Janissaries.
In 1365, on the personal order of Sultan Murad I, the Janissary infantry was formed. It was completed by Christians (Bulgarians, Greeks, Serbs, and so on) at the age of eight to sixteen years. Thus, devshirme worked - a blood tax - which was imposed on the unbelieving peoples of the empire. It is interesting that at first the life of the Janissaries was quite difficult. They lived in monasteries-barracks, they were forbidden to start a family and any household.
But gradually the Janissaries from the elite branch of the military began to turn into a highly paid burden for the state. In addition, these troops were less and less likely to take part in hostilities.

The beginning of decomposition was laid in 1683, when, along with Christian children, Muslims began to be taken as Janissaries. Wealthy Turks sent their children there, thus solving the issue of their successful future - they could do good career. It was the Muslim Janissaries who began to start families and engage in crafts, as well as trade. Gradually, they turned into a greedy, impudent political force that interfered in state affairs and participated in the overthrow of objectionable sultans.
The agony continued until 1826, when Sultan Mahmud II abolished the Janissaries.

The death of the Ottoman Empire

Frequent troubles, inflated ambitions, cruelty and constant participation in any wars could not but affect the fate of the Ottoman Empire. The 20th century turned out to be especially critical, in which Turkey was increasingly torn apart by internal contradictions and the separatist mood of the population. Because of this, the country fell behind the West in technical terms, so it began to lose the once conquered territories.

The fateful decision for the empire was its participation in the First World War. The allies defeated the Turkish troops and staged a division of its territory. On October 29, 1923, a new state appeared - the Republic of Turkey. Mustafa Kemal became its first president (later, he changed his surname to Atatürk - "father of the Turks"). Thus ended the history of the once great Ottoman Empire.